3*D seismic and horizontal wells
ByARMINKtiHME
Husky Oil
Wwx
T he Rainbow evaporitebasin, centeredon latitude 58”N and
longitude119“W, is situatedapproximately900 km from Calgary
in the remote northwestcomer of Alberta, Canada. It is ap-
proximately30 x 30 lan in arealextentwith a relativelyunevent-
ful surfacetopographywhich is coveredby muskegand stunted
coniferousforest. The climate is continentalwith severewinters
(temperatures dip to -50 ’ C or lower).
Beforethe discoveryof oil, accessto the region was restricted
to a few seasonablyusablegravel roads. There were no major
townsand the populationwas sparse,consistingof a few trappers
and Indian bands.With the discoveryof oil in February 1965 by
Banff Oil (a small Canadianindependentwhichdoesnot existto-
day), theeconomicand socialenvironmentchangeddramatically.
The oil is light (39” API gravity) and slightly sulphurous,sul-
phur being a nuisancebyproductat severalplants.Approximately
700 wells havebeen drilled to dateand they haveproducedabout
100 million m3 (620 million bbl) from 30 poolsin the basin. The
basin is very matureand many of the poolsare on an enhanced
recoveryschemeof secondarymisciblesolventflood. Horizontal
wells plannedby a multidisciplinaryoperationand placedusing
3-D seismicsurveysinauguratea renaissancefor thesedepleting
reservoirs.
S* ersmicdata. Traditionally, seismicsurveysin the areaare con-
ductedduring the winter months(December-March).During this
time the muskegsurfaceis frozen solid, providingvehicularac-
cessandgoodground-source. andground-geophone coupling.This
coupling,along with data quality, deterioratesquickly in the late
winter when daylighthourslengthenand the groundsoftens.
In the late 196Os,after oil discovery,seismiccrewsrampaged
throughoutthe area often working in shiftsfor 24 hoursa day,
sevendays a week. Exclusively male personnelwere housedin
small, flimsy trailerswherebodycondensation plus the bitter cold
formed ice on the inside walls. The cold also played havocwith
machinery,renderingsteeland rubberbrittle. Dynamite was the
energysauceand safetyprecautionswere minimal. The placehad
a final frontier flavor. Today, crewpersonnelareoftenfemaleand
all havecomfortableaccomodations in the town of RainbowLake.
GEOPHYSICS:
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Canada
In the winters of ‘87 and ‘88, two separate3-D seismicsur-
veyswerecompletedovertwo producingoil reservoirreefs,Rain-
bow G pool and Rainbow E pool, to delineate their surface
geometry.Someof the salientand relevantacquisitionparameters
were: single-holedynamitesourcewith a 1 kg charge,nine 14 Hz
geophonesper 25 m string, cell size 40 x 40 m, and average
coverageof 2000 percent.Since 1988, however,testshave been
carriedout which indicatethatvibroseisis moreeffectivein coax-
ing higherfrequenciesfrom the cold ground. This energy source
hasbeenusedsince1989. Processingparametersincludemultiple
attenuation(surfacemultiplesare a problem), dip moveout,and
cascadedfinite-differencemigration.
In the dreamtime before 3-D seismic,
reservoir reef geometry was mapped using
the conceptthat entire reeffink slopes
were 25 O, the angle of rubble repose. The
recent 3-D seismic and geologic modeling
have revealed a much more complex reef
geometrywith flank slopes interpreted at
45”, which makes a difference when
calculating volume&s.
Interpretationwasperformedon a mainframeworkstation.The
main targetsin thebasinare salt- andevaporite-encasedcarbonate
pinnaclereefsand bank depositsof the DevonianKeg River for-
mation. RainbowG and RainbowE poolsare pinnaclereefs.The
Keg River pinnaclereef crestis well definedby a lower acoustic
impedancedue to reef porosity(shownas light blue on the seis-
mic data). The off-reef Black Creek Salt formationwith a lower
acousticimpedanceis an excellentreflectorand definesthe limits
of the reef base (shownas dark blue on the seismicdata). The
fringing debris skirt with a slopeof 15’ is defined by a lower
acousticimpedancedue to porosity.The reef flank, with a slope
THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION DECEMBER 1991 93
 Rainbow G pool

Figure 1. Seismic section. Figure 2. time structure map.

Figure 3. Seismic section with oil sandwich. Figure 4. Fluid content map.

Figure 5. Reef facies. Figure 6. Fluid content.

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 RainbowE pool

Figure 7. Seismic section. Figure 8. time structure map.

Figure 9. Seismic section with oil sandwich. Figure 10. Fluid content map.

Figure 11. Reef facies. Figure 12. Fluid content.

GEOPHYSICS: THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION DECEMBER 1991 95

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 of45 “, is not well definedby seismicand I< rrrterpretedfrom drape
Of overlying formations and pull-down of underlying formations
(Figures 1 and 7).
Thus, time structuremapsdefining the surfacegeometryof the
Keg River formation were prepared (Figures 2 and 8). Rainbow
E PO01has a southwesternasymmetricdebris skirt with potential
recoverablereservesof several hundred thousandcubic meters,
G dogy and petrophysics. Geologic modelsfor both Rainbow
G and E were developed from core and thin section study and
petrophysical analysis. Both pools are pinnacle reefs in the
Devonian Keg River formation. Thesepinnacle reefs are encased
at their base in the Devonian Black Creek Salt formation and at
their middle and top in the evaporites (mainly anhydrite) of the
Devonian Muskeg formation. Three similar distinctgrowth stages
were identified in both reefs (Figures 5 and 11):
l A basinal mound complex which has a different composi-
tion in Rainbow G pool and Rainbow E pool
l A middle complex which is similar in both reefs
l An upper shoalwhich is also similar in both reefs
In Rainbow G, the basinal mound complex is a mud mound
composed of a low porosity lagoonal interior surroundedby a
more porous margin, due to a greater degree of dolomitization.
The generallylow porosity andpermeability of the lagoonalfacies
createsa good barrier to vertical water flow.
In Rainbow E, however, the basinalmoundcomplex is a coral
mound composedof skeletalgrainstonessurroundedby an asym-
metric fringing debris skirt composedof bioturbatedgrainstones
grading basinward into interbedded mudstonesand shales. The
middle complex in both reefs is similar with a core composedot
coral rudstonesand crinoidal grainstoneswith massivestromato-
poroids. The core is surrounded by a flank composed of a
grainstonematrix with tabular stromatoporoids,brachiopodsand
thanmopora;it hasthe highestporosity andpermeability. An upper
shoal which caps both reefs is composed of grainstones and
floatstoneswith abundantsubarealexposuresurfaces.
Porosityevolutionhas been controlledby diageneticinfluences
on facies with intercrystallineand vnggy porositybeing dominant.
Dolomitized zonesshow increasedpermeabilityby a factor of IO
Porosityandpermeability vary throughoutthe different reef facies
but average 12 percent and 20 mD, respectively. Early fractures
were filled with submarinecement (dolomite or anhydrite) while
late fractures remained open. These open fractures have little
effect on permeability as they are short and discontinuous.Lost
circulationencounteredin drilling hasbeen attributedto largevugs
and open fractures.
Pinnacle reef size within the basin varies, covering areas of
lOO-loo0 hectares, but all reefs are about 190 m high and are
buried approximately 1800 m. The Rainbow G pool has a base
diameterof 1000 m and RainbowE of 1600 m, but both reefs have
a diameteracrossthe top of 400 m and a flank slopeof 45 “, which
is a very significantfeature. In the dreamtimebefore 3-D seismic,
reservoir reef geometrywas mappedusing the conceptthat entire
reef flank slopeswere 25 ‘, the angle of rubble repose. The recent
3-D seismic and geologic modeling have revealed a much more
complexreef geometrywith flank slopesinterpretedat 45 ‘, which
makes a difference when calculatingvolumetrics. The difference
in reef size and compositionat the base and the similarity in reef
size andcompositionat the middle and top would suggestdifferent
incipient&positionalconditionsandsimilar later depositionalcon-
ditions at these two locations.
Presently, both reservoir reefs are filled with water, oil, sol-
vent, and gas (Figures 6 and 12). Fluid contactswere measured
by a recentlyrun cased-holeloggingprogram. The solvent/oilcon-
tactsand the oil/water contactswere variablethroughoutthe reser-
voir reefs since measurementsat producer injector wells were
affected by solvent coning down and water coning up. This con-
96 C;EOPHYSICS: THE LEAUINI; EIX;F Ot t.Wl OKAl ION
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Ingexistsonly m the nearvicinity of the wells andcontactmeasure-
ments must be adjustedfor the remainder of each reservoir ref.
Using well control. a crossplotof seismic structuretimes ver-
sus subseadepths on the reef porosity surface yields a relative
curve (Figure 13). Fluid contactsin depth can then be placedon
this crossplot and the oil sandwich can be located in the time
domain (Figures 3 and 9). Now that a relationshiphas been es-
tablishedbetween seismic structuretimes and fluid contacts,or-
dinary time structuremaps can be convertedto show fluid content
in the reservoir reefs (Figures 4 and 10).
R eservoir and production. Both Rainbow G and E were dis-
covered, by wells 13-28 and 7-18. respectively. on seismic
anomaliesduring those frantic frontier days of 1966. Both reser-
voir reefs were originally filled to the spill point with oil of 39”
API gravity, no gas cap, and a relatively inactive water drive.
Typically. Rainbow reservoir reefs that are not dominated by
dolomitizationhave poor water drives. As productiondeclined in
the early ’70s. additional discovery wells were converted to
producer Injector wells to begin the enhancedrecovery scheme.
Solvent (cthane, propane, and butane) was injected into the
reservoir and was allowed to form a bank on top of the remain-
ing oil column to which the term oil sandwichhas been applied.
An the oil is producedfrom the lower portion of the reservoir, the
remainingor1is displaceddownwardby the solventwhich, in turn,
is displaceddownwardby chasegas(methane).An operationpres-
sure I:%,mamtainedabove 13 500 kPa, whereasoriginal reservoir
pressurein both reservoir reefs had been just above 17 000 kPa.
Ultimate recovery dependson the thicknessof the remaining oil
sandwich. When it becomescritically thin due to solventand gas
breakthrough.oil productionbecomesuneconomic.Economicjus-
tification for horizontal wells was based on a reduction in oil
sandwichlossdue to a reductionin drawdown for a given produc-
tion rate comparedto a vertical well.
Basedon volumetrics from 3-D seismic interpretation,Rain-
bow G pool had 2.8 million rn3 (18 million bbl) original oil in
placeand :i presentproductionratefrom vertical wells of 150n?/d
wjith :t remaining nil sandwich thickness of 30 m (Figure 6).
Recov/rrahlcreservesby vertical wells were estimatedat 1.8 mil-
lion mi, but after a horizontalwell, recoverablereserveswere es-
imiated at ? million n$, an increaseof 200 000 m3. The horizon-
ial well lh-39H alone produces150 my/d, as much as the vertical
*w&lsi ~.mblni~tl.
IF nllmg. A crucial aspect of drilling horizontal wells is their
spatial placement within the reservoir pinnacle reefs. The loca-
tions were chosen to improve area1 drainage by placing the
horizontal vvellssufficiently far from other wells to minimize in-
terference To avoid lost circulationand to define the reef slope.
~~.rt~calpilot wells Rainbow G 16-29P andRainbow E 3-18P were
dr~llcd c.ored,tested,and pluggedbackoutsidethe reservoirreefs.
From there the wells were kicked off with a medium radius cur-
vature of 140 m to enter the oil sandwich.The vertical pilot wells
contributed to the proper placement of the horizontal wells. A
heavy duty drill pipe was used in the curvatureto absorbflexural
stress. A hole diameter of 21 cm was maintainedthroughoutthe
horizontal well sectionsto provide flexibility in drilling, coring,
logging, and completion. To optimize recovery, the horizontal
wells were placedas deep as possiblein the oil sandwichsinceoil
below the wells would not be swept by solvent. A measurement-
while-drilling logging program helped to maintain drill bit direc-
tion and elevation at 3 m abovethe oil/water contact. About 200
m were drilled horizontally in Rainbow G 16-298 and about300
m in Rainbow E 3- 18H. Cores were cut from the pilot wells and
from the horizontal wells. A full suite of conventionallogging
tools was run includinga Formation Micro Scannerwhich makes
high-resolutionimagesto determine beddingand porosity typing.
Well completionswere very simple. The horizontalwell sections
were left open hole as the rock is quite consolidatedand there is
cmrently no reason io segregateany intervals.
Dt-(‘E MBEI~ li)(’
 KEG RIVER $
m SUBSEA m SUSSEA
1480

1440

1 o?u loo0 1030 1080

ms ms
Figure 13. Crossplotof seismicstructure times versussubseadepths. Rainbow G (left) and E (right).

Completedverticalwells in the areacost(in Canadiandollars) tion from about150 m3/dto 300 ms/d with no watercut, although
aboutone million. Horizontal wells Rainbow G 16-29 and Rain- productionfrom the horizontalwells is expectedto decline.E
bow E 3-18 costrespectivelyabout$2.5 million and $2 million.

C onclusion.The two 3-D seismicsurveysdelineatedthe surface Armin K. Kiihme is senior staff geophys-
geometryof the two reservoirreefsaccuratelysuchthat reserves icistfor HuskyOil of Calgary, Canada.In
calculatedfrom volume&s were more attunedto reservescalcu- 1966, he receivedabachelor’sdegree(with
lated from material balance. The two 3-D seismicsurveyswere honors)in geologyand mathematics from
also usedto positionthe trajectoriesof the two horizontalwells Queen’s Universityof Kingston,Ontario.
for optimumoil recovery. Kiihmehasbeeninvolvedin explorationin
After the 3-D seismicsurveysandthe horizontalwell programs, western Canada with Mobil, Suncor,
recoverablereservesestimateswere increasedin RainbowG pool Husky; in Germanywith Prakla-Seismos;
from 1.8 to 2 million m3 and in Rainbow E pool from 2.5 to 3 in Zimbabwewith the ZimbabweGeolog-
million n?. One horizontalwell per pool doubledpresentproduc- ical Survey;and in Indonesiawith Suncor.

GEOPHYSICS: THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION DECEMBER 1991 91

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