Artificial Neural Network-Based Methodology

for Optimization of Low-Cost Green UHPFRC

Under Ductility Requirements

Joaquín Abellán-García(B)

Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia

jabellan@uninorte.edu.co

Abstract. Several constructions in earthquake-prone areas in developing coun-

tries do not meet current seismic codes, mainly because of the rampant infor-
mal construction. These circumstances require effective seismic retrofitting inter-
ventions through solutions of an acceptable cost that allow the most extensive
application possible. This research focuses on developing a low-cost, low-carbon-
footprint material with the required ductility parameters for seismic retrofitting
applications. First, a plain UHPC is optimized under compressive strength, cost,
and carbon footprint criteria. After that, the second stage of this study determines
the binary combination of fibers, among those available in the Colombian market,
that permit reaching the necessary ductility parameters for the desired applica-
tion at a lower cost. The ductility parameters considered are the energy capacity
absorption (g) and the strain capacity at maximum tensile strength (ε pc ) measured
in the direct tensile test. Various statistical and computational tools such as Artifi-
cial Neural Networks, Design of Experiments, and Multi-Objective Optimization
were utilized to lesser the experimental campaign. The mathematically optimized
dosage was experimentally evaluated. Finally, the optimal fiber volume fraction
for the necessary UHPFRC ductility parameters for seismic strengthening appli-
cations (g ≥ 50 kJ/m3 and εpc ≥ 0.3%) was selected at only 1.7%. This optimal
fiber combination was composed of 0.34% of smooth high-strength steel (l f /d f
= 65) fibers, and 1.36% of normal strength hooked end steel fibers (l f /d f = 80).
It is relevant to highlight that this optimized UHPFRC outperforms the ductility
parameters obtained by other authors with successful applications in the seismic
strengthening field.

Keywords: UHPFRC · ANN · Design of Experiments · Multi-objective

optimization · Experimental validation · Direct tensile behavior

1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation

Seismic retrofitting existing structures requests practical, inexpensive, and feasible

strategies with a high dependence on the different motivations [1]. E.g., the seismic

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

P. Rossi and J.-L. Tailhan (Eds.): SSCS 2022, RILEM Bookseries 38, pp. 1–11, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07746-3_1
2 J. Abellán-García

hazard map is constantly transforming and evolving, prompting the considered maxi-
mum ground acceleration, as defined by seismic regulations currently in force today, to
be more demanding than those suggested in the past [1]. Furthermore, many hypotheses
of modern seismic design codes as ultimate limit states and capacity design principles
were unknown when most structures were originally built [2]. The seismic retrofitting
requirement can also be ascribed to the increased importance of a given structure, thereby
leading to elevated seismic demand [1].
Colombia, where this research took place, sits at the complex junction of the
Caribbean Plate, the Cocos Plate, and the Nazca plate [3]. Thus, as per the National
Statistics, an estimated 90% of the population lives under high or moderate seismic haz-
ards [4, 5]. Besides, since 1984 Colombia has had regulations for earthquake-resistant
constructions [4, 5]. Thus, buildings constructed before that date have a good chance of
being considered vulnerable. The same goes for informal construction [3].

1.2 UHPFRC

Definition. Ultra-high-performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) refers to high-

tech fiber-reinforced cementitious composites [6–8], which are excellent mechanical and
durable compared to other concrete classes. Their properties can be attributed to their
low porosity cementitious matrix [3, 8]. ACI 239 [9] defines UHPFRC as a class of
advanced cementitious material with a minimum compressive strength of 150 MPa and
with specified tensile ductility requirements, for which fibers are generally added.

Ductility Parameters of UHPFRC. The ductility of UHPFRC is usually measured by

the direct tensile test [10–13]. Regarding direct tensile tests behavior, UHPFRC can be
classified as strain-softening or strain-hardening [14, 15]. The fibers’ bridging effect
significantly affects performance in the hardening and softening domain [16]. Per Naa-
man [17], strain hardening happens as the output of the maximum post-cracking tensile
strength, σ pc , exceeding the cracking tensile strength, σ cc . Figure 1 shows the three
phases of a strain-hardening UHPFRC strain stress curve under uniaxial loading [13,
14]. Zone I shows elastic behavior up to cracking strength σ cc and its associated strain
εcc . Thereafter, the material enters its strain hardening behavior, i.e., Zone II. Here the
multiple-cracking pattern develops, and the energy absorption capacity g can be com-
puted as the area under the stress-strain curve up to σ pc [10, 13, 18]. Finally, Zone III is
characterized by the fiber slip until the pullout.

Seismic Retrofitting Applications of UHPFRC. A set of particular traits, such as duc-

tility, durability, and ease of application, make UHPFRC particularly attractive for
retrofitting non-ductile concrete structures [16]. Furthermore, several authors have
demonstrated that, with a slight surface treatment of the structure to be repaired,
UHPFRC can create a high bond strength with the old concrete [16, 19, 20]. The jacket-
ing system is maybe the most successful technology used [11, 21]. Table 1 summarizes
the ductility of UHPFRC´s parameters reported in successful cases of seismic retrofitting
applications.
 Artificial Neural Network-Based Methodology 3

Fig. 1. Idealized strain hardening UHPFRC behavior under direct tensile test.

Table 1. Ductility properties of UHPFRC successfully applied in seismic retrofitting of reinforced

concrete structures.

V fT (%) g (kJ/m3 ) εpc (%) Reference

3% – 0.2 [19]
3% 30 0.2 [11]
2% 30 0.3 [21]

Objectives and Organization. This research applies Artificial Neural Networks

(ANN) models to design a high-energy absorbent UHPFRC at a lower cost for its appli-
cation as a material for seismic retrofitting of non-ductile structures. The study focuses
on raw materials, including cement, supplementary cementitious materials, aggregates,
superplasticizers, and fibers, locally available in the Colombian market. Furthermore,
different by-products of the local industry were considered for the UHPC composition.
Regarding the fibers to be incorporated for creating a UHPFRC with the proper ductility,
a broad spectrum of fibers were considered. The end objective focuses on the experimen-
tal validation of the ANN optimized UHPFRC. The threshold values of ductility (i.e., g
≥ 50 kJ/m3 and εpc ≥ 0.3%) to be used as seismic retrofitting material were established
in [22, 23]. It is important to note that these ductility requirements are more restrictive
than those presented in Table 1. Therefore, it is to be assumed that the material optimized
with these requirements can be used as a seismic reinforcement material.
The research herein presented is developed in two phases. First, the UHPC without
fibers is optimized, selecting the components under the criteria of minimum cement
content and a silica fume content limited to 100 kg/m3 while reaching resistance at
28 days equal to or greater than 150 MPa. Second, the dosage of fibers is optimized for
achieving the threshold ductility parameters at a lower cost. Computational tools such
as DoE, ANN, RSM, and multi-objective optimization are used to reduce the number of
trials needed.
4 J. Abellán-García

2 Methodology
For the algorithmic methodologies, R statistical language was utilized.

2.1 Artificial Neural Networks

ANN applications have spread in the last decades due to their remarkable ability to
reproduce non-linear and unknown relationships between input and output data pairs
[24, 25], thereby demonstrating their ability in complex engineering issues [24–26]. In
this research, three ANN models were developed as part of a pre-selecting of components
procedure aiming to reduce the experimental campaign. The first ANN model goal is
to predict the compressive strength of UHPC, considering supplementary cementitious
materials (SCM). The model was trained with 927 data from experiments and literature
resources. The regression ANN model and the regression plot are put forward in Fig. 2.
For further information about this model, input variables, and the database utilized,
references [25, 27] can be consulted. Two more ANN models were created to predict the
energy absorption capacity (g) and maximum post-cracking strain (εpc ), using 600 data
from experiments and literature resources. Figure 3 presents these models. Interested
readers are encouraged to review the following references for a detailed explanation [22,
23, 28].

Fig. 2. ANN model for compressive strength of UHPC and its regression plot.

2.2 Multi-objective Optimization

A multi-objective algorithm based on the desirabilities approach presented by Der-

ringer & Suich [29] was employed for the UHPC and UHPFRC optimizations.
 Artificial Neural Network-Based Methodology 5

2.3 Design of Experiments (DoE)

To “land” the dosages indicated by the ANN models, DoE was utilized. With DoE, the
number of tests is kept as low as possible, and the most informative combination of the
factors is selected. Therefore, DoE is an effective and economical solution [6, 30, 31].

Fig. 3. ANN models for predicting the energy capacity absorption (up) and maximum post-
cracking strain (down) of UHPFRC under direct tensile loading.

2.4 Materials and Experimental Procedures

The materials used to develop the UHPC were locally available in Colombia. Cement (C),
silica fume (SF), and silica sand (SS) were employed, along with locally available fly ash
(FA), ground granulated blast slag furnace (GGBFS), electric arc slag furnace (EASF),
recycled glass powder (RGP), recycled glass flour (RGF), rice husk ash (RHA), fluid
catalytic cracking residue (FC3R), metakaolin (MK), two sizes of limestone powder
(MLP and LP), and quartz powder (QP). Table 2 presents the physical and chemical
properties of these components. Reference [23] can be consulted for further information
about these components.
For its part, the detailed information of the fibers used in this research is depicted in
Table 3.
The blending procedure, casting, and curing conditions are explained in references
[32, 33] for plain UHPC, while references [22, 28] can be consulted for UHPFRC.
6 J. Abellán-García

Compressive strength tests were performed according to ASTM C109 [34], while
direct tensile trials followed the recommendation of the JSCE-08 [35].

Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of the components considered for the UHPC matrix.

C SF FA GGBFS EASF GP GF RHA FC3R MK LP MLP QP SS

Specific 3.15 2.20 2.32 2.95 3.15 2.55 2.55 2.16 2.76 2.66 2.73 2.73 2.65 2.65
gravity

Loss of 2.58 0.60 12.54 0.00 4.67 0.80 1.00 4.82 10.61 2.21 42.41 42.21 0.19 0.20
ignition, %

SiO2 , % 19.42 92.29 50.09 36.93 21.70 75.47 72.89 88.59 39.61 52.17 0.90 0.90 95.80 99.80

Al2 O3 , % 4.00 0.59 22.26 16.45 6.20 1.09 1.67 0.31 42.47 39.11 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.14

CaO, % 64.42 3.89 2.19 33.78 33.13 9.02 9.73 0.74 2.85 0.78 55.51 55.71 0.38 0.17

MgO, % 1.52 0.26 0.53 3.91 10.60 1.97 2.08 0.66 0.07 0.19 0.70 0.70 0.20 0.01

SO3 , % 1.93 0.07 0.03 2.51 1.14 0.00 0.01 0.26 0.62 0.22 0.10 0.10 0.52 -

Na2 O, % 0.19 0.31 0.31 0.39 0.15 11.65 12.54 0.26 0.61 0.24 0.03 0.03 0.25 -

K2 O, % 0.39 0.54 0.99 0.40 0.03 0.75 0.76 2.46 0.06 0.20 0.01 0.00 3.49 0.05

TiO2 , % 0.38 0.01 1.05 0.57 0.42 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.67 1.48 0.00 0.00 0.25 -

Mn3 O4 , % 0.05 0.01 0.01 3.41 1.98 0.01 0.01 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 -

Fe2 O3 , % 3.61 0.24 9.33 1.24 18.92 0.79 0.81 0.29 0.69 1.07 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.04

Cost, 340 1,700 80 90 65 160 80 1,200 60 800 100 350 1,600 160
COP/kg
* COP: Colombian pesos

Table 3. Notation, properties, and cost of the fibers used in this investigation.

Notation Form d f (mm) l f (mm) d f /l f Material Tensile Cost

strength (COP/kg)
(MPa)
S1 Straight 0.20 13 65 Steel ≈ 2600 11,000
S2 Straight 0.20 6 30 Steel ≈ 2600 10,500
H1 Hooked 0.50 35 70 Steel ≈ 2000 9,000
H2 Hooked 0.75 60 80 Steel ≈ 1600 4,855
T Twisted 0.50 13 26 Steel ≈ 1700 7,500
PP Straight 0.72 48 75 Polypropylene ≈ 650 30,000
PE Straight 0.67 50 67 Polyethylene ≈ 550 27,000
PVA Straight 0.025 6 240 Polyvinyl ≈ 1600 35,000
alcohol
 Artificial Neural Network-Based Methodology 7

3 Results
3.1 UHPC Cementitious Matrix

Before continuing, it is essential to name two limitations of the procedure: (i) the ANN
models only work correctly if the components with which it has been trained have similar
quality as those whose response we want to predict. This way, FA considered in the
database for training the models had an LOI valuer under 5% [36]. However, FA available
in the Colombian market has an LOI value of over 12% [37]. Therefore, even though
the ANN models pointed out FA-dosage (DoE01) as the most suitable for fulfilling the
requirements, DoE03 experimentally demonstrated to be the proper one; (ii) the ANN
models could not model the cement-superplasticizer. Therefore, a superplasticizer was
experimentally selected for each dosage. Table 4 presents the experimental results of the
optimization of the UHPC dosages.

Table 4. Results of the experimental optimization of the UHPC cementitious matrix

DoE Components Cement (kg/m3 ) Model R28 Experimental Cost/m3

(MPa) R28 (MPa)
DoE01 C, SF, MLP, FA, 711 151 148 890
SS
DoE02 C, SF, RGF, RGP, 603 155 152 809
MLP, SS
DoE03 C, SF, RGF, MLP, 590 157 156 806
SS
DoE04 C, SF, RGP, MLP, 615 155 154 995
RHA, SS
DoE05 C, SF, GGBSF, 674 154 157 841
RGF, SS
DoE06 C, SF, RGP, MLP, 613 153 149 964
MK, SS
DoE07 C, SF, RGP, MLP, 654 153 150 901
FC3R, SS
DoE08 C, SF, RGF, MLP, 621 158 156 848
EASF, SS
DoE09 C, SF, LP, MLP, 651 155 153 900
EASF, SS
DoE10 C, SF, LP, MLP, 655 154 150 877
SS
8 J. Abellán-García

3.2 UHPFRC

After the described procedure, the optimal fiber combination was composed of 0.34%
of S1 fibers and 1.36% of H2 fibers. Table 5 puts forward the ductility parameters exper-
imentally obtained of the combination of fibers indicated by the algorithmic procedure.
Figure 4 presents the tensile loading test set-up and the strain stress response of the
optimized UHPFRC under direct tensile loading.

Fig. 4. Direct tensile test set-up and strain-stress behavior of the optimized UHPFRC.

Table 5. Ductility parameters of the optimized UHPFRC

g (kJ/m3 ) ADR (%) εpc (%) ADR (%)

Experimental ANN Experimental ANN
45.177 50.448 11.667 0.458 0.424 7.424

4 Conclusions

The research work developed an innovative study of optimization UHPFRC for seismic
retrofitting applications using an experimental and analytical procedure based on the
design of experiments, multi-objective simultaneous optimization, and artificial neural
networks. This research demonstrated that it is possible to achieve a UHPFRC with the
necessary ductility for seismic retrofitting applications when using a low-cost fiber cock-
tail and an optimized cementitious matrix under sustainability criteria by incorporating
sustainable materials in partial replacement of cement and silica fume.
 Artificial Neural Network-Based Methodology 9

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