Lecture 6

Signals
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
Sine Waves
 Phase difference between voltages across
R, L and C.
However, a phase difference of 90o (lead) and -900 (lag) with respect
to the input current is observed in the inductor and capacitor voltages
respectively.
This is demonstrated in the vector diagram of Figure.4(b).
A simple way to remember this concept is to consider a CIVIL relationship
where C, L, V and I represents capacitor, inductor, voltage and current
respectively.

This reads as
In a Capacitor (C), current, I lead voltage, V
where as V leads I in an inductor (L).
Voltage, Current Relationships for R, L and C
The AC voltage-current relationships for a resistor, inductor and capacitor in
an electric circuit are given by

R → vR(t) = R i(t) (7)

𝒅𝒊(𝒕)
L → vL(t) = L (8)
𝒅𝒕
𝟏
C → vC(t) = 𝒊 𝒕 (9)
𝑪
if i(t) = Im sin(𝝎t),
then vR(t) = R Im sin(𝜔t) (10)
𝑑
vL(t) = L 𝑑𝑡 Im sin (𝜔t) = 𝜔L Im cos(𝜔t) = 𝜔L Im sin(𝜔t + 900) (11)
1 − 𝐼𝑚 𝐼
vC(t) = 𝐶 𝐼 m sin (𝜔t) dt = 𝜔𝐶
cos(𝜔t) = 𝜔𝐶
𝑚
sin(𝜔t - 900) (12)
It is clear that with AC excitation, all voltages and currents retain the basic sine wave shape
as depicted in Figure.4(a).

(a) Voltage waveforms across H, L and C showing the phase (b)

Vector diagram showing V - I
difference
phase lag/lead concept in RLC
 Impedance
From Equations, the magnitudes of the ratio of voltage to current across
the three circuit elements R, L and C.
can be written as
𝑉𝑅
=R (13)
𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝐿
= 𝜔𝐿 (14)
𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝐶 1
= (15)
𝐼𝑚 𝜔𝐶
𝟏
where 𝝎𝑳 and have the dimensions of resistance Ω and are termed
𝝎𝑪
as inductive reactance and capacitive reactance respectively i.e.
XL = 𝝎L → inductive reactance
𝟏
XC = → capacitive reactance
𝝎𝑪
The impedance, “Z “
can now be defined by the following relationship
Impedance = Resistance ± j Reactance
or Z=R+jX where j represents a 90o phase shift
X is positive for inductance and negative for capacitance.
The magnitude and phase of the impedance can be calculated as
follows
| Z | = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 (16)
𝑋
∅ = arc tan ± (17)
𝑅
 Admittance
The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance (Y) and
is measured in ʊ. Mathematically
1 𝐼
Y= =
𝑍 𝑉
Also
Y = G ± j B,
where G and B represents conductance and susceptance
respectively.
For a purely resistive or purely inductive/capacitive circuit
1 1
G= and B =
𝑅 𝑋
For a combination of resistance and reactance
1 1
Y= =
𝑍 𝑅+𝑗𝑋

multiply and divide by the complex conjugate

𝑅−𝑗𝑋
Y=
𝑅 2 +𝑋 2
𝑅 𝑋
Y= −𝑗 2 2
𝑅 2 +𝑋 2 𝑅 +𝑋
𝑅 𝑋
G= &𝐵=
𝑅 2 +𝑋 2 𝑅 2 +𝑋 2
 Phasors
Addition of two out of phase sinusoidal signals is rather complicated in the time
domain. An example could be the sum of voltages across a series connection of a
resistor and an inductor.
Phasors simplify this analysis by considering only the amplitude and phase
components of the sine wave. Moreover, they can be solved using complex algebra
or treated vectorally using a vector diagram.
Consider a vector quantity A in the complex plane as shown in Figure (a).
Then
A=x+jy (18)
where x = A cos 𝜽 and y = A sin 𝜽,
therefore
A = A cos θ + j A sin θ = A (cos θ + j sin θ)
∵ 𝒆𝒋𝜽 = cos θ + j sin θ (Euler’s formula) (19)
∴ 𝑨 =A e jθ (20)
 (a) Phasor as a vector (b) Relative motion of two Phasors
Figure 5: Vector representation of a phasor.

Equation (20), 𝑨=A ejθ is the phasor notation of the vector A

where A is the length of the vector or amplitude of the signal and ϴ is the angle
which A makes with a reference phasor.
Rotating Vector Concept
Let 𝜽 = 𝝎t, therefore A = A ejωt where ω is the angular velocity and t is the time.
Then A can be regarded as a vector rotating with an angular velocity w.
Now if two Phasors are rotating with the same velocity as illustrated in Figure 5(b), then their
relative positions are unchanged with respect to time and therefore can be added.

(b) Relative motion of two Phasors

Two or more sinusoidal signals can be added
mathematically using phasors if they all have the same
angular velocities.
Polar form is also commonly used to represent a phasor
and is given by the magnitude (modulus) and phase
(argument) of the signal i.e.,
A=A∠θ
It may be convenient to transform the polar form into
Cartesian form (Equation 18) and vice versa when adding
two sinusoidal signals.
Example 1
Express the following as Phasors and write the corresponding polar and Cartesian
forms.
l. 5 sin (ωt + 450)
2. 2 cos (ωt)
3. 10 sin (ωt)
4. 3cos (ωt + 300)
Solution
0
𝑗45
l. 5𝑒 or 5𝑒 𝑗𝜋/4 (phasor notation)
(a) 5∠450 (polar form)
(b) 5 cos 450 + j 5 sin 450 = 3.54 + j 3.54 (Cartesian form)
Solution
0
2. 2 sin (ωt + 900) = 2𝑒 𝑗90 (phasor notation)
(a) 2∠900 (polar form)
(b) 2 cos 900 + j 2 sin 900 = 0 + j 2 (Cartesian form)
0
3. 10 𝑒 𝑗0 (phasor notation)
(a) 10 ∠ 00 (polar form)
(b) 10 cos 00 + j10 sin 00 = 10 + j0 (Cartesian form)
0
4. 3 sin (ωt + 300 + 900) = 3sin (ωt + 1200) = 3𝑒 𝑗120 (phasor notation)
(a) 3∠1200 (polar form)
(b) 3 cos 1200 + j3 sin 1200 = - 1.5 + j 2.6 (Cartesian form)
In the above examples, sin ωt is used as a reference for phasor conversion.
This means that a cosine signal is converted to a sine wave before writing
the phasor notation.
It is also valid to use cos ωt as reference,
however, consistency is required in a given problem.
Example 2
Express the following as sinusoids.
1. 2𝑒 𝑗𝜋/2
2. 5 𝑒 𝑗𝜋/4
3. 5 + 6 j
0
4. 3𝑒 𝑗120

Solution
1. 2sin (ωt + π/2) = 2cosωt
2. 5 sin (ωt + π/4)
6
3. 52 + 62 = 7.81, tan-1 5 = 50.20 → 7.81∠50.20 = 7.81sin (ωt + 50.20)
4. 3sin (ωt + 1200) or 3sin (ωt + 300 + 900) = 3cos (ωt + 300)
Example 3
RLC circuit has R = 425 Ω , L = 1.25 H and c = 3.5 μF. It is connected to an AC source with f = 60Hz and
Vrms = 150 V. Determine
a) Inductive resistance b) Capacitive resistance c) Impedance of the circuit
a) Inductive resistance
XL = L = 2 π f L = 2 x 3.14 x 60 x 1.25 = 471 Ω

b) Capacitive resistance
1 1
XC    758
C 2 x3.14 x60 x(3.5 x10 6 )

C) Impedance of the circuit

Z  R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2  (425) 5  (471  758) 2  513
 Example 4
Add the following two sinusoidal signals using (a) complex algebra (b) vector diagram.
v1 (t) = 2sin (5t + 300)
v2 (t) = sin (5t + 600)
Solution
(a) since ω = 5 rad/s for both sinusoids, hence phasors can be employed to add these signals.
The polar form representation for v1 and v2 is V1 = 2∠300, V2 = 1∠600
The sum of the phasors is given by
V = V1 +V2
V = 2∠ 300 + 1∠ 600
Converting polar to cartesian coordinates
= 2 cos 300 + j 2 sin 300 + cos 600 + j sin 600
= 1.732 + j + 0.5 +j 0.866
= 2.232 +j1.866
converting back to polar form
V = 2.91∠ 39.90
∵ Impedance = Resistance ± j Reactance
or Z=R+jX where j represents a 90o phase
shift
X is positive for inductance and negative for capacitance.
The magnitude and phase of the impedance can be calculated as follows
∴| Z | = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 = (2.23)2 + (1.866)2 =2.91
𝑋 1.866
∅ = arc tan ± = arc tan = 39.9o
𝑅 2.23
∴ v(t) = 2.91 sin(5t + 39.9o)
• converting back to polar form
V = 2.91∠ 39.9o
∴ v(t) = 2.91 sin(5t + 39.9o)