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Surveying Fundamentals and Practices
S IXTH E DITION
Jerry Nathanson, M. S., P. E.
Professor Emeritus, Engineering Technology
Union County College
Cranford, New Jersey
Philip Kissam, C. E.
Late Professor Emeritus
Princeton University
Princeton, New Jersey
Prentice Hall
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To the courageous men and women who are serving or have served in the
armed forces of the United States of America, for the defense of
freedom and democracy at home and abroad.
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PREFACE
v
vi Preface
Chapter
1 Practice Problems 52
INTRODUCTION 3
PART 2 SURVEYING EQUIPMENT AND
1-1 The Art and Science of
FIELD METHODS 57
Surveying 3
Chapter
1-2 The Surveying Method 5 4
MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES 59
1-3 Surveying Applications 9
4-1 Rough Distance Measurement 59
1-4 Historical Background 11
4-2 Taping: Equipment and
1-5 The Profession of Surveying 14
Methods 61
1-6 Field Notes 14
4-3 Taping Mistakes, Errors, and
1-7 Geographic Information Corrections 71
Systems (GIS) 17
4-4 Electronic Distance
Questions for Review 18 Measurement 75
vii
viii Contents
Chapter
6 8-3 Land Subdivisions 182
Chapter
PART 3 SURVEYING
APPLICATIONS 141
10
HIGHWAY CURVES AND
Chapter EARTHWORK 227
7 10-1 Route Surveys 227
HORIZONTAL CONTROL SURVEYS 143
BASIC CONCEPTS
IN SURVEYING
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
1
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1-1 The Art and Science 1-3 Surveying Applications The Licensed Professional
of Surveying Property Survey Land Surveyor
Basis of Surveying Topographic Survey
1-6 Field Notes
Importance of Surveying Construction Survey
Field Notebooks
Control Survey
1-2 The Surveying Method Route Survey
Rules for Field Notes
Defining Horizontal and Vertical Electronic Data Collectors
Other Types of Surveys
Directions
1-7 Geographic Information
Measuring Distances and 1-4 Historical Background Systems (GIS)
Angles: An Overview
Plane and Geodetic Surveying 1-5 The Profession of Surveying Questions for Review
3
4 CHAPTER ONE
(b)
(a)
(d) (c)
FIGURE 1-1. Traditional surveying instruments: (a) Theodolite (Courtesy of
CST/Berger, Illinois), (b) level, (c) a level rod, and (d) a steel tape.
The traditional measuring instruments used in the field computer hardware and software needed to analyze and plot
are the transit or theodolite (to measure angles), the level and the survey data.
level rod (to measure vertical distances or elevations), and The total station and other modern instruments will be
the steel tape (to measure horizontal distances). They are discussed again later on in the text. But the fundamental prin-
illustrated in Figure 1-1. The use of these types of instru- ciples of surveying remain the same, whether the electronic or
ments is described in detail in subsequent chapters. the more traditional instruments are used. The beginning
Electronic measuring devices have largely replaced student must still learn these basic principles before using
traditional instruments in surveying field work. One of the sophisticated modern instruments. In any event, the steel tape,
most advanced of these modern instruments is the electronic the transit, and the level are still used for many construction
recording tacheometer, or total station, as it is also called (see and small-scale surveys. In fact, we shall see later on that the
Figure 1-2a). It comprises an electronic distance measuring steel tape is more accurate than most electronic devices when it
(EDM) device, an electronic theodolite to measure angles, comes to measuring relatively small horizontal distances.
and an automatic data recorder. Many companies provide a With skillful use of surveying instruments and with
“field-to-finish” system (Figure 1-2b), complete with the proficient application of field and office procedures, almost
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1-2. (a) An electronic total-station surveying instrument that can be used to measure
and record distances and angles and compute coordinates. (Courtesy of Leica Geosystems, Inc.)
(b) In a field-to-finish system, data may be stored electronically. The data can be “dumped” into
the office desktop computer for computations and plotting or printing.
Introduction 5
any measurement problem can be solved. Conversely, it is for nuclear research and development, industrial laser
difficult to solve any problem requiring relatively large and equipment, and other sensitive precision instruments for
accurate measurements without resorting to proper survey- manufacturing or research. The precise construction of
ing methods and instruments. rocket-launching equipment and guiding devices is also
dependent on modern surveying.
Importance of Surveying Without surveying procedures, no self-propelled missile
could be built to the accuracy necessary for its operation. Its
Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, guiding devices could not be accurately installed; its launch-
layout, and construction of our physical environment and ing equipment could not be constructed; it could not be
infrastructure. The term infrastructure is commonly used to placed in position or oriented on the pad; and its flight could
represent all the constructed facilities and systems that allow not be measured for test or control. Moreover, its launch
human communities to function and thrive productively. position and the position of its target would be a matter of
Surveying is the link between design and construction. conjecture. Surveying is an integral part of every project of
Roads, bridges, buildings, water supply, sewerage, drainage importance that requires actual construction.
systems, and many other essential public-works projects could
never be built without surveying technology. Figure 1-3 shows
a bird’s-eye view of a typical urban environment that depends
on accurate surveying for its existence. Nearly every detail
1-2 THE SURVEYING METHOD
seen on that photograph was positioned by surveying The earth, of course, is spherical in shape. This fact, which
methods. we take for granted today, was an issue of great debate only a
In addition to its customary applications in construction few hundred years ago. But despite the unquestionable
and land-use projects, surveying is playing an increasingly roundness of the earth, most surveying activities are per-
important role in modern industrial technology. Some formed under the tacit assumption that measurements are
activities that would be nearly impossible without accurate being made with reference to a flat horizontal surface. This
surveying methods include testing and installing accelerators requires some further explanation.
6 CHAPTER ONE
Defining Horizontal and Vertical Directions bob, attached to the end of a string. The direction of gravity
is different at every position on the earth’s surface. As shown
The earth actually has the approximate shape of an oblate in Figure 1-4, the direction of all plumb lines converge at the
spheroid, that is, the solid generated by an ellipse rotated on center of the earth; at no points are the plumb lines actually
its minor axis. Its polar axis of rotation is slightly shorter parallel.
than an axis passing through the equator. But for our pur- The vertical direction is taken to be the direction of gravity.
poses, we can consider the earth to be a perfect sphere with a Therefore, it is incorrect to define vertical as simply “straight
constant diameter. In fact, we can ignore, for the time being, up and down,” as many beginning students tend to do. The
surface irregularities like mountains and valleys. And we can vertical direction varies from point to point on the earth’s
consider that the surface of the sphere is represented by the surface. The only common factor is the direction of gravity.
average level of the ocean, or mean sea level. By definition, the horizontal direction is the direction
By definition, the curved surface of the sphere is termed perpendicular (at an angle of 90°) to the vertical direction of
a level surface. The direction of gravity is perpendicular or gravity. Because the vertical direction varies from point to
normal to this level surface at all points, and gravity is used point, the horizontal direction also does. A horizontal length
as a reference direction for all surveying measurements. The or distance, then, is not really a perfectly straight line. It is
direction of gravity is easily established in the field by a freely curved like the surface of the earth. This is illustrated in
suspended plumb line, which is simply a weight, or plumb Figure 1-5.
Theodolites are generally finer in quality and performance are scanned electronically, and the value of the angle is
(and are more expensive) than transits. displayed digitally.
As shown in Figure 1-9, the horizontal axis of the instru-
ment is perpendicular to a vertical axis, about which it can
rotate. Spirit levels are used to make the vertical axis coincide
Plane and Geodetic Surveying
with the direction of gravity. Modern instruments use an We mentioned in the preceding section that most surveying
electronic leveling system. In older instruments, graduated measurements are carried out as if the surface of the earth
metal circles with verniers or glass circles with micrometers were perfectly flat. In effect, this means that we make our
are used to read the angles. In modern theodolites, the circles measurements as if the lines of force due to gravity were
everywhere parallel to each other, and as if underneath the
irregular ground surface there existed a flat, horizontal refer-
ence plane. This is illustrated in Figure 1-10.
The method of surveying based upon this assumption is
called plane surveying. In plane surveying, we neglect the
curvature of the earth, and we use the principles of plane
geometry and plane trigonometry to compute the results of
our surveys.
The use of plane surveying methods simplifies the work
of the surveyor. And for surveys of limited extent, very little
accuracy is lost. Within a distance of about 12 mi, or 20 km,
the effect of the earth’s curvature on our measurements is so
small that we can hardly measure it. In other words, a hori-
zontal distance measured between two points along a truly
level (or curved) line is, for practical purposes, the same
distance measured along the straight chord connecting the
two points. In fact, over a distance of about 12 mi, the differ-
ence between the length of arc and the chord length is only
about 0.25 in.
This textbook is designed primarily as an introduction
to plane surveying, which, for the reason described previ-
ously, is suitable for surveys extending over distances less
than about 12 mi. But as it turns out, the vast majority of
ordinary private surveys are performed well within these
FIGURE 1-9. Transit essentials. Schematic diagram of an limits. Certain public surveys, however, are conducted by
alidade, which is the upper part of a transit. federal or state agencies and cover large areas or distances.
Introduction 9
Language: Italian
IL TRAMONTO DI UNA
CIVILTÀ
O
VOLUME PRIMO
FIRENZE
FELICE LE MONNIER
EDITORE