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Ice Caves
Ice Caves
Edited by
Aurel Pers,oiu
Stein-Erik Lauritzen
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
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Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with
organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.
elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be
noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be
mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any
injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or
operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-811739-2
For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Candice Janco

Acquisition Editor: Laura S. Kelleher
Editorial Project Manager: Tasha Frank
Production Project Manager: Anitha Sivaraj
Cover Designer: Christian J. Bilbow
Typeset by SPi Global, India

The contributions presented in this book are the result of studies conducted by both
amateur cavers and scientists; however, most of the work behind exploring the caves
and gathering of data was done by anonymous cavers pursuing their curiosity and
yearning for exploration—the children deep inside us.
This book is dedicated to them.
Contents
Contributors ......................................................................................................................................... xix
PART I PERENNIAL ICE ACCUMULATIONS IN CAVES: OVERVIEW

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ....................... ......................................... .. ............................ .3
CHAPTER 2 History of Ice Caves Research .. ............................................................. 5
2.1 Introduction................................... ........................................................................... 5
2.2 First Historical Reports on lee Caves Worldwide .................................................... 6
2.3 Development of the Te1111inology Related to Ice Caves ..........................................9
2.4 History of lee Caves Theories................................................................................ 14
2.5 First Systematical Investigations ........................................................................... 16
2.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 18
References .............................................................................................................. 1.8
Further Reading ..................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 Ice Caves Climate ...... .. ............ .... ........................... ....... .............. .........21
3.1 Air Circulation ....................................................................................................... 2 1
3.2 Air Temperature and Humidity .............................................................................. 25
3.3 Conclusions - A Conceptual Model of Ice Caves Climate .................................... 29
References ....................................................................................................... ....... 31
Further Reading ..................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 4 Ice Genesis, Morphology and Dynamics ........ ....... ............... .. .............33
CHAPTER 4.1 Ice Genesis and Types of Ice Caves ...................... ... ........................... 34
4.1.1 Cave Glaciation ............................. .................................................................. ....... 34
4.1.2 Reasons and Conditions of Cave Glaciation..........................................................35
4. 1.2. l Origin of Natural Cavities ......................................................................... 35
4.1.2.2 Common Preconditions of Caves Glaciation ............................................ 36
4.1 .2.3 Conditions of Cave G laciation ........................................................... ....... 36
4.1 .2.4 Stability of Cave Glaciation ............................................................... ....... 54
4.1.2.5 Interaction of Cave Glaciation With The Earth.' s Surface.......................... 56
4.1.3 Ice Genesis in Ice Caves ............... ......................................................................... 59
4.1.3.l Zones of lee Formation in Caves...............................................................59
4. 1.3.2 Snow-Ice Fomiations ................................................................................. 60
4.1.3.3 Classification of Snow-Ice Formations in Caves .... ................................... 61
4.1.3.4 Details of lee Structure in Caves of Different Morphologies .................... 62
vii
Copyrighted material
viii Contents
4.1.3.5 Chemical Composition of Snow-Ice Formations in Caves ....................... 64

References ................................ .............................................................................. 65
Further Reading ..................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 4.2 Ice Surface Morphology ..................................................... .. .. ...............69

4 .2.1 lntroduction ............................................................................................................ 69
4.2.2 Ice Surfaces in Caves: Fonnation, Spatial Positio n, and Duration ........................ 70
4.2.3 Large-scale Morphology of Ice Bodies in Caves ................................................... 7 1
4 .2.4 Small-Scale lee Morphologies ............................................................................... 76
4.2.4. 1 Long-Lasting Forms .................................................................................. 76
4.2.4.2 Ephemeral Jee Forms ................................................................................. 84
4.2.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 88
Acknowledgments .............................. ...................................................................90
References .............................................................................................................. 90
Further Readi ng ..................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER 4.3 Ice Dynamics in Caves .......................................................................... 97

4.3. 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 97
4.3.2 Subannual Dynamics ........................................................................................... 100
4.3.2. 1 Hoar Frost ................................................................................................ 100
4.3.2.2 Ice Speleothems (Stalagmites, Stalactites, and Columns) ............. .......... I01
4 .3.3 MultiannuaJ to Centennial Ice Dynamics ............................................................ 103
References ............................................................................................................ I07
CHAPTER 5 Dating Cave Ice Deposits ......... ........................................................... 109

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... I09
5.2 Dating Methods ................................................................................................... 110
5.2. 1 Direct Dating- Layer Counting ....................................................... .......... 110
5 .2.2 Indirect Dating ............................................................................................ I 12
5.3 Some Practical Aspect ......................................................................................... 117
5.3.l Sample Selection for R adiocarbon Dating: The Bigger, the Better? .......... 117
5.3.2 A Potential Method- Cryogenic Cave Carbonate (CCC) Layers .............. 117
5.4 Conclusion or What is the Recommended Dating Strategy in Cave
Ice Profiles? ......................................................................................................... 118
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 119
References ................ ............................................................................................ 119
CHAPTER 6 Cryogenic Mineral Formation in Caves . ........ ....... ...........................123

6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 123
6.2 Freezing of Mineralized Aqueous Solutions in Caves-Theoretical
Principles and Subdivision of the Environments ................................................. 124
6.3 Cryogenic Minerals Related to Rapid Freezing of Low-TDS Water in
Limestone Caves .................................................................................................. 128
Contents ix
6.4 Cryogenic Carbonates (CCCcoarse) Formed by Slow Freezing of

Low-TDS Water in Limestone Caves ................................................................... 135
6.5 Cryogenic Cave Minerals Related to Rapid Freezing of High-TDS
Water in Gypsum Caves ....................................................................................... 143
6.6 Stable Isotope Characteristics of Cryogenic Cave Minerals ............................... 150
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... 154
References ............................................................................................................ 154
CHAPTER 7 Ice Cave Fauna ................................................. ...... .... .............. ............ 163
CHAPTER 8 Microbial Life in Ice Caves ... ....... ... .............. .................................... .. 173
8.1 Introduction. ......................................................................................................... 173
8.2 Sample Collection ................................................................................................ 174
8.3 Microbial Abundance ...... ..................................................................................... 176
8.4 Bacterial Communities ........................................................................................ 177
8.4. l Uncultured Bacteria ............................................ ........................................ 177
8.4.2 Cultured Bacteria ........................................................................................ 179
8.4.3 Isolated Bacterial Strains ............................................................................ 180
8.5 Archaeal Communities ... ..................................................................................... 181
8.6 Fungal Communities ....... ................................................... .................................. 181
8.7 Diatoms ....... ......................................................................................................... 182
8.8 Conclusions. ......................................................................................................... 183
References ... .................... ..................................................................................... 183
Further Reading .............. ..................................................................................... 187
CHAPTER 9 Paleoclimatic Significance of Cave Ice ..... .. ................. ................... 189

9.1 l_ntroduction .......................................................................................................... 189
9.2 Cave Glacier s and Their Age ............................................................................... 190
9.3 Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotope Composition of Ice ............................................ 190
9.4 Organic Remains Trapped in Ice ......................................................................... 195
9.5 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 195
References ....................... ..................................................................................... 196
CHAPTER 10 The Management of Ice Show Caves ............... ... .. ......... ........ ..... ...... 199
10.1 Introduction. .................... ..................................................................................... 199
10.2 Show Cave Management With Special Reference to the Eisriesenwelt
in Austria .............................................................................................................. 200
10.3 Management From a Historical Perspective ........................................................ 20 1
10.4 The Key Elements of Ice Show Cave Management.. ........................................... 201
10.4. 1 Pathways .................................................................................................. 202
10.4.2 Lighting ................................................................................................... 202
x Contents
10.4.3 Maintenance/Cleaning ............................................................................. 202

I0.4.4 Visitor Management ................................................................................. 203
10.5 Management of Nature Conservation ............................................ ....................... 203
I0.5.1 Mechanical Interference ........................................................................... 203
I 0.5.2 Increase in Cave Temperature Caused by Visitors .................................. 204
10.5.3 Influence of Developmental Measures on the Biological
System of Caves ....................................................................................... 204
10.6 Further Aspects of Cave Management.. ......................................... ....................... 204
10.6.1 Safety ........................................................................................................ 204
10.6.2 Training ............................................... .............................. ....................... 204
10.6.3 Marke ting ................................................................................................. 205
10.7 Scientific Research................................................................................................ 205
10.8 Postscript. .............................................................................................................. 205
Further Reading ............................................................................. ....................... 206
PART II ICE CAVES OF THE WORLD

CHAPTER 11 Geography of Cave Glaciation ... ... ..... ..... ............ ........ ..... .. ..................209
CHAPTER 12 Ice Caves in Switzerland ............................................... ............... ... ....221
12.1 Introduction .................................................................................... .......................221
12.2 Historical Considerations on Ice Caves ................................................................ 223
12.3 State of Knowledge ........................................................................ ....................... 224
12.4 Selected Ice Caves ......................................................................... .......................225
12.4. l JochJoch- A Hjgb-Elevation Cave Within the Permafrost Zone ............ 225
12.4.2 Diablotins Ice Cave- A Dynamically Ventilated Ice Cave .....................226
12.4.3 Monlesi Tee Cave-A Statodynamic Ice Cave With
Congelation Ice ........................................................................................ 226
12.4.4 St-Liv res Ice Cave- A Typical Cold Air Trap (Static Cave)
With Firn Deposit .................................................................................... 228
12.4.5 Further Investigation Sites ........................................................................ 23 I
12.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 232
References .............................................................................................................233
CHAPTER 13 Ice Caves in Austria ...................... .. ........... ................. ... . .............. 237
13.1 Introduction .................................................................................... ....................... 237
13.2 Ice Cave Research .......................................................................... ....................... 238
13.3 Types of Ice Caves in Austria ...............................................................................240
13.4 Distribution of Tee Caves in Austria ...................................................................... 240
13.5 Examples of Ice Caves in Austria ........................................................................ 244
13.5.1 Eisriesenwelt ....................................... .............................. ....................... 244
13.5.2 Schonberg-Hohlensystem .................................................. ....................... 246
Contents xi
13.5.3 Dachstein-Mammuthohle ........................................................................ 250

13.5.4 Hundsalm Eis- und Tropfsteinhohle ........................................................ 253
13.6 Outlook ................................................................................................................ 259
References ............................................................................................................ 259
CHAPTER 14 Ice Caves in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina .............. ...263
14.1 lntroduction.......................................................................................................... 263
14.2 Basic Physical and Geographical Characteristics of Montenegro ....................... 264
14.2.l Relief ....................................................................................................... 264
14.2.2 Geotectonic Relations With Lithological Basis ....................................... 264
14.2.3 Main Relief Unities ................................................................................. 266
14.3 Ice Caves in the Durmitor Mountains .................................................................. 268
14.3.1 Group of Facilities of Obla Glava Vicinity .............................................. 269
14.3.2 The Area of Veliki Stuoc ......................................................................... 273
14.3.3 Facilities in the Zone of Vjetrena Hills ................................................... 273
14.4 lee Caves in the Prokletije Mountains ................................................................. 274
14.4. l General Information About Caves ........................................................... 274
14.4.2 Ice Caves in the Prokletije Mountains ..................................................... 275
14.5 Ice Caves of Bosni a and Herzegovi na ................................................................. 28 I
References ............................................................................................................ 283
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 283
CHAPTER 15 Ice Caves in Canada ............. ................... .......... ............. ................ .....285
15.1 Introduction and History ...................................................................................... 285
15.2 Cave Ice Science in Canada ................................................................................. 29 l
15.3 Selected lee Caves ............................................................................................... 294
15.3.1 Yukon Territory ....................................................................................... 294
15.3.2 Northwest Territories (NT) ...................................................................... 297
I5.3.3 Walkin-lee Cave, Wood Buffalo National Park, Alberta, and
Northwest Territories ............................................................................... 304
15.3.4 The Rocky Mountains, Alberta-British Columbia .................................. 308
15.4 Conclusions/Future Wo rk .................................................................................... 33 I
Acknowledgr.nents ...............................................................................................331
References ............................................................................................................ 332
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 334
CHAPTER 16 Ice Caves in Croatia ....... ...................... .... ............ .... .......................... ..335
16.1 Jntroduction .......................................................................................................... 335
16.2 Croatian Ice Cave Terminology ........................................................................... 336
16.3 Historical Overview ............................................................................................. 337
16.4 Economical Valorization of Ice Caves in the Past ............................................... 345
xii Contents
16.5 Geographical Distribution of Ice Caves in Croatia .............................................. 345

16.6 Ice Cave Microclimates ....................................................................................... 350
16.7 Glaciochemical and Tee Mass Balance Researches of Cave Ice
in North Velebit Mt. ......................................... ............ ........................................ 356
16.7. I Research Locations ................................................................................. 357
16.7.2 Cave Ice Sampling and Drilling .............................................................. 358
16.7.3 Tritium Concentrations in Cave lce ......................................................... 358
16.7.4 Stable lsotope Compositions of the Cave k e .......................................... 359
16.7.5 Elemental Concentration of the Cave Ice ................................................359
16.7.6 Tee Mass Balance Estimation .................................................................. 359
16.7.7 Estimation of Cave Ice Age ............................. ........................................360
16.8 Influence of Pleistocene Glaciation on Caves (Velebit Mt.) ................................ 361
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................. 363
References ............................................................................................................ 364
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 369
CHAPTER 17 Ice Caves in Germany ..........................................................................371

17 .1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 37 l
17 . I. I Historical Notes on Jee Caves ................................................................. 37 1
17 .2 Geography of Ice Caves in Germany Today ........................................................ 372
17.2.J Clim.ate .................................................................................................... 374
17.3 Ice Cave Sites in Germany ............................................................ ....................... 375
17.3.l Hochkalter ............................................................................................... 375
17.3.2 Reiteralm ................................................................................................. 375
17.3.3 Untersberg ............................................................................................... 377
17.3.4 Steinernes Meer and Hagengebirge ......................................................... 378
17.3.5 HoherGoll ............................................................................................... 379
17 .4 Systematic Tee Cave Research in Germany .........................................................380
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... 38 l
References ............................................................................................................381
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 383
CHAPTER 18 Ice Caves in Greece ...... ................................................................ .......385

18.1 lntroduction ..........................................................................................................385
18.2 Setting .................................................................................................................. 386
18.2.1 Geological Setting ............................................................ ....................... 386
18.2.2 The Climate of Greece ............................................................................386
18.2.3 Caves in Greece ................................................................ ....................... 389
18.2.4 Selected Ice Caves ................................................................................... 389
18.2.5 Climatic Conditions in the Vicinity of Falakro, Olympus, Tymfi,
and Lefka Ori Mountains ........................................................................ 394
Contents xiii
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 396

References ............................................................................................................ 396
CHAPTER 19 Ice Caves in Italy ................................................................................ 399
19.1 lntroduction.......................................................................................................... 399
19.2 Distribution of Ice Caves in Italy ......................................................................... 401
19.3 Some Examples oflce Cave Studies in l taly ...................................................... .405
I9.3. l Abisso sul margine dell'alto B regai, Mnt. G1igna Settentrionale,
Lombardy ................................................................................................ 406
19.3.2 Yasto and Leupa, Mnt. Canin , Friuli Venezia Giulia ............................... 411
19 .3 .3 Grotta del Gelo, Mnt. Etna, Sicily ...........................................................414
19.4 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 420
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................. .421
References ............................................................................................................ 421
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 423
CHAPTER 20 Ice Caves in Iran ..................................................................................425
20.1 lntroduction.......................................................................................................... 425
20.2 Ghar Yakh-Morad, an Ice Cave in the Alborz Mountains ................................... .427
20.2. 1 Glaciation in Alborz Mountains .............................................................. 428
20.2.2 Ghar Yakh-Morad ................................................................................... .428
20.2.3 Ghar Yakh Dena, an lee Cave in the Zagros Mouotains ......................... .432
20.2.4 Glaciation in the Zagros Mountains ........................................................432
20.2.5 Dena lee Cave.......................................................................................... 432
20.3 Conclusions..........................................................................................................435
Acknowledgments ................................................................. .............................. 435
References ............................................................................................................ 435
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 436
CHAPTER 21 Ice Caves in Asia ... .. ........................................................... ................. 437
21 .1 Asia ................... ................................................................................................ .. .438
2 1.2 The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Countries .............................. 438
21.3 Kazakhstan .......................................................................................................... .438
2 1.3.1 Ledyanoj Paportnik Cave ....................................................................... .438
2 1.4 Uzbekistan .......................................................................................................... .440
21.4.1 Baysun Tau Ridge................................................................................... .440
21.4.2 Khodja Gur Gur Ata karst massif............................................................ 440
21.4.3 Plateau Kyzyl-Shavar ............................................................................. .443
21.4.4 Plateau Kyrk-Tau .................................................................................... .444
2 1.5 Tajikistan .............................................................................................................. 444
2 1.5.1 Zeravshanskij Ridge ............................................................................. .. .444
2 1.5.2 Pamir ....................................................................................................... 445
xiv Contents
21.6 Tur key ..................................................................................................................448

21.6.1 Aladaglar massif...................................................................................... 448
21.7 India ..................................................................................................................... 449
21.7. l Amarnath Cave (Holy Cave) .................................................................. .449
21.8 China .................................................................................................................... 450
2 1.8. l Cave N ingwu ....................................... ....................................................450
21.8.2 lee Cave VudaJyanchi (Lava lee Cave of Heihe) .................................... .450
21.8.3 Underground Ice Cave .................................................................... ......... 450
2 1.8.4 Ice Cave .................................................................................................. .451
2 1.8.5 Gubingdong Cave (Ancient Tee Cave)..................................................... 45 I
21.9 Japan ....................................................................................................................451
21.9.l Fuji Ice Cave (Fuj i Fuketsu) ................................................................... .451
21.10 Mongolia .................. ........................... ................................................................. 452
References ............................................................................................................452
Further Reading .......................................................................................... ........ .453
CHAPTER 22 Ice Caves in FYR of Macedonia ...... ....................................... ........... .455
22.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 455
22.2 History of Exploration and Sources of Information ............................................ 457
22.3 Jakupica Massif ................................................................................................... 457
22.3. 1 Slovacka Jama ........................ ........................................ ......................... 464
22.3.2 Solunska Jama ......................................................................................... 465
22.3.3 Lednik ...................................................................................................... 467
22.3.4 Solunska Jama ........................................................................................ .468
22.3.5 Other lee Caves on Jakupica Massif ...................................................... .468
22.4 Krein Mountain .................................................................................................... 473
22.5 Conclusion .......................................... ................................................................. 475
Acknowledgments ........................................... ........................................... ........ .476
References ................................................................................... ......................... 477
Fmt her Readi ng ................................................................................................... 478
CHAPTER 23 Ice Caves in Norway, Fennoscandia and the Arctic ........ ... ............ 479
23.1 lntro<luction .......................................................................................................... 479
23.2 Norway .................... ........................... ............. .................................................... 480
23.2. l Svarthammarhola .................... ................................................................. 480
23.2.2 Greftkjelen ........................................... .................................................... 487
23.2.3 Salth¢lene ............................... .................................................................488
23.2.4 RJR ......................................................................................................... .488
23.2.5 l sgrotta, Glomdal .................... ................................................................. 488
23.3 Sweden ................................................................................................................. 489
23.3. 1 l skristallgrottan ............................................................................... ......... 489
23.4 Finland ................................................ ................................................................ .490
23.4. l lee Cave on the Korkia-Maura fslan<l..................................................... .490
Contents xv
23.5 Iceland................................................................................................................. .490

23.6 Svalbard and Greenland ....................................................................................... 490
23. 7 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... .490
References........................................................................................................... .49 1
CHAPTER 24 Ice Caves in Poland ............................................................. ................. 493
24.1 Introduction................................................................ .......................................... 493
24.2 History of Discovery, Exploration, and Research oflce Caves: An Outl ine ....... 494
24.3 Distribution, Di mensions, and Types of Ice Caves .............................................. 494
24.4 Mi.croclimatic Conditions .in Polish Ice Caves ................................................... .498
24.5 Ice Types .............................................................................................................. 500
24.5.l Congelation lee ....................................................................................... 500
24.5.2 Recrystallized Snow ................................................................................ 503
24.5.3 Hoarfrost. ................................................................................................. 504
24.6 Age of Cave Ice ................................................................................................... 504
24.7 Organisms Dwelling in Ice Caves ........................................................................ 505
24.8 Subfossi l Organic Remains in lee Caves ................... .......................................... 505
24.9 Tee Dynamics ....................................................................................................... 505
References............................................................................................................508
CHAPTER 25 Ice Cave·s in Romania ........................................ ................................ s11
25.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................51 l
25.2 Ice Cave Research ...................................................... .......................................... 5 11
25.3 Ice Caves in Romania .......................................................................................... 5 13
25.3.1 Ice Caves in Retezat Mountains .............................................................. 513
25.3.2 Ice Caves in Apuseni Mountai ns ................... .......................................... 513
References ............................................................................................................ 527
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 528
CHAPTER 26 Ice Caves in Russia ................................................. ................ .. .......... .. 529
26.1 History of Research on Caves With Ice in Russia ............................................... 530
26. l.J The General Description of Caves With Ice in Region ......................... 535
26.2 Ice caves in Crimea .............................................................................................. 538
26.2.1 Cave Bolshoj Buzluk (Buzluk- Koba, Ledyanaya Cave) ....................... 539
26.2.2 Tryekhglazka Cave (Ledovaya, Vorontsovskaya Cave) ........................ 540
26.3 Caucasus ..............................................................................................................540
26.3.l Ledyanaya Cave.................................................................................... 542
26.3.2 Snezhnaya-Mezhennogo-Illuziya-Banka Cave System ........................ 542
26.3.3 Shaft of Martel.. .................................................................................... 545
26.3.4 Shaft ofVakhusti Bagrationi ................................................................. 546
26.3.5 Cave Skhvava ........................................................................................ 546
26.3.6 Cave Boga ......... ........................................... ......................................... 549
xvi Contents
26.4 Ice Caves in the Russian Plain .............................................................................549

26.5 Ice Caves in the Nizhnij Novgorod Area ............................................................. 550
26.5.1 Kholodnaya Cave (Ledyanaya) ............................................................ 551
26.5.2 Balahoninskaya Cave ............................................................................ 552
26.5.3 Bomukovskaya Cave ............................................................................ 553
26.6 Ice caves in the Arkhangelsk Area ....................................................................... 554
26.6.l Kulogorskaya Cave System (Cave Kulogorskaya-Troya) .................... 556
26.6.2 Golubinskij Proval Cave ....................................................................... 558
26.7 Ice caves in the Priuralie and Ural.. ......................................................... ............ 559
26.7.1 Cave ofV. N. Chernetsov ...................................................................... 563
26.7.2 Cave Academicheskaya (Yanganape-3) ................................................ 563
26.8 Ice caves in the Northern Ural ............................................................................. 564
26.8. l Ledyanaya Cave .............................................................. ...................... 564
26.8.2 Yeranka Cave ........... ........................... .................................................. 566
26.8.3 Medeo Cave .......................................................................................... 566
26.8.4 Ledyanaya Cave (D'yavolskoe Gorodishe) ........................................... 568
26.8.5 Mariinskaya (Gubak.hinskaya) Cave ..................................................... 568
26.8.6 Kungurskaya Ice Cave .......................................................................... 570
26.8.7 Askinskaya Cave ................................................................................... 577
26.8.8 Cave Kinderlinsky (30 Anniversary of Victory) ................................... 578
26.8.9 Kutukskaya- 1 ........................................................................................ 580
26.9 Ice caves in Altaj .................................................................................................. 582
26.9.1 Kul'dyukskaya Cave ............................................................................. 582
26.9.2 Oroktojskaya (Ajgarinskaya) Cave ....................................................... 583
26.10 Ice caves in Kuznetsk Ala Tau ............................................................................. 584
26.10.1 Bidzhinskaya Cave (Ledyanaya) .......................................................... 584
26.J0.2 Cave Krest (Syjskaya) .......................................................................... 585
26.11 Ice caves in the Say an Mountains ........................................................................ 586
26.11. 1 Bol'shaya Onotskaya Cave .............................................. ...................... 586
26. l l .2 Ledopadnaya Cave ................................................................................ 587
26.12 Ice caves in Pribaikalye and Transbaikalia ..........................................................588
26. l 2. 1 Bajdinskje Caves and Cave Mechta ...................................................... 588
26. 12.2 Cave System Aya-Ryadovaya ............................................................... 590
26.12.3 Botovskaya Cave ............................................................ ...................... 590
26. 12.4 Okhotnich'ya Cave ................................................................................ 59 1
26.12.5 Lenskaya Ledyanaya Cave ................................................................... 59 l
26.13 lee caves in Transbaikalia and the Far East ......................................................... 594
26. 13. l Kheetej Cave ......................................................................................... 594
26.14 Ice caves in the Far East... .................................................................................... 595
26.14.1 Priiskovaya Cave (Sinegorskaya-2 or Zolotaya) ................................... 595
26.14.2 Starogo Medved ya Cave ....................................................................... 596
Contents xvii
26.14.3 Cave K110lodil'nik (Polamaya) .............................................................. 596

26.14.4 Ledyanaya Malyutka Cave .......... ......................................................... 597
26.14.5 Cave Abagy-Dzhe (Zhilishche Chyerta, Abakhty-Diete) ..................... 598
26. 14.6 SteregL1s hee Kop'ye Cave ...................................................................... 599
References ....................... ..................................................................................... 602
Further Reading ...................................................................................................606
CHAPTER 27 Ice Caves in Serbia .......... ................................. ..... ..............................611

27 .1 Introduction..........................................................................................................6 11
27 .2 History of Research ............................................................................................. 6 l 3
27.3 Types of Ice Caves in Serbia ........................................... ..................................... 614
27.3.1 Perennial lee Caves ................................................................................. 614
27.3.2 Occasionally Perennial Ice Caves ........................................................... 620
27.3.3 Seasonal lee Caves .................................................................................. 621
27.4 Outline of Temperature Dynamics .................................. ................................... .. 621
27 .5 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 623
References ....................... ..................................................................................... 623
CHAPTER 28 Ice Caves in Spain .......... .... ............. .... ......... .. ....... .... ............. ............ 625
28.1 lntroduction..................... ..................................................................................... 625
28.2 History of Research ........................................................ ..................................... 626
28.3 Ice Caves in Spain ................................................................................................ 630
28.3. I Ice Caves in the Tei de Volcano (Canary Island) ..................................... . 632
28.3.2 Ice Caves .in the Pyrenees ........................................................................ 633
28.3.3 Ice Caves in the Cantabrian Mountains ................................................... 635
28.4 State of the A.rt of the Studies of the Main Spanish Ice Caves ............................ 639
28.4.1 Techniqlles and Methods Can-ied Out in the Study of Tee
Caves of Spain ..... .................................................................................... 639
28.4.2 Dynamics and Evolution of lee Caves .................................................... 644
28.4.3 Palaeoenvironmental Implications of Ice Caves...................................... 648
28.5 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................... 650
References ....................................................................... ..................................... 650
Further Reading .............. ..................................................................................... 655
CHAPTER 29 Ice Caves in Slovakia ...................... ...................................... .. ...... ..... .657

29.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 657
29.2 Karst Areas and Caves in Slovakia ...................................................................... 658
29.3 Geographical Distribution of Ice Caves ............................................................... 659
29.4 The Most Significant Ice Caves ........................................................................... 659
29.4.1 Dobsinska Eadova Jaskyi\a Cave (Dobsi na Ice Cave) ............................. 659
29.4.2 Demanovska I.',adova Jaskyi\a Cave (Demanova Ice Cave) ..................... 669
29.4.3 Silicka .Cadnica Cave (Silica Ice Cave) ................................................... 672
xvi ii Contents
29.4.4 Yel'ka Cadov,'i priepasE na Ohnisti Abyss (Great Ice Abyss

on the Obniste) ......................................................................................... 674
29.4.5 Cadova priepasE Abyss (Ice Abyss) ......................................................... 676
29.5 Ice Caves Disturbed by Human lnflue nces .......................................................... 677
29.6 Ice Caves and Nature Protection .......................................................................... 678
References ............................................................................................................ 678
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 689
CHAPTER 30 Ice Caves in Slovenia .......... .. .......... .. .......... ..... .................... ............ ...691
30.1 History of Ice Cave Exploration .......................................................................... 692
30.2 Ice Caves .............................................................................................................. 692
30.3 Important Ice Caves ............................................................................................. 693
Refere nces ............................................................................................................703
Further Reading ................................................................................................... 703
CHAPTER 31 Ice Caves in the USA ......... ..... ................ ........... ..................................10s
31.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 705
31.2 Northeastern USA ................................................................................................ 706
31.3 Northern Rocky Mountains-Montana, Wyoming, Idaho .................................. 707
31.4 Central Rocky Mountains-Utah ........................................................................ 708
31.5 Colorado .............................................................................................................. 7 12
31.6 New Mexico ......................................................................................................... 713
31.7 California ............................................................................................................. 7 13
31.8 Washington .......................................................................................................... 7 14
31.9 Hawaii .................................................................................................................. 7 15
References ............................................................................................................ 7 15
Further Reading ...................................................................................................716
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 717
Contributors
Lene Baastad
University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Carmen-Andreea Bădăluță
Ștefan cel Mare University, Suceava, Romania
Darko Bakšić
University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Goran Barović
University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro
Miguel Bartolomé
Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología, CSIC, Zaragoza, Spain
Pavel Bella
State Nature Conservancy of the Slovak Republic, Slovak Caves Administration, Liptovský Mikuláš;
Catholic University in Ružomberok, Ružomberok, Slovakia
Ánchel Belmonte
Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
Neven Bočić
Traian Brad
Emil Racoviță Institute of Speleology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Nenad Buzjak
Jelena Ćalić
Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade,
Serbia
Renato R. Colucci
ISMAR-CNR; Commissione Grotte E. Boegan, Società Alpina delle Giulie, Trieste, Italy
Yuri Dublyansky
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Vinka Dubovečak
Speleological Association Kraševski zviri, Ivanec, Croatia
Julie Engelien
Michal Filippi
Institute of Geology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
Derek Ford
McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
xix
xx Contributors
Gaetano Giudice
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia sezione di Palermo – Geochimica (INGV), Palermo;
Centro Speleologico Etneo (CSE), Catania, Italy
Manue Gómez-Lende
Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
Michał Gradziński
Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
Stephen R. Higham
Consultant, Georgetown, MA, United States
Bernard Hivert
AS Charentaise, Angouleme, France
Greg Horne
Jasper National Park of Canada, Jasper, AB, Canada
Sanda Iepure
IMDEA Water Institute, Alcala de Henares, Spain
Pierre-Yves Jeannin
Swiss Institute of Speleology and Karst Studies (SISKA), La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland
Olga I. Kadebskaya
Mining Institute of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Perm, Russia
Zoltán Kern
Institute for Geological and Geochemical Research, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth
Sciences, MTA, Budapest, Hungary
Ditta Kicińska
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
Bernard Lauriol
Université d'Ottawa, Ottawa, ON Canada
Stein-Erik Lauritzen
María Leunda
Marc Luetscher
Swiss Institute of Speleology and Karst Studies (SISKA), La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland; Austrian
Academy of Sciences, Innsbruck, Austria; University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Valter Maggi
University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano; Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resource (CNR), Pisa, Italy
Mihajlo Mandić
Geological Survey of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
Bulat R. Mavlyudov
Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
Christiane Meyer
Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
Contributors xxi
Andrej Mihevc
Karst Research Institute, Postojna, Slovenia
Ana Moreno
Jasminko Mulaomerović
Center for Karst and Speleology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Alireza Nadimi
University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
Mohammad Nakhaei
Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
Dragan Nešić
Institute for Nature Conservation of Serbia, Niš, Serbia
Jakub Nowak
Cracow Caving Club, Kraków, Poland
Friedrich Oedl
Eisriesenwelt Cave, Salzburg, Austria; International Show Caves Association (ISCA), Ancona, Italy;
Austrian Caving Association VÖH, Vienna, Austria
Bogdan P. Onac
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States; Emil Racoviță Institute of Speleology,
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Dalibor Paar
Arthur N. Palmer
State University of New York, Oneonta, NY, United States
Rudolf Pavuza
Natural History Museum Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Christos Pennos
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Aurel Perșoiu
Emil Racoviță Institute of Speleology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Andreas Pflitsch
Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
Lukas Plan
Natural History Museum Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Cristina Purcarea
Institute of Biology, Bucharest, Romania
Grzegorz Rachlewicz
Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Poznań, Poland
Luca Randazzo
Centro Speleologico Etneo (CSE), Catania, Italy
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Title: Native life in East Africa

the results of an ethnological research expedition
Author: Karl Weule
Translator: Alice Werner
Release date: August 27, 2023 [eBook #71496]
Language: English
Original publication: New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1909
Credits: Richard Tonsing, Peter Becker, Jude Eylander, and the

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIVE LIFE

IN EAST AFRICA ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.
NATIVE LIFE IN
EAST AFRICA
The Author
NATIVE LIFE IN EAST AFRICA
THE RESULTS OF AN ETHNOLOGICAL
RESEARCH EXPEDITION
BY
DR. KARL WEULE
DIRECTOR OF THE LEIPZIG
ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM AND PROFESSOR AT
THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPZIG
TRANSLATED BY
ALICE WERNER
NEW YORK
D APPLETON AND COMPANY
1909
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
TRANSLATOR’S INTRODUCTION xi
I. OUTWARD BOUND 1
II. THE UNEXPECTED 16
III. APPRENTICESHIP 26
IV. FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF THE INTERIOR 45
V. LOOKING ROUND 65
VI. NATIVE LIFE SEEN FROM THE INSIDE 77
VII. MY CARAVAN ON THE SOUTHWARD MARCH 104
VIII. AT MATOLA’S 134
IX. AMONG THE YAOS 155
X. FURTHER RESULTS 190
XI. TO THE ROVUMA 203
XII. UNYAGO EVERYWHERE 230
XIII. THE HARVEST OF KNOWLEDGE 243
XIV. FURTHER RESEARCHES 278
XV. LAST DAYS AT NEWALA 318
XVI. THE ROVUMA ONCE MORE 332
XVII. ACHIEVEMENT 352
XVIII. MY RETURN TO THE COAST 393
XIX. FROM LINDI TO TANGA 408
XX. RETROSPECT 413
INDEX 423
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
CAPE GUARDAFUI 1
DAR ES SALAM HARBOUR 2
NATIVE DANCE AT DAR ES SALAM 3
STREET IN NATIVE QUARTER, DAR ES SALAM 4
MAP OF THE MAIN CARAVAN ROAD 9
COURTYARD AT DAR ES SALAM 10
IN THE EUROPEAN QUARTER, DAR ES SALAM 12
LINDI BAY 16
THE SS. “RUFIJI” 18
VIEW NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE LUKULEDI ABOVE LINDI 19
LINDI ROADSTEAD 24
ARAB DHOW 25
CHAIN-GANG 26
WOMEN’S DANCE AT DAR ES SALAM 27
SELIMAN MAMBA 29
YAO WOMEN AT MTUA 33
GIRLS FROM LINDI 35
RUINED TOWER, LINDI 38
UNDER THE PALMS 40
THE LIKWATA DANCE 45
MAKUA WOMEN FROM THE LUKULEDI VALLEY 47
A MAN OF THE MWERA TRIBE AND A YAO 48
RUINS OF NYANGAO MISSION STATION 50
A MWERA WOMAN 56
YOUNG MAN OF THE MWERA TRIBE 56
MWERA WOMAN WITH PIN IN LOWER LIP 57
ROAD THROUGH THE BUSH IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF
CHINGULUNGULU 59
MOUNTAINS NEAR MASASI 65
THE INSULAR MOUNTAIN OF MASASI 67
OUR ASCENT OF MTANDI MOUNTAIN 72
MNYASA HUNTER WITH DOG 77
THROUGH THE BUSH ON A COLLECTING EXCURSION 79
READY FOR MARCHING (MASASI) 81
CAMP AT MASASI 83
INTERIOR OF A NATIVE HUT IN THE ROVUMA VALLEY 85
DOVECOTE AND GRANARY 92
RAT TRAP 96
TRAP FOR ANTELOPES 98
TRAP FOR GUINEA-FOWL 99
TRAP FOR LARGE GAME 99
MY CARAVAN ON THE MARCH 104
YAO HOMESTEAD AT CHINGULUNGULU 105
THE YAO CHIEF MATOLA 108
NAKAAM, A YAO CHIEF 109
INTERIOR OF A COMPOUND AT MWITI 110
CAMP AT MWITI 112
SHUTTER WITH INLAID SWASTIKA IN NAKAAM’S HOUSE AT
MWITI 114
YAO HUT 115
ELDERLY MAKONDE WOMAN IN GALA DRESS 121
GROUND PLAN OF ZUZA’S HUT 128
ZUZA’S COUCH AND FIREPLACE 129
YAO WOMEN WITH NOSE-STUDS 130
INFANT’S GRAVE 132
MATOLA’S COMPOUND 134
BEER-DRINKING 136
WATAMBWE WOMAN DECORATED WITH NUMEROUS KELOIDS 141
MANUAL CHRONOLOGY, “THAT HAPPENED WHEN I WAS SO
HIGH” 145
OUR CAMP AT CHINGULUNGULU 149
WATER-HOLES AT CHINGULUNGULU 151
MAKONDE WOMEN FROM MAHUTA 153
TWO MAKUA MOTHERS 157
A FRIENDLY CHAT 158
WOMAN POUNDING AT THE MORTAR 165
MONKEYS ATTACKING A PLANTATION 168
THE BLIND BARD SULILA OUTSIDE THE BOMA AT MASASI 171
YAO DANCE AT CHINGULUNGULU 178
“BUSH SCHOOL” IN THE PORI, NEAR CHINGULUNGULU 179
A YAO DRESSED FOR THE MASEWE DANCE 181
MASEWE DANCE OF THE YAOS AT MTUA 182
FRESCO ON THE WALL OF A HUT AT AKUNDONDE’S 185
HERD OF ELEPHANTS 190
VILLAGE OF THE NGONI CHIEF MAKACHU 193
GRAVE OF THE YAO CHIEF MALUCHIRO, AT MWITI 194
KINDLING FIRE BY FRICTION 196
MY COMPANION, NILS KNUDSEN 199
FISH-DRYING ON THE ROVUMA 202
TWO MATAMBWE MOTHERS FROM THE ROVUMA 205
TYPICAL HUT IN THE ROVUMA VALLEY 208
DESERTED BUILDINGS, LUISENFELDE MINE 210
UNYAGO BOYS PLAYING ON FLUTES OUTSIDE THE NDAGALA AT
AKUNDONDE’S 211
LIKWIKWI, THE BIRD OF ILL OMEN 212
LISAKASA IN THE FOREST NEAR AKUNDONDE’S 213
YAO GRAVES AT AKUNDONDE’S 214
NDAGALA (CIRCUMCISION-LODGE) IN THE FOREST NEAR
AKUNDONDE’S 216
LAUGHING BEAUTIES 220
GIRLS’ UNYAGO AT THE MAKONDE HAMLET OF NIUCHI 221
GIRL’S UNYAGO AT THE MATAMBWE VILLAGE OF MANGUPA. I 226
GIRLS’ UNYAGO AT THE MATAMBWE VILLAGE OF MANGUPA. II 227
OLD MEDULA LIGHTING HIS PIPE 228
OUR CAMP AT NEWALA 231
THE AUTHOR IN WINTER COSTUME AT NEWALA 232
MAKONDE MASKS 236
MAKONDE STILT-DANCER 237
THE NJOROWE DANCE AT NEWALA 238
MAKONDE WOMEN GOING TO DRAW WATER 243
TWO NEWALA SAVANTS 245
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI 249
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” 251
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA 256
USUAL METHOD OF CLOSING HUT-DOOR 261
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO 262
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY 263
THE ANCESTRESS OF THE MAKONDE 266
BRAZIER 267
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASAI 269
MAKUA WOMAN MAKING A POT 270
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA 275
MAKUA WOMEN 278
WOMAN CARRYING A BABY ON HER BACK 283
THREE MAKUA VEGETARIANS 284
USE OF THE THROWING STICK 286
THROWING WITH THE SLING 287
SPINNING A TOP 288
IKOMA DANCE AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, ACHIKOMU 289
XYLOPHONE (MGOROMONDO) 290
PLAYING THE NATURA 291
NATURA (FRICTION-DRUM) 291
USING THE NATIVE TELEPHONE 292
and
293
NATIVE TELEPHONE 293
MAKONDE CHILDREN 295
MASEWE DANCE OF THE MAKUAS IN THE BOMA AT NEWALA 296
KAKALE PROCESSION ON THE LAST DAY OF THE UNYAGO 298
MASKED DANCE AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI 303
WOMAN OF THE MAKONDE TRIBE 305
AN OFFERING TO THE SPIRITS 324
LANDSCAPE ON THE ROVUMA 325
TREES IN THE BURYING-GROUND AT NEWALA 327
KNOTTED STRING SERVING AS CALENDAR 329
MY ESCORT HALTED AT HENDERERA’S VILLAGE IN THE
MAKONDE HIGHLANDS 334
NATIVE SUFFERING FROM THE UBUBA DISEASE 337
MAJALIWA, SAIDI, AND MAKACHU 338
FOREST RUINED BY NATIVES NEAR NCHICHIRA, ROVUMA
VALLEY 343
MATAMBWE FISHERMAN CATCHING A TURTLE, WHICH A
WATER-SNAKE IS TRYING TO SEIZE 347
PILE-DWELLING ON THE ROVUMA, NEAR NCHICHIRA 350
THE WALI OF MAHUTA 353
MOTHER AND CHILD 355
TWO-STORIED HOUSES AT NCHICHIRA ON THE ROVUMA 357
MAKONDE GIRL WITH LIP PIERCED FOR PELELE AND
ULCERATED 358
PSEUDO-SURGERY. MAKONDE WOMAN WITH TORN LIP 359
ARTIFICIALLY JOINED
MAKONDE KELOIDS 360
MATAMBWE AND MAKUA WOMEN WITH KELOIDS 361
MAKUA WOMAN WITH KELOIDS ON BACK 362
MAKUA WOMEN WITH KELOIDS 363
MAKONDE WOMEN WITH ELABORATE KELOIDS 364
AFRICAN ART: CARVED POWDER, SNUFF, AND CHARM-BOXES
FROM THE MAKONDE HIGHLANDS 365
MAKONDE MAN WITH KELOID PATTERNS 365
YAO WOMEN WITH KELOIDS 366
THE LITOTWE 367
“BWANA PUFESA” (THE PROFESSOR) 368
WANGONI WOMEN AT NCHICHIRA 369
TWO NATIVES 370
THE BUSH COUNTRY AND ITS FAUNA 372
MAKONDE WOMAN IN HOLIDAY ATTIRE 375
MAKONDE HAMLET NEAR MAHUTA 377
A DIABOLO PLAYER ON THE MAKONDE PLATEAU 378
DIABOLO 379
ASKARI IN FATIGUE DRESS 382
WANDUWANDU’S GRAVE 397
GREAT NGOMA DANCE IN THE BOMA AT MAHUTA 403
MY ESCORT CLEANING THEIR TEETH 405
ENTERING THE RED SEA 408
THE AUTHOR IN BUSH COSTUME 410
Translator’s Introduction
The greater thoroughness and system with which anthropology

and the kindred sciences have been cultivated in Germany than in
this country, has been repeatedly brought home to us; but in nothing
is it more apparent than in the difficulty of finding equivalents for
quite elementary technical terms. The distinction between ethnology
and ethnography, indeed, is pretty generally recognized, and is
explained in works as popular in scope as Professor Keane’s
Ethnology and Man Past and Present. But Vōlkerkunde, which
includes both these sciences and some others besides, is something
which certainly cannot be translated by its etymological equivalent
“folklore;” and, though the word “prehistoric” is perfectly familiar,
we have no such noun as “prehistory,” far less a professorship of the
same in any university. These remarks are suggested by the fact that
Dr. Weule, whose experiences in East Africa are here presented to
the English reader, is “Professor of Vōlkerkunde und Urgeschichte”
at Leipzig, besides being Director of the Ethnographical Museum in
the same city.
Dr. Karl Weule, whose name is less well known in England than in
his own country, has in the past devoted himself rather to geography
than to ethnography proper. He was a pupil and friend of the late
Friedrich Ratzel, whose History of Mankind was translated into
English some years ago, and whose Politische Geographie gave a new
direction to the study of that science in its more immediate relation
to the historical development of mankind, or what is now called
“anthropogeography.” It was Ratzel, too, who suggested to Dr.
Helmolt the idea of his Weltgeschichte, a comprehensive history of
the world, built up out of detached monographs, including three by
Dr. Weule, on the historical importance of the three great oceans.
(Only one of these appears in the English edition, with introduction
by Professor Bryce, published in 1901). Dr. Weule returned to the
same subject in his History of Geography and Exploration
(Geschichte der Erdkenntnis und der geographischen Forschung)
and a detached essay, Das Meer und die Naturvōlker (both
published in 1904), with various other monographs of a similar
character.
After completing his university studies at Göttingen and Leipzig,
Dr. Weule resided from 1891 to 1899 at Berlin, first as a member of
the Richthofen Seminary, where his work was more purely
geographical, and afterwards as assistant in the African and
Oceanian section of the Ethnological Museum. In 1899 he was
appointed to the Assistant Directorship of the Leipzig Museum, and
at the same time to the chair which he still occupies at that
University; and, seven years later, he was entrusted with the research
expedition described in the following pages, where its scope and
objects are set forth with sufficient clearness to render further
reference in this place unnecessary. After his return he was promoted
to the appointment he now holds at the Leipzig Museum.
His residence in Africa lasted a little over six months, and the
record before us shows that he made good use of his time. Several
features in his narrative have the merit of novelty, at least as far as
the general reader is concerned; for though the cinematograph and
phonograph have been made use of for some time past in the service
of anthropology, yet we do not remember to have seen the results of
the latter figuring to any great extent in a work of this sort, though
Sir Harry Johnston has reproduced one phonographic record of a
native air in his Uganda Protectorate. (It is very unfortunate that so
many of Dr. Weule’s cinematograph films proved a disappointment;
this instrument is proving one of the most valuable adjuncts to
exploration, especially in the case of tribes whose peculiar customs
are rapidly passing away before the advance of civilization). Another
point which imparts great freshness to Dr. Weule’s work is the happy
inspiration which led him to collect native drawings; the sketches by
his carriers and especially the portrait of the author himself on p.
368 are decided contributions to the gaiety of nations, and strike out
a line unworked, so far as I am aware, by previous travellers. It is a
matter of deep and lasting regret to me, personally, that I ever parted
with a similar gem of art, picked up at Blantyre, and presumably
representing a European engaged in inspecting his coffee plantation.
This whole question of native African art is very interesting.
Properly speaking, nothing in the way of indigenous graphic art is
known to exist in Africa, outside Egypt and Abyssinia, (if indeed it
can be called indigenous in the latter case), except the rock paintings
of the Bushmen, which, as is well known, have in some cases attained
real excellence. (The best published reproductions up to the present
date are contained in the late G. W. Stow’s Native Races of South
Africa.) In South Africa wherever Bantu natives have executed any
paintings beyond the simplest geometrical patterns, they are found
to have learnt the art from Bushmen. The natives on Mount Mlanje
(Nyasaland) decorate their huts with paintings of animals, but these
have not yet been sufficiently examined to pronounce on their
quality; and, on the other hand, many things render it probable that
there is a strong Bushman element in the population of Mlanje (at
least in the indigenous Anyanja, who have been only partly displaced
by the Yaos). Dr. Weule states that this kind of “fresco” decoration is
very common on the Makonde Plateau, but considers that it is
entirely on the same level as the drawings of his carriers—i.e., that it
shows no artistic aptitude or tradition, and merely consists of scrawls
such as those with which innate depravity impels every untaught
human being to deface any convenient blank space. The single
specimen reproduced in his book is not precisely calculated to refute
his theory, yet it is no rougher than some of the cruder Bushmen
drawings (which show every conceivable degree of skill and finish);
and, if the daubs in question are merely the product of the universal
gamin instinct, surely, huts having clay walls would everywhere be
adorned with animal-paintings, which is by no means the case.
The comparative value of Dr. Weule’s various results must be left
to the judgment of experts; but it seems safe to assume that he was
most successful in what may be called the outside part of his task: in
forming a collection and in describing what is visible and tangible in
the life and customs of the people. That he should have failed to
penetrate their inner life is scarcely surprising. What does surprise
one is that he should have expected to do so at such exceedingly
short notice. His disappointment in this respect at Masasi, and
subsequently at Chingulungulu, is calculated to provoke a smile, if
not “from the sinful,” at least from the veteran in African experience.
The greater his experience the more is the inquirer inclined to
hesitate before putting direct questions even when they cannot be
described as “leading”; but Dr. Weule seems to have recognized no
other mode of investigation. The wonder is that the elders, officially
convened by tuck of drum from village after village and set down to
be pumped till both parties were heartily weary of the process,
should have told him anything at all—as they undoubtedly did, and
much of it, to judge from internal evidence, correct enough. The
most sympathetic of travellers does not always find it easy to satisfy
his thirst for knowledge, and Dr. Weule’s methods, on his own
showing, were frequently such that I prefer to withhold any
comment.
Dr. Weule devoted a considerable amount of time to the study of
the languages spoken in the districts he visited, viz., Makua, Yao, and
Makonde; but he does not appear to have published any linguistic
documents beyond the songs, etc., given in the present volume. It is
not clear whether he was aware of any work previously done in this
direction, but he certainly speaks as though he were the first to
reduce these idioms to writing, though abundant materials exist in
print for the study of Yao, and the late Bishop Maples published a
grammatical sketch of Makua which is excellent as far as it goes, not
to mention the more recent work of Professor Meinhof. It is also
extremely strange that, while insisting on the close relationship
between the different languages of the Makonde Plateau, he should
have overlooked the curious cleavage between Makua,—which has
peculiarities directly connecting it with the distant Sechuana and
Sesuto—and its neighbours.
Though the scene of Dr. Weule’s labours was repeatedly visited by
Europeans, even before the German occupation, not much has been
written about it in this country outside the publications of the
Universities’ Mission. Livingstone ascended the Rovuma in 1862, to
within thirty miles of Ngomano at the Lujende junction; his farthest
point being apparently a little higher up than the camp occupied by
Dr. Weule in August, 1906. He had hoped to find a navigable
waterway to the immediate vicinity of Lake Nyasa; and, in fact, some
natives told him that the Rovuma came out of the Lake; but the
rapids and rocks made it impossible to take the boats beyond the
island of Nyamatolo, which, though not marked on Dr. Weule’s map,
must be somewhere near the mouth of the Bangala. Most of the
names given by Livingstone are difficult to identify on recent maps;
but this is not surprising, as native villages are usually known by the
name of the chief or headman for the time being. It is true that some
of these names are more or less permanent, being official or
hereditary designations assumed by every successive functionary;
but the population has shifted so much during the last forty years
that the old names have been forgotten or transferred to other sites.
Thus Mr. H. E. O’Neill, in 1882, found the Yao chief Chimsaka living
in the eastern part of the Mavia Plateau a little east of 40° E, having
been driven from his former place on the Upper Rovuma, more than
two hundred miles to the west, by a raid of the Mangoni (Angoni or
Maviti).
The country is still inhabited, as it was in Livingstone’s time, by
the Makonde, Makua, and Matambwe tribes, with the Wamwera to
the north in the hinterland of Lindi, and the Mavia (Mabiha) south of
the Rovuma, but they have moved about a good deal within its limits,
while the Yaos have penetrated it from the west. The raids of the
Angoni or Maviti have also played a great part in these changes. Dr.
Weule, as we shall see, made careful inquiries on the subject of these
tribal migrations, and the information given to him fits in fairly well
with what others have obtained from the Yaos in the Shire Highlands
and the Angoni to the west of Lake Nyasa.
Livingstone returned to this region on his last journey, when he
landed at Mikindani Bay (March 24, 1866) with those unfortunate
camels and buffaloes whose sufferings on the jungle-march made his
diary such painful reading. The choice of camels for transport in this
country was certainly a mistake; but a greater mistake—and one
which he bitterly regretted—was made in the choice of the men who
drove the camels.
On this occasion, Livingstone followed the Rovuma by land as far
as Mtarika’s (the old village about the Lujende confluence, near
Chimsaka’s former abode, not the Mtarika’s which will be found
marked in Dr. Weule’s map on the Lujende itself), and struck south-
westward in the direction of the Lake, which he reached, near the
mouth of the Mtsinje, on the 8th of August. The route followed some
years previously by Dr. Roscher, who made his way from Kilwa to
Lake Nyasa, sighting it November 24, 1859, a few weeks after its
discovery by Livingstone, lies somewhat to the north-west of the
country dealt with in this book, and nowhere touches the scene of Dr.
Weule’s travels.
In 1875, the late Bishop Steere followed in Livingstone’s tracks,
starting from Lindi on the first of November, and reaching Mwembe
(Mataka’s village) in a little over five weeks. This was the first of a
series of remarkable journeys accomplished by members of the
Universities’ Mission, of which we need here only mention, that of
the Rev. W. P. (now Archdeacon) Johnson and the late Rev. C. A.
Janson in 1882. The station of Masasi was founded in 1876, and that
of Newala in 1882; the buildings of the former were nearly all
destroyed in the “Majimaji” rising of 1906, shortly before Dr. Weule’s
visit, and are only now in process of reconstruction.
The Rovuma valley was further explored in 1882, by the late
Joseph Thomson, whom the Sultan of Zanzibar had commissioned to
examine its mineral resources, with a view to ascertaining if
workable coal-seams existed. His report was, on the whole,
unfavourable, though a French engineer, M. D’Angelvy, subsequently
(in 1884) despatched on a similar errand, came to a different
conclusion. The Livingstone expedition had found coal near Lake
Chidia, in 1862; but up to the present day it has not been utilized.
Mr. H. E. O’Neill, when British Consul at Mozambique, did a great
deal of exploring, in an unobtrusive way, between the coast and Lake
Nyasa, and, in 1882 examined the country inland from Tungi Bay,
and south of the Rovuma, being the first European to penetrate the
Mavia Plateau and come in contact with that tribe who enjoyed
among their neighbours the reputation of being “so fierce and
inhospitable that no one dares to pass through their country.” This
exclusiveness Mr. O’Neill found to be largely if not entirely the result
of the persecution the Mavia had undergone at the hands of stronger
tribes, particularly the Yaos, incited by coast slavetraders. They were
unwilling to guide him to their villages, and took him there by night
so that he might be the less likely to find his way there a second time;
but, “when once their natural suspicions were allayed and confidence
established, they were hospitable and generous, and showed neither
distrust nor reserve. Indeed, they seemed to me to be a particularly
simple-minded, harmless folk.” Men, as well as women, wear the

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Chapter 48 - Exploration of caves: Underwater

Crowns of Ice: Fae Fantasy Romance (Fae of Snow & Ice

The biology of caves and other subterranean habitats

Pucking Screwed (Thin Ice Book 3) Charity Parkerson

The Biology of Caves and Other Subterranean Habitats

When Love Takes The Ice: Book 2 Dakotah Fox

So Pucked Up (Thin Ice Book 1) Charity Parkerson

Bossy Billionaire's Heart of Ice 1st Edition Layla Hill

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Candice Janco

Typeset by SPi Global, India

PART I PERENNIAL ICE ACCUMULATIONS IN CAVES: OVERVIEW

4.1.3.5 Chemical Composition of Snow-Ice Formations in Caves ....................... 64

CHAPTER 4.2 Ice Surface Morphology ..................................................... .. .. ...............69

CHAPTER 4.3 Ice Dynamics in Caves .......................................................................... 97

CHAPTER 5 Dating Cave Ice Deposits ......... ........................................................... 109

CHAPTER 6 Cryogenic Mineral Formation in Caves . ........ ....... ...........................123

6.4 Cryogenic Carbonates (CCCcoarse) Formed by Slow Freezing of

CHAPTER 9 Paleoclimatic Significance of Cave Ice ..... .. ................. ................... 189

10.4.3 Maintenance/Cleaning ............................................................................. 202

PART II ICE CAVES OF THE WORLD

13.5.3 Dachstein-Mammuthohle ........................................................................ 250

16.5 Geographical Distribution of Ice Caves in Croatia .............................................. 345

CHAPTER 17 Ice Caves in Germany ..........................................................................371

CHAPTER 18 Ice Caves in Greece ...... ................................................................ .......385

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 396

21.6 Tur key ..................................................................................................................448

23.5 Iceland................................................................................................................. .490

26.4 Ice Caves in the Russian Plain .............................................................................549

26.14.3 Cave K110lodil'nik (Polamaya) .............................................................. 596

CHAPTER 27 Ice Caves in Serbia .......... ................................. ..... ..............................611

CHAPTER 29 Ice Caves in Slovakia ...................... ...................................... .. ...... ..... .657

29.4.4 Yel'ka Cadov,'i priepasE na Ohnisti Abyss (Great Ice Abyss

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 717

Title: Native life in East Africa

Author: Karl Weule

Translator: Alice Werner

Release date: August 27, 2023 [eBook #71496]

Original publication: New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1909

Credits: Richard Tonsing, Peter Becker, Jude Eylander, and the

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIVE LIFE

The greater thoroughness and system with which anthropology

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