EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

Literary criticism is the study, discussion, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.

- "Literary criticism is the evaluation of literary works. This includes the classification by genre, analysis of
structure, and judgement of value."

- "Literary criticism asks what literature is, what it does, and what it is worth."

- IN ESSENCE - Literary criticism is the method used to interpret any given work of literature. The different
schools of literary criticism provide us with lenses which ultimately reveal important aspects of the literary work.

ETYMOLOGY

- from the Greek verb kritikos, meaning to judge or decide. A critic is simply a person who expresses an informed
judgment or opinion about the meaning, value, truth, beauty or artistry of something

Literary criticism helps us to understand what is important about the text

– its structure

– its context: social, economic, historical

– what is written

– how the text manipulates the reader

• Literary criticism helps us to understand the relationship between authors, readers, and texts

• The act of literary criticism ultimately enhances the enjoyment of our reading of the literary work

• Literary theory and criticism help us to achieve a better understanding of literature. A better understanding of the
world in which we live, automatically, comes along when we study literature, and the study of critical theory makes
that enterprise even more productive.

LITERARY PERIODS AND MOVEMENTS

Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Period (450–1066) The term Anglo-Saxon comes from two Germanic tribes: the
Angles and the Saxons. This period of literature dates back to their invasion (along with the Jutes) of Celtic England
circa 450. The era ends in 1066 when Norman France, under William, .conquered England. Much of the first half of
this period—prior to the seventh century, at least—had oral literature. A lot of the prose during this time was a
translation of something else or otherwise legal, medical, or religious in nature; however, some works, such as
Beowulf and those by period poets Caedmon and Cynewulf, are important.

Middle English Period (1066–1500) - The Middle English period sees a huge transition in the .language, culture,
and lifestyle of England and results in what we can recognize today as a form of “modern” (recognizable) English.
The era extends to around 1500. As .with the Old English period, much of the Middle English writings were
religious in nature; however, from about 1350 onward, secular literature began to rise. This period is ho

The Renaissance (1500–1660) - Recently, critics and literary historians have begun to call this

the “Early Modern” period, but here we retain the historically familiar term “Renaissance.” This period is often
subdivided into four parts, including the Elizabethan Age (1558–1603), the Jacobean Age (1603–1625), the
Caroline Age (1625–1649), and the Commonwealth Period (1649–1660).

The Elizabethan Age was the golden age of English drama. Some of its noteworthy figures include Christopher
Marlowe, Francis Bacon, Edmund Spenser, Sir Walter Raleigh, and, of course, William Shakespeare. The
Jacobean Age is named for the reign of James I. It includes the works of John Donne, Shakespeare, Michael
EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

Drayton, John Webster, Elizabeth Cary, Ben Jonson, and Lady Mary Wroth. The King James translation of the Bible
also appeared during the Jacobean Age. The Caroline Age covers the reign of Charles I (“Carolus”). John Milton,
Robert Burton, and George Herbert are some of the notable figures.Finally, the Commonwealth Period was so
named for the period between the end of the English Civil War and the restoration of the Stuart monarchy. This is
the time when Oliver Cromwell, a Puritan, led Parliament, who ruled the nation. At this time, public theaters were
closed (for nearly two decades) to prevent public assembly and to combat moral and religious transgressions. John
Milton and Thomas Hobbes’ political writings appeared and, while drama suffered, prose writers such as Thomas
Fuller, Abraham Cowley, and Andrew Marvell published prolifically.

The Neoclassical Period (1600–1785)

subdivided into ages, including The Restoration (1660–1700), The Augustan Age (1700–1745), and The Age of
Sensibility (1745– 1785). The Restoration period sees some response to the puritanical age, especially in the theater.
Restoration comedies (comedies of manner) developed during this time under theplaywrights like William
Congreve and John Dryden. Satire, too, became quite popular, as evidenced by the success of Samuel Butler. Other
notable writers of the age include Aphra Behn, John Bunyan, and John Locke.

 The Augustan Age was the time of Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, who imitated those first Augustans
and even drew parallels between themselves and the first set. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, a poet, was
prolific at this time and noted for challenging stereotypically female roles. Daniel Defoe was also popular.
 The Age of Sensibility (sometimes referred to as the Age of Johnson) was the time of .Edmund Burke,
Edward Gibbon, Hester Lynch Thrale, James Boswell, and, of course, Samuel Johnson. Ideas such as
neoclassicism, a critical and literary mode, and the Enlightenment, a particular worldview shared by many
intellectuals, were championed during this age. Novelists to explore include Henry Fielding, Samuel
Richardson, Tobias Smollett, and Laurence Sterne as well as the poets William Cowper and Thomas Percy.

The Romantic Period (1785–1832) - The beginning date for the Romantic period is often ebated. Some claim it is
1785, immediately following the Age of Sensibility. Others say it began in 1789 with the start of the French
Revolution, and still others believe that 1798, the publication year for William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge’s book Lyrical Ballads is its true beginning. The time period ends with the passage of the Reform Bill .
(which signaled the Victorian Era) and with the death of Sir Walter Scott. American literature has its own Romantic
period, but typically when one speaks of Romanticism, one is referring to this great and diverse age of British
literature, perhaps the most popular and well-known of all literary ages.

Victorian Period - This period is named for the reign of Queen Victoria, who ascended to the throne in 1837, and
it lasts until her death in 1901. It was a time of great social, religious, intellectual, and economic issues, heralded by
the passage of the Reform Bill, which expanded voting rights. The period has often been divided into “Early”
(1832–1848), “Mid” (1848–1870) and “Late” (1870–1901) periods or into two phases, that of the Pre-Raphaelites
(1848–1860) and that of Aestheticism and Decadence (1880–1901). The Victorian period is in strong contention
with the Romantic period for being the most popular, influential, and prolific period in all of English (and world)
literature. Poets of this time include Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Christina Rossetti, Alfred Lord
Tennyson, and Matthew Arnold, among others.

The Edwardian Period (1901–1914) - This period is named for King Edward VII and covers the period between
Victoria’s death and the outbreak of World War I. Although a short period (and a short reign for Edward VII), the
era includes incredible classic novelists such as Joseph Conrad, Ford Madox Ford, Rudyard Kipling, H.G. Wells,
and Henry James (who was born in America but spent most of his writing career in England); notable poets such as
Alfred Noyes and William Butler Yeats; and dramatists such as James Barrie, George Bernard Shaw, and John
Galsworthy.

The Georgian Period (1910–1936)

EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

The Georgian period usually refers to the reign of George V (1910–1936) but sometimes also includes the reigns of
the four successive Georges from 1714–1830. Here, we refer to the former description as .it applies chronologically
and covers, for example, the Georgian poets, such as Ralph Hodgson, John Masefield, W.H. Davies, and Rupert
Brooke.

The Modern Period (1914–?) - The modern period traditionally applies to works - written after the start of World
War I. Common features include bold experimentation with subject matter, style, and form, encompassing
narrative, verse, and drama. W.B. Yeats’ words, “Things fall apart; the center cannot hold,” are often referred to
when describing the core tenet or “feeling” of modernist concerns.

- New criticism appeared

The Postmodern Period (1945–?) - The postmodern period begins about the time that World War II ended. Many
believe it is a direct response to modernism. Some say the period ended about 1990, but it is likely too soon to
declare this period closed. Poststructuralist literary theory and criticism developed during this time.

Literary Movements

Metaphysical Poets - A critical category applied, notably by Samuel Johnson, to John Donne and a group of
seventeenth-century English poets who wrote poetry marked by complex or extended conceits.

Symbolism - Originally a group of French poets of the late-nineteenth century who aimed at suggestion rather than
realistic description; by extension, the British writers who imitated and promoted symbolist techniques.

Harlem Renaissance, ca.1920-1939 - A grouping of writers, artists and musicians connected with Harlem in New
York City who dealt with specific African-American experiences and culture; prominent literary figures included
Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston.

Beat Generation, 1950-1965 - Group of American writers who embraced the language and experiences of the
streets, claiming influence from the Romantic visionary tradition, Eastern mysticism and modern jazz; includes Jack
Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, whose experimental forms aimed at an impression of spontaneity.

Confessional Poets - American poets of the 1950s and 60s whose poetry explored intimate personal experiences.
The movement begins with Robert Lowell’s Life Studies (1959), and includes Sylvia Plath and John Berryman.

New York School - Group of bohemian American experimental poets connected with the New York art world of the
late 1950s and 1960s, including Frank O’Hara, John Ashbery and James Schuyler.

Black Arts Movement, 1960s

A 1960s Afro-American movement which disengaged itself from the white-dominated American literary
establishment and promoted a radically separate Black ethnicity through works such as Imamu Amiri Baraku’s
collection Black Magic (1969).

PSYCHONALAYTIC CRTICISM

PS Y C H OANALYT I C C R I T I C I S M

Psychology is the endlessly fascinating science of human mind and behaviour and it can be a rewarding tool for
enhancing our understanding and appreciation of literature and of ourselves.

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), whose theory of the psyche often is referred to today as classical psychoanalysis. We
must remember that Freud evolved his ideas over a long period of time, and many of his ideas changed as he
developed them. In addition, much of his thinking was, as he pointed out, speculative, and he hoped that others
would continue to develop and even correct certain of his ideas over time.
EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

Fear of intimacy — the chronic and overpowering feeling that emotional closeness will seriously hurt or destroy us
and that we can remain emotionally safe only by remaining at an emotional distance from others at all times. As .we
saw above, fear of intimacy can also function as a defence. If this .particular defence occurs frequently or
continually, then fear of intimacy is probably a core issue.

• Fear of abandonment — the unshakable belief that our friends and loved .ones are going to desert us (physical
abandonment) or don’t really care about us (emotional abandonment).

• Fear of betrayal — the nagging feeling that our friends and loved ones .can’t be trusted, for example, can’t be
trusted not to lie to us, not to laugh at us behind our backs, or in the case of romantic partners, not to cheat on us by
dating others.

• Low self-esteem — the belief that we are less worthy than other people and, therefore, don’t deserve attention,
love, or any other of life’s rewards. Indeed, we often believe that we deserve to be punished by life in some way.

• Insecure or unstable sense of self — the inability to sustain a feeling of .personal identity, to sustain a sense of
knowing ourselves. This core issue makes us very vulnerable to the influence of other people, and we may find
ourselves continually changing the way we look or behave as we become .involved with different individuals or
groups.

• Oedipal fixation (or oedipal complex) — a dysfunctional bond with a .parent of the opposite sex that we don’t
outgrow in adulthood and that .doesn’t allow us to develop mature relationships with our peers. (Tyson 26–27)

SIGMUND FREUD

- Psychoanalytical criticism originated in the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud’s theories are concerned with

the:

• nature of the unconscious mind. According to Freud, the human mind consists of three parts: the .id, the ego and
superego.

• Freudian critics try to understand how the operations of repression structure or inform the work?

• They pay close attention to unconscious motives and feelings, whether these be those of the author, or of the
characters depicted in the work.

• They demonstrate the presence in the literary work of classic psychoanalytic .symptoms or conditions.

B. CARL GUSTAV JUNG - Jung developed the theory of the collective unconscious, .a collection of shared
unconscious memo

• ries dating back to the origins of human experience .and manifested in dreams, myths, and literature.

• A great work of literature is not a disguised .expression of repressed wishes, but a manifestation .of the desires one
held by the whole human race, .and now repressed because of the advent of civilization.

• Jungian analysis of literature tries to discover the images in a work of literature that a permanent and universal
significant

READER RESPONSE – CRITICISM

As its name implies, reader-response criticism focuses on readers’ responses to literary texts. Many new students
of critical theory are relieved and .happy when they get to the unit on reader-response criticism, perhaps because
they enjoy the idea that their responses are important enough to become the focus of literary interpretation
EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

AFFECTIVE STYLISTICS - Affective stylistics is derived from analysing further the notion that a literary text is
an event that occurs in time—that comes into being as it is read—rather than an object that exists in space. The text
is examined closely, often line by line or even word by word, in order to understand how (stylistics) it affects
(affective) the reader in the process of reading.

MARXISM CRITICISM

Marxist analysis of human events and productions focuses on relationships among socioeconomic classes, both
within a society and among societies, and it explains all human activities in terms of the distribution and dynamics
of economic power. And Marxist praxis, or methodology, dictates that theoretical ideas can be judged to have value
only in terms of their concrete applications, that is, only in terms of their applicability to the real world.

Ø From a Marxist perspective, differences in socioeconomic class divide people in ways that are much more
significant than differences in religion, race, ethnicity, or gender. Marxist terminology, economic conditions are
referred to as material circumstances, and the social/political/ideological atmosphere generated by material
conditions is called the historical situation. For the Marxist critic, neither human events (in the political or personal
domain) nor human productions (from nuclear submarines to television shows) can be understood without
understanding the specific material/historical circumstances in which those events and productions occur. That is, all
human events and productions have specific material/historical .According to Marxists, and to other scholars in fact,
literature reflects those social institutions out of which it emerges and is itself a social institution with a particular
ideological function.

Ø Marxist criticism is a type of criticism in which literary works are viewed as the product of work and whose
practitioners emphasize the role of class and ideology as they reflect, propagate, and even challenge the prevailing
social order. Rather than viewing texts as repositories for hidden meanings, Marxist critics view texts as material
products to be understood in broadly historical

Based on the theories of Karl Marx (and so influenced by philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel), this school
concerns itself with class differences, economic and otherwise, as well as the implications and complications of the
capitalist system: "Marxism attempts to reveal the ways in which our socioeconomic system is the ultimate source
of our experience" (Tyson 277). Theorists working in the Marxist tradition, therefore, are interested in answering the
overarching question, whom does it [the work, the effort, the policy, the road, etc.] benefit? The elite? The middle
class? And Marxists critics are also interested in how the lower or working classes are oppressed - in everyday life
and in literature.

THE ROLE OF IDEOLOGY

Ø For Marxism, an ideology is a belief system, and all belief systems are products of cultural conditioning.

For example, capitalism, communism, Marxism, patriotism, religion, ethical systems, humanism,
environmentalism, astrology, and karate are all ideologies. The critical theories we will study in this book are all
ideologies

Classism, for example, is an ideology that equates one’s value as a human being with the social class to which one
belongs: the higher one’s social class, the better one is assumed to be because quality is “in the blood,” that is,
inborn.

Patriotism is an ideology that keeps poor people fighting wars against poor people from other countries (one way
or another, sufficient money can generally keep one out of the armed forces during war time or, at least, out of the
combat units) while the rich on both sides rake in the profits of war-time economy
EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

Rugged individualism, which, as we have seen, is a cornerstone of the American dream, is an ideology that
romanticizes the individual who strikes out alone in pursuit of a goal not easily achieved, a goal that often involves
risk and one that most people would not readily undertak

Consumerism, or shop-’till-you-drop-ism, is another cornerstone of the American dream. Consumerism is an

ideology that says “I’m only as good as what I buy.” Thus, it simultaneously fulfils two ideological purposes: it
gives me the illusion that I can be “as good as” the wealthy if I can purchase what they purchase or a reasonable
facsimile thereof (albeit on credit) and it fills the coffers of the wealthy who manufacture and sell the consumer
products I buy and who reap the 15–20 percent interest on my credit- card bills.

POINTS OF ANALYZING A TEXT USING MARXIST THEORY

1. ECONOMIC POWER - Remember: economic system is the moving force behind human history. Thus, to
explain any social context or genre, understand the historical circumstances. E.g.: In the story, the society depicted
an unequal distribution of goods.

2. MATERIALISM VS. SPIRITUALITY - Marx averred that reality is material not spiritual. We are not spiritual
beings but socially constructed ones. As critics, we are tasked to examine the relationship among socioeconomic
groups in order to achieve insight into ourselves and our society.

3. CLASS CONFLICT - Conflict here principally means the friction between the proletariat

FEMINISM CRITICISM

 The main goal of feminist criticism is to promote equality by ensuring the fair representation and treatment
of women in texts and classrooms. Feminism in general examines the roles of women in society and
advocates for women’s rights and opportunities
 Feminism in general has been not only a theoretical pursuit but also a high-profile public practice in our
society. Feminist activists have worked tirelessly on behalf of women’s rights and interests—knocking
down barriers, changing laws, entering halls of power, and pointing out the ways women have been and
continue to be oppressed, excluded, exploited, marginalized, and Feminist literary criticism, arising in
conjunction with socio-political feminism, critiques patriarchal language and literature by exposing how
these reflect masculine ideology. It examines gender politics in works and traces the subtle construction of
masculinity and femininity, and their relative status, positioning, and marginalisation within works

THE GROTESQUE (CARNIVALESQUE) PROPONENT

Mikhail M. Bakhtin (1895–1975) is increasingly being recognized as one of the major literary theorists of the
twentieth century. He is perhaps best known for his radical philosophy of language, as well as his theory of the
novel, underpinned by concepts such as “dialogism,” .“polyphony,” and “carnival,” themselves resting on the more
fundamental concept of “heteroglossia.” Bakhtin’s writings were produced at a time of momentous upheavals in
Russia: the Revolution of 1917 was followed by a civil war (1918–1921), famine, and the dark years of repressive
dictatorship under Joseph Stalin.

Queer theory is a set of ideas based around the idea that identities are not fixed and do not .determine who we are.
It suggests that it is meaningless to talk in general about 'women' or any other group, as identities consist of so
many elements that to assume that people can be seen .collectively on the basis of one shared characteristic is
wrong. Indeed, it proposes that we .deliberately challenge all notions of fixed identity, in varied and non-predictable
ways.

CRITICAL RACE THEORY - This Literary Theory debunks the belief in racial superiority, inferiority, and purity
based on the conviction that moral and intellectual characteristics, just like physical characteristics, are biological
EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

properties that differentiate the races. It negates the unequal power relations that grow from the sociopolitical
domination of one race by another.

 Critical Race Theory.” Critical Race Theory is a framework used to analyze and understand the ways in
which race and racism operate in society, particularly in legal and political systems. It challenges the idea
of racial superiority or inferiority and instead emphasizes the social and political construction of race.
Critical Race Theory also seeks to expose and challenge the unequal power relations that result from the
historical and ongoing domination of one racial group by another.

QUEER THEORY - This Literary Theory is used to explore and challenge how scholars, activists, artistic texts, and
the media perpetrate gender- and sex-based binaries, and its goal is to undo hierarchies and fight against social and
Gender inequalities.

 Queer Theory.” Queer Theory is a field of study that challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality,
particularly as they are represented in mainstream culture. It seeks to expose and challenge the gender- and
sex-based binaries that are often used to categorize and control individuals, and its goal is to undo these
hierarchies and fight against social and gender inequalities. Queer Theory encourages the exploration of
non-normative sexualities, genders, and identities, and it aims to create a more inclusive and diverse
understanding of sexuality and gender.

. NEW CRITICSM OR FORMALISM - This literary theory and criticism having mainly to do with structural
purposes of a particular text without taking into account any outside influence. It rejects any notions of culture or
societal influence, authorship, and content, and instead focuses on modes, genres, discourse, and forms.

 New Criticism.” New Criticism is a literary theory and criticism that emerged in the early 20th century and
focuses on the internal structure and meaning of a text, without considering external factors such as the
author’s biography, historical context, or societal influences. New Critics believed that a text should be
analyzed on its own terms, and they rejected the idea that a text’s meaning could be determined by factors
outside of the text itself. Instead, they emphasized the importance of close reading and careful analysis of
the text’s language, imagery, and other literary elements to uncover its underlying meaning and structure.

According to Kelly Griffith (2002), prior to the 20th century, the investigation of the nature and value of literature
had had a long and distinguished history, beginning with Plato and Aristotle and continuing into modern times with
such figures written in the options below, EXCEPT ONE. Who does not belong to the group?

 Samuel Jackson.” The question mentions several influential figures in the history of literary criticism,
including Plato, Aristotle, and Kelly Griffith. Sir Philip Sidney, John Dryden, and William Wordsworth
were all significant figures in the development of literary criticism, while Samuel Jackson, an American
lexicographer, is not typically associated with literary criticism.

Sir Philip Sidney, John Dryden, and William Wordsworth were all significant figures in the development of
literary criticism:

 Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) was an English poet, courtier, and literary critic. He is best known for his
sonnets and his advocacy of the English language and literature. Sidney’s most famous work is his sonnet
sequence, Astrophel and Stella, and he is considered one of the greatest English poets of the 16th century.
 John Dryden (1631-1700) was an English poet, playwright, and literary critic. He was a prominent figure
in the Restoration period and is considered one of the greatest English poets and playwrights of all time.
Dryden was known for his satires, including Absalom and Achitophel, and he was also a prominent critic,
advocating for the study of classical literature and the importance of the English language.
 William Wordsworth (1770-1850) was an English Romantic poet and literary critic. He was a key figure
in the Romantic movement and is considered one of the greatest English poets of the 19th century.
EDENG 107 – LITERARY CRITICISM

Wordsworth’s most famous works include “The World, the Flesh, and the Devil” and “Tintern Abbey,” and
he was a prominent critic, advocating for the importance of nature and the common man in literature.