AC Circuits | LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to Define phasor Define RMS and average values Evaluate form factor and peak factor for different periodic waveforms ‘ Analyse the angular relationship of a sine wave along with it’s equation Explain the concept of j-notation @ Represent given phasor into polar as well as rectangular forms @ Identify suitable form for mathematical operations in complex notation Perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on given phasors @ Find the response of pure R, L and C for sinusoidal excitation Outline the concept of time and frequency domain response ‘ Define impedance and admittance © Explain the concepts of instantaneous and complex powers @ Illustrate the power triangle Contrast real, reactive and apparent powers Define power factor and explain its significance Illustrate the response of RL, RC and RLC series/parallel circuits for sinusoidal excitation 2.1 INTRODUCTION In an electric circuit, direct current (DC) flows continuously in only one direction, but in case circuits where alternating current (AC) flows, the current varies in magnitude periodically in both the directions. When it is AC, it could refer to any type of alternating waveform. But a very common alternating waveform that we come across in real time in house hold electric sockets and in communication systems is the sinusoidal waveform. Many times, alternating Voltages and currents are represented by a sinusoidal wave. Basically, an alternating voltage (or current) waveform is defined as the voltage (or current) that varies with time periodi- cally, with change in magnitude and direction. Thus an alternating quantity, either current or voltage, is one which periodically passes through definite cycles, each consisting of two half cycles, one of which is in a positive direction and the other is in the opposite direction.>. SE avis of Electrical and Electronics Engineering {n general, the sine-wave is more useful than other waveforms like pulse, saw tooth, ec,, due to the following reasons: | (1) If we take any second order system, the response of this system is a Sinusojgay (11) Any periodic waveform can be written in terms of sinusoidal function ace, Founer Theorem. (111) Derivatives and integrals of sine functions are again sinusoidal functions, (iv) It can be easily generated and analysed. (v) The properties of sinusoidal function are well defined. ding 2.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AC OVER DC Advantages: |. Generation of AC is cheaper and easier than that of DC. 2. AC can easily step-up or step-down using transformers, but it is not possible «, DC. 3. AC machines are simple, robust and do not require much attention for their rps, and maintenance during their use. 4. When AC is supplied at higher voltages in long distance transmission, the line loss: are small compared to a DC transmission. 5. AC can easily be converted into DC with the help of rectifiers, 6. The value or magnitude of AC can be decreased easily without loss of excess 0 energy using choke coil Disadvantages: Peak value of AC is high and it is dangerous to use, so better insulation is require. AC attracts any person who touches it unlike DC, which gives a repelling shock ‘An AC is transmitted from surface of the conductor and hence need several strands of thin wires insulated from each other. - AC resistance is always greater than DC resistance (1.2-1.5 times) so copper losses are more in AC. In AC system, due to skin effect cross sectional area of conductors are more since current wave travels on the outer periphery of cross section up to skin depth but in DC it flows through the entire area and so the cost of conductor is less in DC. 2.3 GENERATION OF A SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE Consider a coil of N turns as shown in the following figure (2.1). A pole of flux ® Wb initially at ¢ = 0 is kept along the coil axis and then rotated with uniform angular veloci') of @ rad/sec. At any instant ‘1’ seconds later, pole moves through the angle @ = ws radians Now, flux 4 passes through the coil at an angle = wv So, linkage flux = Flux along axis of coil = @ cos wt, Flux linkages ~ N@ cos or According to Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction instantaneous induced voltaz¢ at instant ‘1 is 141) and is given byFigure (2.1): Generation of emf in a rotating coil wi= -4 (flux linkages) = 4wo cos wf) = vod (cos ot) = N@o sin ot > wt) = NOo sin of ADA) As per eqn. (2.1), the instantaneous induced voltage is a function of wot or 0 and changing sinusoidally. v(1) is calculated for various @ values and sketched as shown in figure (2.2). It is found that v(0) is alternating in nature i.e., for first half period it is positive and next half period it is negative. Such a voltage is known as AC voltage. Variations of v(f) are as per sine curve, hence, it is known as sinusoidal AC voltage. 8 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° ue) 0 Now 0 -NOo ° 1 Figure (2.2): Sinusoidal waveform 2.4 DEFINITION OF TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH PERIODIC FUNCTIONS Periodic functions are those which repeat regularly at equal intervals of time. A function Ad) is said to be periodic function if Att KT) =f) where T is time period and K is an integer. (2.2)oS CERRB asics oF Electrical and Electronics Engineering A common example of pertodie funetion is a Bure (2.3), an which 7 19 called the period function. Some examples are «) @) (b) co) 0) + ; i ae | ! vat | aA T at I T 7 {c) @ Figure (2.3): Some periodic waveforms (i) Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quant is called a cycle. (ii) Frequency (f): Number of cycles completed per second by an alternating quantit, is known as frequency. Units are cycles/see or hertz. (iii) Time Period (7): It is defined as the time taken by an alternating quamtity « complete one cycle. ie, T=1f (23) (iv) Peak Value or Amplitude: The peak value of a sine-wave is the maximum valu: of the wave during positive half cycle or during negative half cycle. (v) Peak to Peak Value: The peak to peak value of sine-wave is the value from the positive to the negative peak. » (vi) Instantaneous Value: The instantaneous value of an AC signal is the value 0 voltage or current at one particular instant. This value changes with time and would be positive in the positive half cycle and negative during the negative half cycle Solved Problem-1: Find the amplitude, phase, period and frequency of the sinusoid « given by (1) = 20 cos (501 + 70°).Solution: Given that 1) = 20 cos (501 + 70°) Comparing with W1) = V_ cos (or + 6) () Amplitude, ¥, (ii) Phase, e (iii) The angular frequency is @ = 50 rads < _ 2R_ (iv) Period, Te oe578 Solved Problem-2: An alternating current i(1) is given by i(t) = 141.4 sin (3140). Find the (i Maximum value, (ii) Frequency, (iii) time period, (iv) Instantaneous value when, 1= 3 msec Solution: Given that i(t) = 141.4 sin (31451) Comparing with i(t) = Lsin(or) (i) Maximum current, /, = 141.14 © = Inf = 314 rad/sec = 2.314 a | aaa Face (ii) Frequency = S0Hz (ii) Time period, T= 1/f = 1/50 = 0.02 sec (iv) The instantaneous value when, t = 3 msec is i(t) = 141.4 sin (3142) = 141.4 sin (314 * 3 * 105 x a = 1144 25 AVERAGE VALUE In AC circuit applications, we are interested in finding out the average value of a waveform; the wave could be sinusoidal, triangular, trapezoidal or any other shape. It is also known as DC value, The following are the definitions for average value: (i) Average value is defined as that constant value, which produces the same amount of flux in case of voltage or same amount of charge in case of current as produced by alternating voltage or current when both are applied to the same circuit for the same period. (ii) The average value of an alternating current or voltage is the average of all the instantaneous values during one complete cycle. They are actually DC values. (iii) The average value is the amount of voltage that would be indicated by a DC voltmeter if it was connected across the load resistor. For symmetrical waveforms (having identical +ve and -ve half cycles) the average value over the full cycle is zero. Hence, the average value is determined over half cycle only. For unsymmetrical waveform, the average value is calculated over the full cycle. 25.1 Mid-Ordinate Method The average value of an alternating wave (both sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal) can be determined graphically by taking the arithmetic mean of the ordinates at equal intervals ~ —_——TPE — Basics of Electiical and Electronics Engineering ever a half cycle of the wave. Let in these intervals the currents be approximated by ay, values i, 1, ... 1,. Referring to figure (2.4), the average value of the current is given ty 1 Ath th ten ti Figure (2.4): Sinusoidal alternating quantity 2.5.2. Analytical Method This method is more convenient for sinusoidal waveform. The average value of a perio. function f (1) with period T is given by 7 1 Foe ~ 7 7 fra ce é Let us consider a sinusoidal voltage WO = V,,sinor=V, sin 0 r . PLE cl 7 Se er Ving = 7 nde = Jrasindao = 1-cos a We a = Vong = = ‘The average value of a sine wave over one complete cycle is always zero. So the a value of a sine wave is defined over a half cycle, and not a full cycle. 2.6 ROOT-MEAN SQUARE (RMS) OR EFFECTIVE VALUE While calculating Root-Mean Square (RMS) value of alternating quantity heat energy pros! by constant voltage and AC voltage is compared. “RMS value of an AC voltage is detivs as that constant voltage, which produces the same amount of heat energy as produced AC voltage, when both are applied to the same circuit for the same period”, It is possible | 7 compute the effective value of a sine wave of current to a good degree of accuracy by tuk! equally spaced instantaneous values of current along the curve and extracting the square 1" of the average of the sum of the squared values. For this reason, the effective value is ofl’ called the RMS value. The RMS value of an AC is of considerable importance in practice because the amie!” and voltmeters record the RMS value of alternating current and voltage respectively ogi com 1 DAA Sin tomate: Sheers Comwiden a0 stones, woven, we chaps 9 Sipe (DA) Vite WOES fovstok ts aguas ys wit fo, varies cottons he art: 7 ve peg iy, by by 1 vanena. vserwch Coc nie 1 IR asia one Haass, Tie BOGE grower Susspeie tha sanelin On ev ba (f+2-8>- sE hk Ve a It a D0 of I mtg Rows Cuenage he wate, rosa V on tee saat ta, Me I dvoiggcds i IF 11 bots the cnevents pecs, te, se weve A 8. ie 129) 26.2 Analytical Method The BMS value of a periodic function Ap) with pened T is gsven by ee Fus= yp inne 2.10) La us omeider a simuscidal voltage M1) =V, sin or= V0 8GAREMES tere e Hecrce an Becronice Engineering 7 fercnan coma at | Ware: sional tonne 18 a see a, am D at V(b, COs ent +b, 608 2 ey PR RATS 9 ofecnwe value 4 pivar hy Bab ay 18 te Fae a \ 22 FDRW BATTOR Sos agtmed a the tana nf RMS value to the average value of the wave RMS Average value se Fam tact = ee Sor & smunsoudta! attemnatme vahage 1 Vy i = MR wm 1] R oH Ramm facut = wm ae 2B PERK OF CREST BACTOR ts dtehmed a the ran ot the peak value to the RMS value of the wave Peak valuc Peak Yocum = 5 MS wal S vaine Sor & smussouda! ahernatme voltage 1 1 Peak jarun = —% =—P = 1.414 Vag P32 ‘Sateet Prohtem-3; The equation of an alternating current is (7) = 42.42sini67+ Teeermums © RNIS value (ii) Average value (aii) Form factor (iv) Peak factor Sainte: Gover thm ir) = 42.42sim(e287) Cammarme with ke) 1, 42424, w= 828 rad/see " Mm «nr RNS vue = Tip Sovemmge walle, y= > a Farm iacur er eee Peak value 4242 10: Pea Yar — =1.414 EMS value 30 Sateet! Promkem-< Find the average and effective values, form factor and peak factor fe pe—-buth wavetorm as shown in figure.For 0<1<2,y— 0= So -0) =y =25r Yog = i y(t)dt = 5 os = ° Solved Problem-S: Find the average and effective values, form factor and peak factor for the given waveform as shown below. vo) 4 a 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 Solution: For0<1<0.01, = For 0.01 <1<0.03, y()=0 10dt = 10x07 333 or on fora = 100x0o% =5.773 +) oO r leer 0.01 J aaa Basics of Hectrical and Electronics Engineering Yas Oe 0 1,732 Peak factor = "= 36993 Selved Probtem-6: Calvulate RMS and average values for the wave from as Sho Solution: — For 0 <7 < 1/4, T4<1 ¥,,, = ¥2800 = $2.9 Solved Problem-7; Calculate the RMS and average values of the voltage waveform slow in the figure. Solution: ForO v,(0 in magnitude hence Od » OF in figure 2.9 (w). Alternating quantities v,(0) and v,(/) as shown in time diagram of figure (2.6) are represented as vectors in figure 2.9(b). v,(1) is taken as reference, represented by line OA towards 0° direction and v,(0) lags v,() by angle 6° direction, Alternating quantities v,(0) and v,(0) as xd by lines OA and OB in figure 2.9(¢) as vectors. VC) ts shown in figure (2.7) are represente reference and v,() is leading v,(?) by a phase angle ¢°, Hence OA is shown at an angle in positive direction of measurement of angle. Solved Problem-9: Write the phasor form of the given signal and draw the phasor diagram, vd) = 300sin(3 777 ~ 45°) Solution: Given thatBasics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering V = 21213 Z- 45° Point to Remember: The uppercase V, indicates that the quantity is a phasor, having j magnitude and phase. The magnitude is usually RMS. The phase angle is in degrees}, polarity is very important: + means that the signal leads the reference; while ~ means jh, the signal lags the reference. Solved Problem-10: Find the resultant of the following three alternating quantities sj draw the phasor diagram for the resultant? i= 32.6sin(or 145°), i, = 32.6 sin(wt — 25°)A and Solution: Given that 32.6 sin(wt + 95°)4 32.6 ; F=32.6sin(or—145°)A => 1, = Fe Z— 145° = 23.2 145° = (-18.8~ 13.2) 32.6 1 = 32.6sin(wt — 25°)A = 1, = Waite. = 232 —25° =(20.8— j9.71)A 32.6 ‘ = 32.6sin(or + 95°)A => J, mee = 23295° =(-2- j23)A =1, +1, +1, =(- 18.8 —f13.2) + (20.8 — 79.71) + (-2 +723) = 0.094 = 0.09.290° The resultant phasor diagram is 90 * Al 189 ——_{1—____,»9 v 270 2.12 CONCEPT OF J OPERATOR The ‘7’ operator is a vector operator which when operates (multiplies) on a given phase’ produces a CCW rotation of the phasor by 90°, without changing its magnitude,Ac Crcuts —iURSiET iV v ivep.jveV jV= -jv Figure (2.10): Application of j operator Consider a vector V along the real axis as shown in figure (2.10). If it is rotated through 90° in CCW direction then it is multiplied by ‘/’, hence, it becomes jV where j = V—I and it is ¥.290° V in polar form. If the vector is rotated through 90° in the clockwise direction then it becomes ~ jV. Suppose two vectors P and Q are at 90° and P is acting along real axis then the resultant is (P + jQ), if Q leads P by 90°; but If Q lags P by 90°, resultant is (P — jQ). 2.12.1 Representation of Phasors in the Complex Plane Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than sine and cosine functions. Phasors in the complex form can be represented in the following forms: (i Rectangular or Cartesian or complex form: z = x + jy (ii) Polar form: z = r Z+ 8 (ii) Trigonometrical form: z = r(cos @ + j sin 0) (iv) Exponential form: z= re*® : “ ff 2). Where r = ,/x? + y? is the magnitude of z, and @ = tan’ 2) is the phase of z. The conversion from rectangular to polar form is given as z=x+ jy=r 20 Where r= 77 a0-un"(2) x The conversion from polar to rectangular form is given as z= r 2+ @ = x + jy Wherex=rcos@ & y=rsinO 2.12.2 Addition and Subtraction of Phasors Rectangular or complex form is best suited for addition and substation of altemating quanti- ties. Let us assume two vector quantities as Aural +, &2,=x, t+ Dy Addition: 2 = 2, +2, =x, + Jy, +x, +i). =% +%) +H, +2) Magnitude of resultant vector, r= f(x, +3,)° +4 +92)"SEARING asics of recta ond Elatrorice Rrginnering ytd Phase of resultant vector wt aoanis, @ = (a 0) O° Subtraction: 7, 6.58) 1) Wy BIA Di? Magnitude of resultant vector, r= J, 25) #0 { A= Phase of resultant vector wart, x-axis, = tan) 0 2.12.3 Multiplication and Division of Phasors Exponential and polar forms are best suited for multiplication and dvavion of a quantities, Let us assume two vector quantities as 2) = 1, 29; & )~ % 45, Multiplication: 2 © 2, %2,= 1, 20, 77, 20, = 7, r, AG, +, ) Division: pn hei 5 14, -6,) 2 dh, Solved Problem-11: Perform the following operations; ()X+Y Gi)X-Y (i)X*Y (ivy%~¥ Where X= 6 + j8,Y=3~j4 Solution: Given that X=6+/8, Y=3-/4 (i) X + Y= 64 j8+3-j4=9 +54 Using rectangular to polar transformation , X+y =9+j4= Poe Las! 4 =G RSLS (ii) X -Y = 6 + j8-3 + j4=3 + j12 Using rectangular to polar transformation X-y =34/l2= FP cor 2 j (iii) X * Y = (6 + j8)(3 ~ j4) = 18 - j24 + j24 + 32 = 50 - jo = 50 y = X. -64)8 Gv) y= 3-54 Using rectangular to polar transformation 648 _ 3-54 10.253.13* ~ $£-53.13° / x 6? +8? Ztan! Y = 22106 26° 3° +4? ZtanAc crete Solved Problem-12: Evaluate these complex numbers ()_V40250° + 202 -30° (i 102 —30°+ (3- 4) (2+ J4X3— 75) Solution: (i) Using polar to rectangular transformation 40 250° = 40(cos50° + j sin50°) = 25.71 + j30.64 20 2-30° = 20{cos(-30°) + / sin(— 30°)]= 17.32 —j10 Adding the above two gives 40 250° +20 2-30° = 27.71 + 730.64 +17.32 —j10 = 43.03 + j20.64 = 47.72 225.63° Taking the square root of this = V¥40.250° + 202 —30° = ¥47.72.225.63° = 6.91212.81° (ii) Using polar to rectangular transformation, addition, multiplication and division 102~-30°+(3-j4) _ 8.66-j5+(@- 4) _11.66-/9 (24 j4)3-j5) (2+. 4X3 +5) —14+4 j22 = 14.734 -37.66" _ 9 5652 -160.31° 20.08.122.47° Solved Problem-13: A sinusoidal voltage V = 100 260° volts, is applied across a circuit having an impedance of Z = (3 + j4) ohms. Find the magnitude of current and its phase angle with respect to voltage. Solution: Given that = 100.260° volts Z=(3+j4)0 Vv 00260° _ 100.260° 2026.87° 34+ j4 5253.13° Current, Magnitude of current, /= 20A Phase angle = 60° — 6.87° = 53.13° 2.13 RESPONSE TO SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION 2.13.1 AC Through Pure Resistor Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance ‘R’ ohms connected across an alternating voltage v= V, sin wf is shown in figure 2.11(a). The current flowing in the circuit is ‘7 Let v =V,, sin of, then i av ane. 7, Sint 2.19) ~ v >| =I Where., SAE orsice of Eecttical and Eloctronics Engineering 16. the phave difference beoween the voltage and current in case of pure resistor», ,., e-w Power factor ~ cos d= cos0"= 1 v R 1 WAN ‘ _ eon \ © Ve, 88 oot {a) Ciroult diagram (b) Waveform for V and i } oT Sto vzor (c) Phasor diagram Figure (2.11): AC through pure resistor Phasor diagram: Yo understand the behaviour of any circuit, it will be useful to draw a phasor diagram, phasor diagram is one in which all the currents and voltages are known in a single diagram Usually one of the quantit taken as reference and is drawn along X-axis. The phasi: diagram for AC through pure R is as shown in figure 2.11(c). =. Vn 20° Let v=, sin of = V=E = c0 = InZ0° 7 = 120° V2 i=7,, sin ot > Instantaneous power p =vi=V,, sin of x1, sin of = Ved, sin? ot Average power Vn J oos2e0 [tearVale 2 ~ - 5B note 2.13.2 AC Through Pure Inductor Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance ‘L’ henrys connected across an alternating voltage v = V,, sin ot is as shown in figure 2.12(a). The current flowing in the circuit is “1’- Let v= ¥, sin of, then Voltage across inductor = {= sin(or -90°) oL Jn sinfcot 90°) = I, sin(oot -90°) 2.20) xX iA Where X, = oL = inductive reactance & I, = L i.e, v leads i by 90° or i lags v by 90°. So, the phase diference between volage and curet incase of pure inductor s 90°. Power factor = cos $ = c0s90° = 0 T=12-90° (c) Phrasor diagram Figure (2.12): AC through pure inductor» f= 1, sikor-90?) = = Instantaneous power p=vi=V, sino 7 J, sinor - 90°) =-V_J,, Sin Gt COs wt = Habe sin Dot Average power ar f tele sin2or diet) =0 at The power consumed by an inductor is zero, i.c., only the inductor stores energy ix maz. field. The phasor diagram for AC through pure L is as shown in figure 2 fed 2.13.3 AC Through Pure Capacitor Consider an AC circuit with 2 pure capacitance “C’ Farads connected across an shew: - voltage v = V_ sin er is shown in figure 2.1Ma). The currem flowing im the cro = Let y= F, sin 7, then Currem flowing through the capacitor 7 1 = [Sinlor + 90°) = 1, sie +907) 2. Xe i y, where X= — = == eX. = rh = capacitive reactance & J _ Le, ¥ lags {by 90° oF i leads ¥ by 90° So, the phase difference between voltage and current in case of pure capacitor is 90° Power factor = cos @ ~ cosKY = 61 is (~) v=V,,sin ot (a) Circuit diagram (b) Waveform for v and i 4 T=1290° oo >» V=Vz0r (c) Phasor diagram Figure (2.13): AC through pure capacitor Phasor diagram: v =F, sin ot > =V.20 r, sin(or + 90°) > Instantaneous power p=vi=V,, sin of xI,, sin(wt + 90°) = VJ, sin of coswr = Yale sin don 3 Average power 17 17 Vlm P=350 Jraon=5, J “afasin201 [on =0 Thus, the power consumed by a pure capacitor is zero, i.e., only the capacitor stores energy in electric field. The phasor diagram for AC through pure C is as shown in figure 2.13(c). Solved Problem-14: An AC circuit consists of a pure resistance of 200 and is connected to an AC supply of 250V, 50Hz. Determine : (i) Current flowing through the circuit (ii) Power absorbed by the circuit (iii) Equations for voltage and current Solution: Given thatre Bewics of Blectncal and Electronics Engineering R » 2002, V = 250V, f = SOHz . Vv _ 250 (©) Carrent flowing through the cireuit, J = =~ =12.54 (8) Power absorbed by the circuit, P = VJ = 250 « 12.5 = 3125W = V2 «Vy, = V2 x 250 = 353.67 Peak value of current, J, = V2 J,_, = V2%12.5 =17.684 (01) Equation for voltage, v= V,,,, sin of = 353.6sin(2n fi ) = 353.6sin(314r ) Equavon for current, i = /,,,, sin of = 17.68sin(2n ft ) = 17.68sin(314r ) Solved Problem-15: A pure inductive coil allows a current of 10A to flow from 230V, SO, supply. Determine: (1) Inductance of the coil (ii) Power absorbed by the circuit (it) Equations for voltage and current Solution: Given that Peak value of applied voltage, V, 1 =10A, V = 230V, f= 50Hz 230 (i) Inductive reactance of the coil, X, Fp 7232 xX, 2B il, p= —4=—=0073H Inductance of the coil, L = 327 Tooq (ii) Power absorbed by pure inductor is zero i.e., P = 0 Peak value of applied voltage, V,,,, = V2 Vim, = V2 230 = 325.3V Peak value of current, J, = V2 Im, =V2%10=14.144 (iii) Equation for voltage, v = V,,,, sin of = 325.3sin(2n fi ) = 325.3sin(3142 ) Equation for current, i = J,,,, Sin (wt — 90°) = 14.14 sin (3141 — 90°) In pure inductor, current lags the voltage by 90°. Solved Problem-16: A 318,F capacitor is connected across 200V, 50Hz supply. Determine (i) Capacitive reactance, (ii) RMS value of current, (ii) Equations for voltage and current Solution: Given that C =318pF, V = 200V, f= S0Hz 1 1 G) Capacitive reactance, Xe = Fo “35 550x318x10® Om v__ 200 (it) RMS value of current, /,,,, = G~=5 = 204 cac circuits (aH Peak value of applied voltage, V,. = /2xV,,, = v2 x 200 = 282.84V Peak value of current, 1,4. = V2 Ij, = V2 x20= 28.284 (iii) Equation for voltage, v = V,,. sin or = 282.84 sin (2m fl ) = 282.84 sin (314) Equation for current, i= J... sin(oor + 90°) max, = 28.28sin (3147 + 90°) In pure capacitor, current leads the voltage by 90°. 2.14 IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS The impedance is defined as the ratio of sinusoidal voltage to the sinusoidal current. It is also defined as the total opposition offered to the flow of sinusoidal current. Hence the impedance is measured in ohms. The real part of the impedance is resistance and the imaginary part is reactance. There are two types of reactance: inductive and capacitive. The inductive reactance is denoted by X, and equal to @L and the capacitive reactance is denoted by X,. and equal to V@C. Since the inductive and capacitive reactances have exact opposite behaviours, one is considered positive and the other negative. Conventionally, the inductive reactance is taken as positive and the capacitive reactance is taken as negative. The complex impedance for a series RLC circuit is given by Z=R+ jX=R+ j(X,-X_)= VR +X? Ltan"\(X/R)=ZZh The right angled triangle formed by R, X and Z is called the impedance triangle, is as shown in figure 2.14(a). Img. Axis Img. Axis x 8 Zz i Y R Real Axis G Real Axis {a) Impedance diagram (b) Admittance diagram Figure (2.14): Impedance and admittance triangles In parallel circuits the inverse of the parameters will be useful for analysis. The inverse of impedance is admittance and so the admittance is defined as the ratio of sinusoidal current to voltage. The real part of admittance is conductance and imaginary part of the admittance is called susceptance. ~, Admittance, Y = 1/Z Conductance, G = 1/R Susceptance, B = 1/X There are two types of susceptance: inductive and capacitive. The inductive susceptance is denoted by BL and equal to 1/aL, the capacitive susceptance is denoted by BC and equal ' @C. Since the inductive and capacitive susceptances have exact opposite behaviours, oneSMM mnie of Prmcrical and Eiactronics Engmeering S Somerdrad wg postive and the other negative. Conventionally the inductive sus HON AS Negative and fhe capacitive susceptance is taken as positive The complex sdmittance is given by Y-G*jB-G*iCR, § Bo) VG ER Atan (BIG) =¥ 26 The right angled trinngle formed by G, B and ¥ is called admittance triangle. 1s as OW figure 2 140) 2.45 POWER AND POWER FACTOR 2ASA Power in AC Circuits Power is the rate at which work is done or power is the rate of energy transfer. In excited by DC sources, the voltage and current are constant, so the power is constar constant power is called average power or power and it is denoted by, P Power, P= VF In civeunts excited by AC source, the voltage and current are sinusoidal quantities varies with fime. When voltage and current are time varying quantities the power is lime varying quantity, is called instantaneous power and denoted by ‘p’. Instantaneous power, p ~ vi For time varying quantities the power is defined as average power over a period of Smee the average value of sinusoidal voltage and current is zero, we can take the RMS of volt. age and current. We know that the RMS values of voltage and current are cor and se the power is also complex. The complex power is given by S=W-VILo Bale where is the phase difference between V and I S = Vieos 6 + jVI sin 6 P+ i0=IP' +O where, S - apparent power in VA or kVA P ~ Kotive power in kW = VI-cos 6 Q ~ Reactive power in KVAR = VI sin The real part of S is called aetive power or active power in an ac circuit is given by product of voltage, current and cosine of the phase angle >. P = VI-cos 6, watts She imaginary part of § is called reactive power or the reactive power in an AC circu! ven by the product of voltage, current and sine of the phase angle 6. y = Vi sin , VAR 3 ( If @ 1s leading the reactive power is taken as positive and it is capacitive and if @ is |: the reactive power is taken as negative and it is inductive. Power Triangle: The equations associated with the average, apparent and reactive powe! +! te developed geometrically on a right angle triangle called the power triangle, as sh" m figure (2.15) CeAC Circuits GU aig ov 1 test P- Vicon > . ’ oF) ' Hsin ¢ Q-viaing t SV @ (b) () Figure (2.15): Power triangle for inductive load Active power, P = voltage » in-phase component of current = 1’ cos ¢ Reactive power, 2 = voltage ¥ quadrature component of current = V7 xin Apparent power, § = voltage S current = 11 2.15.2 Power Factor It is the ratio of watts that are converted to the volt amperes that are fed into the gireuit “Active power P Apparent power “Ss It is also defined as the cosine of phase angle (p) between the voltage and the current Depending on weather the current lags or leads the voltage, the power fictor is also liken as lagging or leading. The phase angle, > i.c., the phase different between Vand / is same as impedance angle Power factor = Figure (2.16): Impedance triangle From the impedance triangle, as shown in figure (2.16) Ze RN? cosh = RIZ sing =X/Z PUR Power factor © 6089 = a2 (2.25) 2.15.3 Significance of Power Factor Power factor is the measure of effectiveness of utilization of available power. The power in an AC circuit is mainly of three types, apparent power, active power and reactive power. Apparent power is the total power sup} to the circuit, But actually the circuit does not utilize the applied power completely (if it is not a purely resistive circuit), The part of the applied power which is actually consumed by the circuit is called active power. TheUae Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering the applied power is circulating in the circuit without doing any actual wor, sated reactive power Thus, the power factor is the measure of percentage of the po, comsurned tp apurely resistive circuit, the power factor is 1, or 100%. This means that, in a pure resi. oueunt, the applied power is completely utilized by the circuit. (Reactive power is zero). [f ;, Sareunt, the power factor is 0.5, or 50% it means that only 50% of the applied power is Ulli rey by the circu. A power factor of one or unity is the goal of any electric utility company since, if the poss, factor is less than one, they have to supply more current to the user for a given amount Of power used. In so domg. they incur more line losses. Solved Problem-17: Find the power delivered from a sinusoidal voltage source ith V = 220 volts to an impedance of Z = (6 + j8)Q. Also calculate the power factor. Solution: Given that V = 220 volts, Z=(6 + }8)O= 10 253.13°0 = E220 99 53.1394 Z 10253135 Power delivered, P = VI cos 6 = 220*22cos(53.13°) = 2904 W Power factor = cos @ = cos53.13°= 0.6 Solved Problem-18: The voltage and current across a load are given by V = 110V and I= 20 <-30° 4. Find active power, reactive power and apparent power. Solation: Given that V = 1L0V, I= 20 2-50°, 6 = 50° Active power, P = VI cos $ = 110 = 20 = cos50° = 1414 W Reactive power, Q = VI sin 6 = 110 = 20 « sin 50° = 1685 VAR Apparent power, S = VI = 110 x 20 = 2200 VA Solved Problem-19: A certain passive network has equivalent impedance Z = (3 + j4) and an applied voltage 1(}= 75cos( 10001 + 30°) volts. Give the complete power information Solation: Given that Z =3+j4=5253.13° ¥(t) = 75cos(1000r + 30°) 75 els “A Ee 230° = 53230 . 12h BO Z 5253.13° = 10.62-23.13°4 S = VP = 53 230°x10.6 223.13° = 562 253.13° = 337.2 + 449.6Hence, P = 337.2W, Q = 449.6VAR (inductive), § = 562 VA. and @ = cos (5. 0.6 lagging. 2.16 RL CIRCUIT EXCITED BY SINUSOIDAL SOURCE 2.16.1 RL SERIES CIRCUIT Consider the RL series circuit excited by sinusoidal voltage source as shown in figure (2.17). Vaveer V,=V_20" (2) Circuit diagram (0) Phasor diagram Zz x R () Impedance triangle Figure (2.17): RL Series Circuit be the reference phasor. =1 20° T x R= Z0°R= IR 20° = Vp 20° Voltage across the resistor F., = Voltage across the inductor = 1 x jX, = 1 20° x X, 290° = IX, 20° = V = Applied voltage = TxZ = I 20°xZ 2 = IZ Ze=V Lb From the circuit diagram shown in figure 3.7(a) Vy + Vi, =VpZ0° + V, 20° = Vp + IV; = We+¥; Ztan™ (#) R (or) TxZ =IR+ 1X, 290° = IR + jIX, = (R+jX,) Z = R+jX, = \R +X} Ztan ————— = —8¥S. = > Average value Vi. Vy/im 2 Peak value Vays Vm _ RMS value Vays Vq,/% ASP-3: Obtain the RMS value, average value, form factor and peak factor for a volta symmetrical square shape whose amplitude is 10 V and time period is 40 secs, Peak factor = Solution: From the given data, the symmetrical square wave can be drawn as shown belos v(t) * 10V 1 20 40 +> tin seconds tov}. — — For 0<1<20, v() =10 For 20<1<40, v(t) =-10 RMS value, Vays = 4/1 frora me Veus = fag § “Ora tee 0 1 = |— |1 = fp =l0) wo! Oode + f" 100d [> 2000+ 2000 10 1 Average value, ¥,,. = = fone Lp po ie Ke sob Modr= <> P Wal = = {or}? = 10 RMS value _Y, 10 Y = Rs 10 Form factor = “oe vas Was 7367!Peak value - va 210, RMS value Veys 10 ASP-4: Calculate RMS value, average value, form factor and peak factor for the current over one cycle of an alternating voltage (/) = 200sin(314/) volts is applied to a resistor of 2002, which offers the flow of current in one direction only. Solution: Given that Peak factor = W(t) = 200sin(3142) V, R= 202, V,, = 200V Vn 200 1, = t= e104 ™ "R20 _. (RMS value of curent, Ips = B= =5A : I, 10 (ii) Average value of current, I,,. = 1 =—=3.1834 oe _ RMS value __ 5 Fe tor = ———— == 1. (ii) Form factor = Tage value 3.183. Peak value _10_» (iv) Peak factor = Rigs value = ASP-5: Two alternating currents represented as i, = 4sin ot and i, = 10sin(or +60°) are fed into a common conductor. Find the RMS value of the resultant current. Solution: Given that i, = 4sin of and i, = 10sin(at +60°) 4 i, = 4sin of > 1, = fa i, = 10 sin(ot + 60°) 5 260° = 7.07 260° = 3.535 + j6.123 > AF Resultant current, ITI, + I= 2.83 + 3.535 + j6.123 = 6.365 + j6.123 = 8.83 244° Therefore, the RMS value of current = 8.83A ASP-6: Find the average and RMS values of the waveform as shown in the figure. Mo Solution: oe n (i) Average value,= (2) RMS Value, lug? \ ASP-7: A delayed full-wave rectified current has an average value equal to hair, maximum value. Find the delay angle. Solution: Given that Ln Swe ~ 2 1 T Average value, Lag = z foe L = nou =f, sind = 72 1-cosayg = 14 sf “end mR Th Fess In 1, But as per data, Iggg = FA HE U1 + 6056] ® > l+cos@ = z => cos 0 = £~1=0.57 > 8 = cos“(0.57) = 55.25° ASP-8: Determine the RMS value of a semi-circular current wave which has a maximum value of ‘r’. y x — 0 r mp Solution: The equation of a semi circuiar wave is:0.816r ; y, ASP-9: Given V, = 25.0 2143.13° and V, = 11.2 226.57°, find the ratio 7 and the sum v+¥; ; Solution: Given that V, = 25.0 2143.13°, V, = 11.2 226.57° ae 25.02143.13° = = 2.23.21 16.56? =-1.00 + j1.99 V, 11.2226.57° V, +V, =(-20.0 + j15.0)+(10.0 +/5.0) =-10.0 + 20.0 = 23.36 Z116.57° ASP-10: A two element series circuit is connected across an AC source given by v = 200V2 sin (314f + 20°), The current in the circuit is found to be i= 10V2 cos(3141— 25°), Determine the parameters of the circuit. Also determine the power factor, real power and reactive power taken by the circuit. Solution: Given that v =200 2 sin(314r + 20) = V,,,, = 200 220° i= 10 J2 cos(3141- 25°) = 10 v2 sin(90°+3141—25°i= 10 J2 sin(3141 + 65°) Ing = 10 265° Ls 20° Z- se =202-45° =14.14- 14.14 Z=14,14-j14.14 = R-jX, > R=14.142 Xo = 14.140 1 1 Xo Gg 43 C= aaa Complex Power, S= V1 * = 200 220°x10 2-65° = 2000 Z - 45° § = 1414.2 j1414.2=P+jQ -. Real power, P= 1414.2W Reactive power, Q = -1414.2VAR Power factor = cos $= cos(65° ~ 20°) = 0.707 leading = 225.23FAc Circuits Gann (i) impedance, reactance and resistance of the coil (ii) the power absorbed by the coil. (iii) total power Solution: Given that Coil t rere. je 100: 180 V ——» 230 V, 50 Hz Z, coll > R+X? = 45% = 2025 B+ X? = 2025 From the circuit diagram (25 +R) +)X,}4 = 230 (25+R)+jX, =575 (25+ RP +X? = 3036.25 R?-+ X24 SOR + 625 = 3036.25 From eqns. (1) and (2) 2025 + 50 R + 625 = 3306.25 > R= 13.1250 From eqn. (1) X, = J2025-172.3 = 430 (i) Impedance of the coil, Z = R + jX, = (13.125 + j43)Q (ii) Power absorbed, P = PR = 16 * 13.125 = 210 W (iii) Total power, P, = FR’ + 210 = 16 x 25 + 210 = 610 W EXERCISE PROBLEMS ee a (2) 1, Perform the following operations for given vectors and convert each into polar form (i) Z, +2, Gi) Z, + 2, (iii) 2/2, Where Z, = 5 ~j4, Z, = 4 “60° [Ans: (/) 7 Z- 4.37°, (ii) 8.04 Z ~68.1°, (i) 1.6 2-98.79} 2. Determine the RMS value, average value and form factor of a periodic function as shown in the following figure.Form factor (rane © ( alcskate Ge YU valve for the perindically alternating wave having the { snes Sor vaasak eter y ais mie, changing suddenly from one value 1 8. £ 1% B, 16.6 -10, -20V ate, Also calc value = 31.06V, form Ws 4, The sasasion of an aerating corrent is (4) = WOsin (3184). Find me factor fox ue wae Versroen vane. (4) RMS value (ity average value (iv form Stee frase (5) IHS (it) (SAA (iy I2T4A fv) 4. Represent he tAlewng 26 voltages by phasors * Gs ce ot 56 50 Cond ys Y = 765 LF (ay ¥.~ 106.1 L- IP (ay V, = 4 fod the remltant of the Soflomng altersating currents 4 = sieve and 4, = 14 sin (ae + 66°) fame: = 20.87 sin (oor ~2 > 10 ~ 20 sin of 10 cos woe. fame: f= 047 nitank carrent which caeries simultaneous! wadalty varying current with 2 peak value of 9 Find the moerage and RMS values of the waveform as shown im the figAC Circuits 10, The current in a given circuit is 7 ~ (12 -/5)A when the applied voltage Is V-= (160/120) 1”, Determine: (i) The complex expression for power (ii) Power factor of the circutt (iii) The complex expression for impedance of the circuit [Ans: (i) $ = 2519 + 640, (ii) p-f = 0.97, (ili) Z = 14.9 ~ j3.786] 11, A series RL series circuit having a resistance of 4&!and 3&! inductive reactance is fed by 100V, 1 - 6 supply. Find current, power drawn by the circuit and power factor. [Ans: | = 20 2-36.87°A, P = 1.6kW, p-f. = cosp = 0.8] 42. An inductive coil takes 10A and dissipates 1000watts when connected to a supply of 250V, 25Hz. Calculate the: (i) impedance (ii) effective resistance (iii) reactance (iv) inductance (v)power factor [Ans: i) Z = (10 + j23.9) Q, ii) R = 10 Q, iii) XL = 23.9 Q, iv) L= 145.8 mH, v) p.f=0.4] 13. A metal filament lamp, rated at 750W, 100V is to be connected in a series with a capacitor across a 230V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate the: (a) Capacitance required (b) Power factor [Ans: C = 90 pF, p.f = 0.4346] 14, Calculate the current, power, power factor and voltage across the resistor of 800 in series with an inductor of 20H and a capacitor of 14uF excited by an AC supply of 120V. [Ans: I'= 0.0165 2-90°, P = OW, cos @ = 0, Vp = 0.132 Z-90V] 15. A 200V, SOHz, | - 6 Supply is impressed across R-L Series circuit with R = 6Q. and L = 25.4mH. Find: (i) Impedance(ii) Current (iii) Power factor (iv) Power in the circuit {Ans. i) Z = 10 253.13°Q, ii) 1= 20 2-58.13°Q, iii) p.f. = 0.6, iv) P= 3.4kW] 16. A current of i = 4.48c0s(200r — 56.6°) produces a potential drop w(t) = 150cos(200r — 30°) is the circuit. Find the values of circuit parameters assuming a series combination. {Ans: R = 30Q, L = 0.075H] 17. Find the total current to the parallel circuit of L = 0.05H and C = 0.6674F with an applied voltage v = 100 sin 50001 volts. [Ans. i = 0.067sin(S000r - 90°)4] 18. A 2S0V, SOHz single phase supply is impressed across a certain circuit. Current was found to be 25A at 0.8 lagging. Find the parameters of the circuit and power consumed by the circuit. [Ans. Z = (8 + j6)Q, P= SkW] 19. The emf whose instantancous values is 100sin (314 - 74)V is applied to a cireuit and current flowing through the circuit is 20sin (314"- 1.5708)A. Find the trequency and values of circuit elements assuming series combination of circuit elements. [Ans: f= S0Hz, Z = (3.75 + /3.306)Q| REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. State the advantages of sinusoidal alternating quantity 2. Define phasor. 3. Define R.M.S value and derive the expression for the same of'a sinusoidal alternating, quantity. SS