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 Network Analysis
and Synthesis

S. K. Bhattacharya
Director (Academics)
Shaheed Udham Singh Engineering College
Mohali, Punjab
India

Manpreet Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
BBBS Engineering College
Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab
India

Delhi • Chennai

A01_NETWORK_ANALYSIS_AND_SYNTHESIS_XXXX_FM.indd 1 12/8/2014 11:15:06 AM

 Copyright © 2015 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128,

formerly known as TutorVista Global Pvt. Ltd, licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the
publisher’s prior written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The pub-
lisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 978-93-325-4285-3
eISBN 978-93-325-4726-1

Head Office: A-8 (A), 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, Sector 62, Noida 201 309, Uttar
Pradesh, India.
Registered Office: Module G4, Ground Floor, Elnet Software City, TS-140, Block 2 & 9,
Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India.
Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060
www.pearson.co.in, Email: companysecretary.india@pearson.com

NETWORK_ANALYSIS_AND_SYNTHESIS_Copyright_Page.indd 1 7/7/2015 9:58:24 AM

 To my mother Late Smti. Shaila Bala Bhattacharya

—S. K. Bhattacharya

To my mother Smti. Paramjeet Kaur

—Manpreet Singh

A01_NETWORK_ANALYSIS_AND_SYNTHESIS_XXXX_FM.indd 3 12/8/2014 11:15:06 AM

Thispageisintentionallyleftblank
 Brief Contents

Preface xvii
About the Authors xxi

1. Basic Concepts 1
2. Kirchhoff’s Laws, Mesh and Nodal Analysis 26
3. Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits 90
4. R–L–C Circuits and Resonance 147
5. Network Theorems and Applications 172
6. Transient Response of Circuits Using
Differential Equations 226
7. Laplace Transform 271
8. Transient Response of Circuits Using
Laplace Transform 320
9. Three-Phase Systems and Circuits 358
10. Network Functions − s-Domain Analysis
of Circuits 408
11. Two-port Network Parameters 460
12. Network Synthesis and Realisability 499
13. Filters and Attenuators 585

Index 709

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Thispageisintentionallyleftblank
 Contents

Preface xvii
About the Authors xxi

1. Basic Concepts 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Voltage, Current and Resistance 2
1.3 Ohm’s Law 2
1.4 Electrical Power and Energy 3
1.5 Series and Parallel Connections of Resistors 3
1.5.1 Series Connection of Resistors 3
1.5.2 Parallel Connection of Resistors 4
1.5.3 Series–Parallel Circuits 5
1.5.4 Ladder Network 5
1.6 Basic Circuit Elements 9
1.6.1 Resistors 9
1.6.2 Inductors—Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance 10
1.6.3 Capacitors 14
1.7 Inductors and Capacitors in DC Circuits 17
1.8 DC Network Terminologies and Circuit Fundamentals 17
1.8.1 Network Terminologies 18
1.8.2 Voltage and Current Sources 19
1.8.3 Source Transformation 21
Review Questions 23
2. Kirchhoff’s Laws, Mesh and Nodal Analysis 26
2.1 Kirchhoff’s Laws 26
2.1.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 26
2.1.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 29
2.2 Mesh Analysis 30
2.3 Nodal Analysis 43
2.4 Super Nodal Analysis 53
2.5 Super Mesh Analysis 54
2.6 Methods of Solving Complex Network Problems 56
2.6.1 Numerical Problems Based on Kirchhoff’s Laws 56

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 viii Contents

2.6.2 Numerical Problems Based on Mesh

and Nodal Analysis 60
Review Questions 82
Multiple Choice Questions 86
Answers 89
3. Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits 90
3.1 AC Voltage Applied Across a Resistor 90
3.2 AC Voltage Applied Across an Inductor 92
3.3 AC Voltage Applied Across a Capacitor 95
3.4 R–L Series Circuit 99
3.5 Apparent Power, Real Power and Reactive Power 101
3.6 Power in R–L Series Circuit 101
3.7 Power Triangle of R–L Series Circuit 102
3.8 R–C Series Circuit 103
3.8.1 Power and Power Triangle of R–C Series Circuit 105
3.9 R–L–C Series Circuit 105
3.10 AC Parallel Circuits 108
3.10.1 Phasor or Vector Method of Solving
Circuit Problems 108
3.10.2 Admittance Method of Solving Circuit Problems 110
3.10.3 Use of Phasor Algebra in Solving Circuit Problem 115
3.11 AC Series–Parallel Circuits 133
Review Questions 139
Multiple Choice Questions 143
Answers 146
4. R–L–C Circuits and Resonance 147
4.1 
R–L–C Series Circuit with Variable Frequency
Input Voltage 147
4.2 Series Resonance 148
4.2.1 Effect of Variation of Frequency on Current and Voltage
Drops 149
4.2.2 Effect of Variation of Frequency on Impedance
and Power Factor 150
4.3 Applications of R–L–C Circuits 151
4.3.1 Band-pass Filter 151
4.3.2 Band-stop Filter 154
4.4 Parallel Resonance 155
4.4.1 Ideal Tank Circuit 155

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 Contents ix

4.4.2 Non-ideal Tank Circuit 156

4.4.3 Resonant Frequency 156
4.5 Parallel Resonant Filters 156
4.5.1 Band-pass Filter 157
4.5.2 Band-stop Filter 157
4.6 Applications of Resonant Circuits 157
4.6.1 Tuned Amplifier 157
4.6.2 Input to Receiver from an Antenna 158
4.6.3 Other Applications 158
4.6.4 Locus Diagram 167
Review Questions 169

5. Network Theorems and Applications 172

5.1 Introduction 172
5.2 Superposition Theorem 173
5.3 Thevenin’s Theorem 174
5.3.1 Procedure for Applying Thevenin’s Theorem 175
5.4 Norton’s Theorem 179
5.5 Millman’s Theorem 181
5.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 182
5.7 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
for Complex Impedance Circuits 185
5.8 Reciprocity Theorem 186
5.9 Tellegen’s Theorem 188
5.10 Compensation Theorem 189
5.11 Star−Delta Transformation 190
5.11.1 Transforming Relations from Delta to Star 190
5.11.2 Transforming Relations from Star to Delta 191
5.12 Numericals on Network Theorems 195
Review Questions 223

6. Transient Response of Circuits

Using Differential Equations 226
6.1 Transient Condition in Networks 226
6.2 Transient Response of R–L Series
Circuits Having DC Excitation 227
6.2.1 Rise of Current Through R–L Series Circuit 227
6.2.2 Time Constant of R–L Series Circuit 230
6.2.3 Decay of Current Through R–L Series Circuit 230

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 x Contents

6.3 Transient Response in R–C Series

Circuits Having DC Excitation 239
6.3.1 Case I: Capacitor is Getting Charged 239
6.3.2 Case II: Discharging of Capacitor 243
6.4 Transient Response of R–L–C Series
Circuits Having DC Excitation 249
6.5 Sinusoidal Response of R–L Circuits 253
6.6 Sinusoidal Response of R–C Circuits 258
6.7 Sinusoidal Response of R–L–C Circuits 262
Review Questions 268
7. Laplace Transform 271
7.1 Concept of Laplace Transform 271
7.2 Laplace Transform of Standard Functions 272
7.3 Laplace Transform Problems Based
on Standard Formula 280
7.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 286
7.4.1 Property 1: First Shifting Property 286
7.4.2 Property 2: Multiplication by t n 287
7.4.3 Property 3: Division by ‘t’ 288
7.4.4 Property 4 290
7.5 Summary of Useful Properties of Laplace Transform 291
7.6 Initial Value Theorem 292
7.7 Final Value Theorem 295
7.8 Inverse Laplace Transform 299
7.9 Convolution Theorem 310
Review Questions 315
Multiple Choice Questions 317
Answers 319
8. Transient Response of Circuits
Using Laplace Transform 320
8.1 Steps to Find Transient Response
Using Laplace Transform 320
8.2 Circuit Elements in the s-Domain 321
8.2.1 Resistor in the s-Domain 321
8.2.2 Inductor in s-Domain 321
8.2.3 Capacitor in s-Domain 321
8.3 DC Response of R–C Series Circuit 322

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 Contents xi

8.4 DC Response of R–L Series Circuit 324

8.5 DC Response of an R–L–C Series Circuit 326
8.6 Sinusoidal Response of R–L Series Circuit 329
8.7 Sinusoidal Response of R–C Series Circuit 333
Review Questions 355
9. Three-Phase Systems and Circuits 358
9.1 Introduction 358
9.2 Advantages of Three-Phase Systems 359
9.3 Generation of Three-Phase Voltages 360
9.3.1 Equation of Three-phase Voltages 360
9.3.2 Balanced Three-phase System 362
9.4 Terms Used in Three-Phase Systems and Circuits 363
9.5 Three-Phase Winding Connections 363
9.5.1 Star Connection 363
9.5.2 Delta Connection 364
9.5.3 Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages
and Currents in a Star-connected System 365
9.5.4 Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages
and Currents in a Delta-connected System 366
9.6 Active and Reactive Power 368
9.7 Comparison Between Star Connection
and Delta Connection 369
9.8 Measurment of Power in Three-Phase Circuits 376
9.8.1 One-wattmeter Method 376
9.8.2 Two-wattmeter Method 377
9.8.3 Three-wattmeter Method 379
9.8.4 Star to delta and Delta to Star Transformation 384
9.9 More Numericals Basesd on Three-Phase
Balanced Load 387
9.10 Method of Solving Problems on Unbalanced Load 397
Review Questions 401
Multiple Choice Questions 405
Answers 407
10. Network Functions − s-Domain Analysis
of Circuits 408
10.1 Introduction 408
10.1.1 Terminals and Ports 408
10.1.2 Concept of Complex Frequency 409

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 xii Contents

10.2 Transformed Impedances in s-Domain 411

10.2.1 Resistance 411
10.2.2 Inductance 412
10.2.3 Capacitance 412
10.3 One-Port Network 413
10.3.1 Driving Point Impedance and Admittance Functions 413
10.4 Two-Port Network 420
10.4.1 Network Functions of a Two-port Network 421
10.5 Transfer Function 422
10.6 Network Function in Generalised Form 423
10.7 Poles and Zeros of Network Functions 424
10.7.1 Poles of a Network Function 424
10.7.2 Zeros of a Network Function 424
10.8 Pole–Zero Diagram 424
10.9 Time-Domain Response from Pole–Zero Plot 427
10.10 More Examples on Network Function 437
10.11 Poles and Zeros of Network Functions
and Their Significance 449
10.12 Stability Criterion for an Active Network 450
10.13 Examples Based on Pole–Zero Plot 452
Review Questions 458
11. Two-port Network Parameters 460
11.1 Introduction 460
11.2 Two-port Network Parameters 461
11.2.1 Open-circuit Impedance-parameters or
Z-parameters 461
11.2.2 Short-circuit Admittance Parameters 462
11.2.3 Relationship Between Impedance
and Admittance Matrix 464
11.2.4 Hybrid or h-parameters 466
11.2.5 Inverse Hybrid or g-parameters 467
11.2.6 Transmission Parameters 468
11.2.7 Inverse Transmission Parameters 469
11.3 Correlation of Two-Port Network Parameters 477
11.3.1 Conversion of Y-parameters to Z-parameters 477
11.3.2 Conversion of A, B, C and D or t-parameters
to h-parameters 478
11.3.3 Conversion of h-parameters to Y-parameters 479
11.4 Two-Port Reciprocal and Symmetrical Networks 479

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 Contents xiii

11.4.1 Reciprocal Two-port Network 479

11.4.2 Symmetrical Two-port Networks 480
11.5 Terminated Two-Port Network 480
11.6 Interconnected Two-Port Network 482
11.7 T-Circuit Representation of Two-Port Network 483
11.8 p -Circuit Representation of Two-Port Network 484
11.9 Image Impedance 484
11.10 More Solved Numericals 485
Review Questions 495
12. Network Synthesis and Realisability 499
12.1 Introduction 499
12.2 Hurwitz Conditions for Stability 500
12.3 Properties of Positive Real Functions 506
12.4 Synthesis of Networks by Foster’s
and Cauer’s Methods 513
12.5 Foster and Cauer Forms 513
12.5.1 Synthesis of R–C Network 513
12.5.2 Properties of the R–C Impedance
or R–L Admittance Function 513
12.5.3 Foster Form-I of R–C Network 513
12.5.4 Foster Form-II of R–C Network 514
12.5.5 Cauer Forms of R–C Network 515
12.5.6 Synthesis of R–L Network 515
12.5.7 Properties of R–L Impedance
Function/R–C Admittance Function 515
12.5.8 Foster Form-I of R–L Network 516
12.5.9 Foster Form-II of R–L Network 516
12.5.10 Cauer Form-I of R–L Network 517
12.5.11 Cauer Form-II R–L Network 517
12.5.12 Synthesis of L–C Networks 517
12.5.13 Properties of L–C Immittance 517
12.5.14 Foster Form-I of L–C Network 517
12.5.15 Foster Form-II of L–C Network 518
12.5.16 Cauer Form-I of L–C Network 518
12.5.17 Cauer Form-II of L–C Network 519
12.6 More Numericals on Synthesis of L–C Network 548
Review Questions 576
Multiple Choice Questions 582
Answers 584

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 xiv Contents

13. Filters and Attenuators 585

13.1 Introduction 585
13.1.1 Measurement in Decibels 587
13.2 Types of Filters 587
13.3 Classification of Passive Filters 588
13.3.1 Low-Pass Filters 588
13.3.2 High-Pass Filters 588
13.3.3 Band-Pass Filters 588
13.3.4 Band-Stop or Band-Elimination Filter 589
13.4 Parameters of a Filter 589
13.4.1 Propagation Constant (g ) 590
13.4.2 Attenuation Constant 590
13.4.3 Phase Shift Constant (b ) 591
13.4.4 Characteristic Impedance (Z0  ) 591
13.5 Filter Networks 591
13.5.1 Formation of Symmetrical T-Network 591
13.5.2 Formation of Symmetrical p-Network 592
13.5.3 Ladder Network 592
13.6 Analysis of Filter Networks 593
13.6.1 Symmetrical T-Network 593
13.6.2 Analysis of p-Network 601
13.6.3 Summary of Parameters of Filter Network 604
13.7 Classification of Filters 604
13.8 Constant K-Type or Prototype Filters 605
13.8.1 Constant K-type Low-Pass Filters (Lpf) 605
13.8.2 Constant K-type High-Pass-Filters (HPF) 615
13.8.3 Comparison of Constant K-Type LPF and HPF 619
13.8.4 Constant K-type Band-Pass Filter 624
13.8.5 Constant K-type Band-Stop/Band-Elimination Filter 637
13.8.6 Comparison of Constant K-type Filters 645
13.8.7 Limitations of Constant K-type Filters 649
13.9 m-Derived Filters 649
13.9.1 m-Derived T-section 650
13.9.2 m-Derived p-section 651
13.9.3 m-Derived Low-Pass Filter 653
13.9.4 Summary of m-Derived Low-Pass Filter 657
13.9.5 m-Derived High-Pass Filter 659
13.9.6 Summary of m-Derived HPF 662
13.9.7 Comparison of m-Derived LPF and HPF 663
13.9.8 m-Derived Band-Pass Filter 665
13.9.9 m-Derived Band-Stop Filter 667

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 Contents xv

13.10 Composite Filters 668

13.10.1 Composite Low-Pass Filter 669
13.10.2 Composite High-Pass Filter 670
13.11 Additional Solved Numericals on Filters 671
13.11.1 Problems on m-Derived Low-pass Filters 671
13.11.2 Problems on m-Derived High-pass Filters 674
13.11.3 Problems on Composite Filters 675
13.12 Attenuators 681
13.12.1 Introduction 681
13.12.2 T-type Attenuator 682
13.12.3 p-type Attenuator 685
13.12.4 Lattice Attenuator 688
13.12.5 Bridged T-type Attenuator 691
13.13 More Solved Problems on Filters and Attenuators 693
Review Questions 702
Multiple Choice Questions 705
Answers 707

Index 709

A01_NETWORK_ANALYSIS_AND_SYNTHESIS_XXXX_FM.indd 15 12/8/2014 11:15:07 AM

Thispageisintentionallyleftblank
 Preface

It is with great pleasure we present you with this comprehensive book, Network Analysis and
Synthesis, which has been developed over a period of time. The content of this book has been
decided on the basis of analysis of the syllabus prescribed by all the leading Indian universities
on the subject of ‘Network Analysis and Synthesis’ or ‘Circuits and Networks’. Although, a
range of books are available on this subject, this book is expected to satisfy the needs of students
of different learning abilities. Presentations of topics have been made so simple that even an
average student will be able to follow this book almost independently.
For each chapter, the objectives have been well-stated so as to guide students in self-
evaluation after studying each chapter. After studying the entire book, it is expected that
students will be able to analyse, design, and synthesise electrical circuits and networks.
Although, the students might be familiar with some basic concepts and principles dealt with
in this book, a review of understanding of these basic concepts will facilitate understanding of
the advanced topics. We believe that basic knowledge of differential and integral calculus is
essential to understand this book.

Pedagogy
1. Defining the Learning Objectives Course Content provides simply an outline of the top-
ics. It is passive and does not convey specifically what is to be learnt. Once the objectives
are stated, the students know what to learn and the teachers also know how to teach and
how to evaluate learning.
  In this book, learning objectives have been stated to help both students and teachers.
2. Delivery of Concepts and Principles All the chapters have been defined by some key
features: simple language, examples to rule, known to unknown, simple to complex and
concrete to abstract. These presentations have been made in an interactive way.
3. Developing Higher Order Intellectual Abilities Ability to recall and reproduce is the
lowest level of intellectual attainment. Emphasis has been given to develop in students the
higher order intellectual abilities including abilities of application, analysis and synthesis
which together may be defined as problem solving ability.
4. Creating Ample Opportunities for Practice A large number of solved examples in each
chapter demonstrate the many ways to solve the problems. This is followed by review
questions which is composed of ample number of exercise problems with answers so that
students can practice and gain confidence. Exercises have been graded from simple to
complex to make learning motivating.

A01_NETWORK_ANALYSIS_AND_SYNTHESIS_XXXX_FM.indd 17 12/8/2014 11:15:07 AM

 xviii Preface

5. Self Feedback in Achieving the Learning Objectives Self feedback provides students the
opportunity to evaluate their learning abilities. For this, a large number of short answer
type and multiple choice type review questions have been provided in each chapter.

Contents and Coverage

This book is divided into 13 chapters. The content and coverage of chapters are as follows:
Chapter 1 reviews the basic concepts related to electrical circuits, series parallel connec-
tions, functions of circuit elements, property of storing energy by inductors and capacitors,
voltage and current sources and source transformation.
Chapter 2 explains applications of Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws in mesh and nodal
analysis of circuits.
Chapter 3 presents steady state analysis of R–L, R–C and R–L–C series and parallel circuits
with plenty of solved numericals.
Chapter 4 establishes the condition for series and parallel resonance. The chapter also deals
with the significance of bandwidth and quality factor. Also explains how series and parallel
resonant circuits are used in the field of electronics.
Chapter 5 defines and explains the network theorems like Superposition theorem, Thevenin’s
theorem, Millman’s theorem, Maximum Power transfer theorem, etc. The chapter solves a large
number of complex network problems using network theorems. Also shows methods of simpli-
fying networks using star-delta transformation technique.
Chapter 6 explains the transient condition that may occur in electrical networks. The chapter
derives expressions for current and voltage under transient condition in R–L, R–C and R–L–C
series circuits. It also carries out transient analysis of R–L, R–C, and R–L–C series circuits with
sinusoidal inputs.
Chapter 7 provides explanation of Laplace transform and its application in solving circuit
problems.
Chapter 8 lists the steps to find transient response of electrical networks using Laplace trans-
form. Determines transient response of electrical circuits by Laplace transform method.
Chapter 9 explains three-phase balanced and unbalanced systems. The chapter shows how to
calculate power and power factor of balanced three-phase loads. It solves numerical problems
related to balanced and unbalanced star and delta connected loads.
Chapter 10 explains the concept of complex frequency. The chapter shows how to convert
circuit parameters from time domain to s-domain. The chapter explains the method of find-
ing transfer function of electrical networks. It also explains the concept of zeros and poles
of a transfer function. Shows how to write the characteristic equation and then apply Routh’s
­stability criterion.
Chapter 11 defines the two-port network parameters and shows how to represent them in the
form of matrix equation. Calculates Z-parameters and Y-parameters. Defines A, B, C, D trans-
mission parameters. The chapter also shows how to calculate A, B, C, D parameters of a given
networks. Also calculates Z-parameters and Y-parameters of interconnected two-port networks.

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 Preface xix

Chapter 12 explains the concept of network Synthesis. The chapter shows how to synthesize
networks by Foster and Cauer methods.
Chapter 13 explains the basic function of a filter circuit. Draws and explains basic filter
networks in different sections. The chapter shows method of analysis of K-type and m-derived
filters. Composite filters using constant K-type and m-derived filters have also been discussed
in this chapter.

Acknowledgements
This work is the outcome of years of experience in teaching ‘Network Analysis and Synthesis’
and other related subjects to the students of electrical and electronics engineering. We would
like to thank all those who provided feedback in the form of their learning difficulties when we
were teaching the subject. Thanks are also due to the faculty of various engineering colleges/
universities, for reviewing the manuscript and giving valuable suggestions.
We appreciate the excellent editorial work done by the team members of Pearson Education.
Lastly, we would like to convey our special thanks to Mrs Sumita Bhattacharya and
Mrs Shivdeep Kaur for their patience and encouragement which helped us to complete this
big task.

S. K. Bhattacharya
Manpreet Singh

A01_NETWORK_ANALYSIS_AND_SYNTHESIS_XXXX_FM.indd 19 12/8/2014 11:15:07 AM

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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The city
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: The city

Author: Robert Ezra Park

E. W. Burgess
Roderick Duncan McKenzie

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Release date: March 29, 2024 [eBook #73285]

Language: English

Original publication: Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,

1925

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 THE CITY

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY

NEW YORK

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LIMITED

TORONTO

THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY

SHANGHAI
 THE CITY

BY
ROBERT E. PARK
ERNEST W. BURGESS
RODERICK D. McKENZIE
WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY BY
LOUIS WIRTH

THE
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO·ILLINOIS
 Copyright 1925 By
The University of Chicago

All Rights Reserved

Published December 1925

Composed and Printed By

The University of Chicago Press
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
 PREFACE

Some years ago I was asked to outline a program of studies of

human nature and social life under modern city conditions. The first
paper in this volume was written in response to that request. The
other chapters are by-products of the more detailed monographic
studies suggested in that paper and already measurably carried to
completion. They have arisen naturally as a commentary upon and
interpretation of these larger studies, exploring and delimiting the
field of observation and research in which these subjects lie. It has
seemed, therefore, that although they were written at different times
and by different hands, they might serve as a general introduction to
further studies in the field. Some of the larger monographs referred
to above are nearly ready for the press and when published will
constitute, with this volume, a series in the sociology of urban life.
Most of the papers in this volume have already found their way
into print, in whole or in part, either in the Proceedings of the
American Sociological Society or in the pages of other sociological
publications.
The chapter “The City,” which gives the title to this volume, was
first published in the American Journal of Sociology for March,
1915. It has been revised and to some extent rewritten for publication
in this volume. No attempt has been made, however, to redefine the
point of view or the project as originally outlined.
The chapter “The Growth of the City” was presented first as a
paper at the meeting of the Sociological Society in Washington, in
1923. It was subsequently printed in the Proceedings of the Society
for that year. It is intended to sketch a point of view for the study of
the expansion of the urban area and the growth of the urban
community, particularly as they are related to the recognized
problems, communal and personal, of the city.
 Professor McKenzie’s paper, “The Ecological Approach to the
Study of the Human Community,” was first published in the
American Journal of Sociology for November, 1925. It is intended to
emphasize the fact that the conceptions and methods of study of
plant and animal ecology may be profitably applied to the analysis
and description of certain aspects of human society. These three
papers, with the classified bibliography by Louis Wirth, represent
whatever is novel in the point of view and the methods of study of the
urban community, to which this volume is intended as an
introduction.
Certain of the remaining chapters, including the paper “The
Natural History of the Newspaper,” first published in the American
Journal of Sociology, November, 1923; the paper “Magic, Mentality,
and City Life,” presented at the annual meeting of the American
Sociological Society, in Washington, D.C., December, 1923; and the
brief paper on the “Mind of the Hobo,” first printed under the title
“The Mind of the Rover,” in the World Tomorrow, September, 1923,
will no doubt seem rather remote from the theme of this volume. The
justification for including them here is that they suggest lines of
observation in a field that students are just now beginning to explore.
It seems evident that there is a very definite relation between human
intelligence and community organization. Although no specific
studies have been made in this field, they should be included, at least
prospectively, in the list of problems for further study.
The substance of the chapter “Community Organization and
Juvenile Delinquency” was presented at the annual meeting of the
Recreation Congress, in Springfield, Illinois, October 8–12, 1923, but
has not been previously published. The paper “Community
Organization and the Romantic Temper” was read at the meeting of
the American Sociological Society in Washington, D.C., in 1923, in
the section on Community Organization. It was published in the
Journal of Social Forces, May, 1925.
Professor Burgess’ paper, “Can Neighborhood Work Have a
Scientific Basis?” was presented at the annual meeting of the
National Conference of Social Work, in Toronto, May 1924. An
abstract of this paper was published in the Proceedings of the
conference for that year.
 In conclusion, the authors wish to take this occasion to
acknowledge their indebtedness to the publishers for using here the
papers in the journals mentioned.

Robert E. Park

University of Chicago
November 2, 1925
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of
Human Behavior in the Urban Environment. Robert
E. Park 1
II. The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a
Research Project. Ernest W. Burgess 47
III. The Ecological Approach to the Study of the Human
Community. R. D. McKenzie 63
IV. The Natural History of the Newspaper. Robert E.
Park 80
V. Community Organization and Juvenile Delinquency.
Robert E. Park 99
VI. Community Organization and the Romantic Temper.
Robert E. Park 113
VII. Magic, Mentality, and City Life. Robert E. Park 123
VIII. Can Neighborhood Work Have a Scientific Basis?
Ernest W. Burgess 142
IX. The Mind of the Hobo: Reflections upon the
Relation between Mentality and Locomotion. Robert
E. Park 156
X. A Bibliography of the Urban Community. Louis Wirth 161
Indexes 229
 CHAPTER I
THE CITY: SUGGESTIONS FOR THE
INVESTIGATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN
THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

The city, from the point of view of this paper, is something more
than a congeries of individual men and of social conveniences—
streets, buildings, electric lights, tramways, and telephones, etc.;
something more, also, than a mere constellation of institutions and
administrative devices—courts, hospitals, schools, police, and civil
functionaries of various sorts. The city is, rather, a state of mind, a
body of customs and traditions, and of the organized attitudes and
sentiments that inhere in these customs and are transmitted with
this tradition. The city is not, in other words, merely a physical
mechanism and an artificial construction. It is involved in the vital
processes of the people who compose it; it is a product of nature, and
particularly of human nature.
The city has, as Oswald Spengler has recently pointed out, its
own culture: “What his house is to the peasant, the city is to civilized
man. As the house has its household gods, so has the city its
protecting Deity, its local saint. The city also, like the peasant’s hut,
has its roots in the soil.”[1]
The city has been studied, in recent times, from the point of view
of its geography, and still more recently from the point of view of its
ecology. There are forces at work within the limits of the urban
community—within the limits of any natural area of human
habitation, in fact—which tend to bring about an orderly and typical
grouping of its population and institutions. The science which seeks
to isolate these factors and to describe the typical constellations of
persons and institutions which the co-operation of these forces
produce, is what we call human, as distinguished from plant and
animal, ecology.
Transportation and communication, tramways and telephones,
newspapers and advertising, steel construction and elevators—all
things, in fact, which tend to bring about at once a greater mobility
and a greater concentration of the urban populations—are primary
factors in the ecological organization of the city.
The city is not, however, merely a geographical and ecological
unit; it is at the same time an economic unit. The economic
organization of the city is based on the division of labor. The
multiplication of occupations and professions within the limits of the
urban population is one of the most striking and least understood
aspects of modern city life. From this point of view, we may, if we
choose, think of the city, that is to say, the place and the people, with
all the machinery and administrative devices that go with them, as
organically related; a kind of psychophysical mechanism in and
through which private and political interests find not merely a
collective but a corporate expression.
Much of what we ordinarily regard as the city—its charters,
formal organization, buildings, street railways, and so forth—is, or
seems to be, mere artifact. But these things in themselves are
utilities, adventitious devices which become part of the living city
only when, and in so far as, through use and wont they connect
themselves, like a tool in the hand of man, with the vital forces
resident in individuals and in the community.
The city is, finally, the natural habitat of civilized man. It is for
that reason a cultural area characterized by its own peculiar cultural
type:
“It is a quite certain, but never fully recognized, fact,” says
Spengler, “that all great cultures are city-born. The outstanding man
of the second generation is a city-building animal. This is the actual
criterion of world-history, as distinguished from the history of
mankind: world-history is the history of city men. Nations,
governments, politics, and religions—all rest on the basic
phenomenon of human existence, the city.”[2]
Anthropology, the science of man, has been mainly concerned
up to the present with the study of primitive peoples. But civilized
man is quite as interesting an object of investigation, and at the same
time his life is more open to observation and study. Urban life and
culture are more varied, subtle, and complicated, but the
fundamental motives are in both instances the same. The same
patient methods of observation which anthropologists like Boas and
Lowie have expended on the study of the life and manners of the
North American Indian might be even more fruitfully employed in
the investigation of the customs, beliefs, social practices, and general
conceptions of life prevalent in Little Italy on the lower North Side in
Chicago, or in recording the more sophisticated folkways of the
inhabitants of Greenwich Village and the neighborhood of
Washington Square, New York.
We are mainly indebted to writers of fiction for our more
intimate knowledge of contemporary urban life. But the life of our
cities demands a more searching and disinterested study than even
Émile Zola has given us in his “experimental” novels and the annals
of the Rougon-Macquart family.
We need such studies, if for no other reason than to enable us to
read the newspapers intelligently. The reason that the daily chronicle
of the newspaper is so shocking, and at the same time so fascinating,
to the average reader is because the average reader knows so little
about the life of which the newspaper is the record.
The observations which follow are intended to define a point of
view and to indicate a program for the study of urban life: its
physical organization, its occupations, and its culture.
 I. THE CITY PLAN AND LOCAL
ORGANIZATION
The city, particularly the modern American city, strikes one at
first blush as so little a product of the artless processes of nature and
growth, that it is difficult to recognize it as a living entity. The ground
plan of most American cities, for example, is a checkerboard. The
unit of distance is the block. This geometrical form suggests that the
city is a purely artificial construction which might conceivably be
taken apart and put together again, like a house of blocks.
The fact is, however, that the city is rooted in the habits and
customs of the people who inhabit it. The consequence is that the city
possesses a moral as well as a physical organization, and these two
mutually interact in characteristic ways to mold and modify one
another. It is the structure of the city which first impresses us by its
visible vastness and complexity. But this structure has its basis,
nevertheless, in human nature, of which it is an expression. On the
other hand, this vast organization which has arisen in response to the
needs of its inhabitants, once formed, imposes itself upon them as a
crude external fact, and forms them, in turn, in accordance with the
design and interests which it incorporates. Structure and tradition
are but different aspects of a single cultural complex which
determines what is characteristic and peculiar to city, as
distinguished from village, life and the life of the open fields.
The city plan.—It is because the city has a life quite its own that
there is a limit to the arbitrary modifications which it is possible to
make (1) in its physical structure and (2) in its moral order.
The city plan, for example, establishes metes and bounds, fixes
in a general way the location and character of the city’s
constructions, and imposes an orderly arrangement, within the city
area, upon the buildings which are erected by private initiative as
well as by public authority. Within the limitations prescribed,
however, the inevitable processes of human nature proceed to give
these regions and these buildings a character which it is less easy to
control. Under our system of individual ownership, for instance, it is
not possible to determine in advance the extent of concentration of
population which is likely to occur in any given area. The city cannot
fix land values, and we leave to private enterprise, for the most part,
the task of determining the city’s limits and the location of its
residential and industrial districts. Personal tastes and convenience,
vocational and economic interests, infallibly tend to segregate and
thus to classify the populations of great cities. In this way the city
acquires an organization and distribution of population which is
neither designed nor controlled.
The Bell Telephone Company is now making, particularly in
New York and Chicago, elaborate investigations, the purpose of
which is to determine, in advance of its actual changes, the probable
growth and distribution of the urban population within the
metropolitan areas. The Sage Foundation, in the course of its city-
planning studies, sought to find mathematical formulae that would
enable them to predict future expansion and limits of population in
New York City. The recent development of chain stores has made the
problem of location a matter of concern to different chain-store
corporations. The result has been the rise of a new profession.
There is now a class of experts whose sole occupation is to
discover and locate, with something like scientific accuracy, taking
account of the changes which present tendencies seem likely to bring
about, restaurants, cigar stores, drug-stores, and other smaller retail
business units whose success depends largely on location. Real-
estate men are not infrequently willing to finance a local business of
this sort in locations which they believe will be profitable, accepting
as their rent a percentage of the profits.
Physical geography, natural advantages and disadvantages,
including means of transportation, determine in advance the general
outlines of the urban plan. As the city increases in population, the
subtler influences of sympathy, rivalry, and economic necessity tend
to control the distribution of population. Business and industry seek
advantageous locations and draw around them certain portions of
the population. There spring up fashionable residence quarters from
which the poorer classes are excluded because of the increased value
of the land. Then there grow up slums which are inhabited by great
numbers of the poorer classes who are unable to defend themselves
from association with the derelict and vicious.
In the course of time every section and quarter of the city takes
on something of the character and qualities of its inhabitants. Each
separate part of the city is inevitably stained with the peculiar
sentiments of its population. The effect of this is to convert what was
at first a mere geographical expression into a neighborhood, that is
to say, a locality with sentiments, traditions, and a history of its own.
Within this neighborhood the continuity of the historical processes is
somehow maintained. The past imposes itself upon the present, and
the life of every locality moves on with a certain momentum of its
own, more or less independent of the larger circle of life and interests
about it.
The organization of the city, the character of the urban
environment and of the discipline which it imposes is finally
determined by the size of the population, its concentration and
distribution within the city area. For this reason it is important to
study the growth of cities, to compare the idiosyncrasies in the
distribution of city populations. Some of the first things we want to
know about the city, therefore are:

What are the sources of the city’s population?

What part of its population growth is normal, i.e., due to excess of births over
deaths?
What part is due to migration (a) of native stocks? (b) foreign stocks?
What are the outstanding “natural” areas, i.e., areas of population
segregation?
How is distribution of population within the city area affected by (a) economic
interest, i.e., land values? (b) by sentimental interest, race? vocation, etc.?
Where within the city is the population declining? Where is it expanding?
Where are population growth and the size of families within the different
natural areas of the city correlated with births and deaths, with marriages and
divorces, with house rents and standards of living?

The neighborhood.—Proximity and neighborly contact are the

basis for the simplest and most elementary form of association with
which we have to do in the organization of city life. Local interests
and associations breed local sentiment, and, under a system which
makes residence the basis for participation in the government, the
neighborhood becomes the basis of political control. In the social and
political organization of the city it is the smallest local unit.
 It is surely one of the most remarkable of all social facts that, coming down
from untold ages, there should be this instinctive understanding that the man who
establishes his home beside yours begins to have a claim upon your sense of
comradeship.... The neighborhood is a social unit which, by its clear definition of
outline, its inner organic completeness, its hair-trigger reactions, may be fairly
considered as functioning like a social mind.... The local boss, however autocratic
he may be in the larger sphere of the city with the power he gets from the
neighborhood, must always be in and of the people; and he is very careful not to try
to deceive the local people so far as their local interests are concerned. It is hard to
fool a neighborhood about its own affairs.[3]

The neighborhood exists without formal organization. The local

improvement society is a structure erected on the basis of the
spontaneous neighborhood organization and exists for the purpose
of giving expression to the local sentiment in regard to matters of
local interest.
Under the complex influences of the city life, what may be called
the normal neighborhood sentiment has undergone many curious
and interesting changes, and produced many unusual types of local
communities. More than that, there are nascent neighborhoods and
neighborhoods in process of dissolution. Consider, for example, Fifth
Avenue, New York, which probably never had an improvement
association, and compare with it 135th Street in the Bronx (where the
Negro population is probably more concentrated than in any other
single spot in the world), which is rapidly becoming a very intimate
and highly organized community.

In the history of New York the significance of the name Harlem has changed
from Dutch to Irish to Jewish to Negro. Of these changes the last has come most
swiftly. Throughout colored America, from Massachusetts to Mississippi and
across the continent to Los Angeles and Seattle, its name, which as late as fifteen
years ago has scarcely been heard, now stands for the Negro metropolis. Harlem is,
indeed, the great Mecca for the sight-seer, the pleasure-seeker, the curious, the
adventurous, the enterprising, the ambitious, and the talented of the Negro world;
for the lure of it has reached down to every island of the Carib Sea and has
penetrated even into Africa.[4]

It is important to know what are the forces which tend to break

up the tensions, interests, and sentiments which give neighborhoods
their individual character. In general these may be said to be
anything and everything that tends to render the population
unstable, to divide and concentrate attentions upon widely separated
objects of interest.
What part of the population is floating?
Of what elements, i.e., races, classes, etc., is this population composed?
How many people live in hotels, apartments, and tenements?
How many people own their own homes?
What proportion of the population consists of nomads, hobos, gypsies?

On the other hand, certain urban neighborhoods suffer from

isolation. Efforts have been made at different times to reconstruct
and quicken the life of city neighborhoods and to bring them in touch
with the larger interests of the community. Such is, in part, the
purpose of the social settlements. These organizations and others
which are attempting to reconstruct city life have developed certain
methods and a technique for stimulating and controlling local
communities. We should study, in connection with the investigation
of these agencies, these methods and this technique, since it is just
the method by which objects are practically controlled that reveals
their essential nature, that is to say, their predictable character
(Gesetzmässigkeit).[5]
In many of the European cities, and to some extent in this
country, reconstruction of city life has gone to the length of building
garden suburbs, or replacing unhealthful and run-down tenements
with model buildings owned and controlled by the municipality.
In American cities the attempt has been made to renovate evil
neighborhoods by the construction of playgrounds and the
introduction of supervised sports of various kinds, including
municipal dances in municipal dance halls. These and other devices
which are intended primarily to elevate the moral tone of the
segregated populations of great cities should be studied in
connection with the investigation of the neighborhood in general.
They should be studied, in short, not merely for their own sake, but
for what they can reveal to us of human behavior and human nature
generally.
Colonies and segregated areas.—In the city environment the
neighborhood tends to lose much of the significance which it