A Relational Moral Theory: African

Ethics in and beyond the Continent

Thaddeus Metz
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A Relational Moral Theory
 A Relational Moral Theory
African Ethics in and beyond the Continent

THADDEUS METZ
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
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 Preface

Although this book is about ethical theory of a sort that is intended to be of

interest to a philosopher working in any major tradition, it owes much to
my having come to live in an African country and becoming acquainted
with indigenous sub-Saharan worldviews and ways of life. It unnerves me
to think that I would have remained ignorant of them and not been in a
position to compose this book had I stayed in the United States, which was
my likely path in life. I might not have found my intellectual home, or at
least one of them, had I not wandered away from where I grew up.
It was upon first moving to South Africa in 1999, and especially upon
starting to lecture there in 2004, that I began to study African ethics, the
characteristic mores, and the philosophical interpretations of them that have
been prominent amongst black peoples south of the Sahara desert and that
did not come largely from, say, Europe or the Middle East (which have, of
course, had important influences on the African continent). Lecturing to
students at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, it seemed
not merely apt, but also morally essential, to teach them something from the
local intellectual tradition. So, I intensively read and spoke to philosophers,
theologians, anthropologists, and sociologists about indigenous, pre-
colonial, or ‘traditional’ Africa, and considered what sub-Saharan cultures
could contribute to contemporary debates amongst those studying moral
philosophy anywhere in the world.
At first I wanted to see what a theory of right action grounded on
African norms would look like in comparison to ‘modern’ Western ones
such as the principles of utility and of respect for autonomy. In the African
philosophical literature I did encounter theoretical statements of morality,
which I quote in this book, but they were usually intended to be descriptive,
i.e., to represent the ways that many sub-Saharan peoples have thought
about right and wrong behaviour. I, however, have been interested in
articulating a prescriptive theory, a principle with a sub-Saharan pedigree
that promises to account comprehensively for how one morally ought to act.
In addition, I have sought an African normative ethical theory that is backed
by strong credentials relative to competing accounts, and, moreover, that
would be prima facie attractive to philosophers working both in and beyond
the African tradition. In 2007 I deemed one particular interpretation of the
African tradition, which treats harmonious or communal relationship as an
end, to be the most promising in these respects. Since then, I have
developed that relational approach in a variety of ways, and argued that it
plausibly captures a variety of moral intuitions shared by many ethicists
around the world. Needless to say, it did not take long for me to come to
believe my own theory; I soon found it more philosophically compelling
than the Western principles that had previously governed my thinking about
right and wrong.
As an American white guy who still does not know an indigenous
African language well, some elements have likely been ‘lost in translation’.
However, my aim has not been to recount the intricate details of a sub-
Saharan people’s moral beliefs and practices, let alone a group of them. My
project has not involved representing indigenous African morality; instead,
I have drawn on salient aspects of it, at least as interpreted by contemporary
African philosophers, to construct a moral theory that should be taken
seriously by those in a variety of global philosophical traditions. I have
sought to create and defend a principle of right action informed by facets of
culture recurrent amongst a wide array of sub-Saharan peoples, or at least
by the philosophical expressions of them in the post-independence era,
ranging from the Zulu and Xhosa peoples in South Africa to the Basotho in
Lesotho to the Shona in Zimbabwe to the Batswana in Botswana to the
Nso’ in Cameroon to the Gikuyu and the Luo in Kenya to the Oromo and
Maasai in Ethiopia to the Acoli in Uganda to the Chewa in Malawi to the
Dinka in Sudan to the Baluba in the Congo to the Bemba in Zambia to the
Yoruba, Igbo, Tiv, and Hausa in Nigeria to the Akan in Ghana. Although I
have studied the cultures of these and still other African peoples, I remain
an outsider. My hope is that African readers will appreciate my attempt to
grapple with their philosophies and cultures for a specific purpose:
developing a normative ethical theory that a multicultural audience of moral
philosophers, professional ethicists, and related scholars would find
compelling and, in particular, would appreciate as giving utilitarianism,
Kantianism, and similar Western theories a run for their money in applied
contexts. Another hope is that, when African readers critically engage with
this book, they will use their superior knowledge of indigenous languages
and cultures to contribute to global thought about the nature of right and
wrong.
In this book I argue that a number of indigenous sub-Saharan
philosophers have fastened onto relational facets of moral thought that
many other traditions around the world, particularly those in Anglo-
America, Europe, and Australasia, have insufficiently understood and
appreciated. Most people know that Africa is a continent rich in minerals,
and, indeed, that it has been cruelly coerced and exploited for them for
centuries. However, relatively few scholars beyond Africa are aware of
what this part of the world has to contribute philosophically. The principal
aim of this book is to demonstrate the importance of certain relational, and
specifically communal, ideas salient in the sub-Saharan philosophical
tradition for anyone wanting to understand many theoretical and applied
aspects of morality.
This aim—which I do not take to be the only sensible one—is outward,
by which I mean a matter of considering which characteristically African
understandings of morality would be reasonable to believe by thinkers both
indigenous to the continent and from a wide array of other philosophical
backgrounds.1 This orientation differs from the more inward aims of, say,
recovering facets of culture that had been denigrated by colonialists or
seeking to protect local ways of life from the encroachments of
globalization.2 Such aims are important, but they have not substantially
been mine. What contemporary philosophers throughout the world are
likely to find prima facie appealing about African ethical thought is unlikely
to be everything one might find of interest about sub-Saharan cultures.
In pursuing this outward aim, I have sought to balance two desiderata,
positing an ethic that is sub-Saharan, on the one hand, and one that is
philosophically defensible to a global audience, on the other. Although
there do seem to be some thinkers who contend that a view is to be believed
if and only if it is African (whether for reasons of relativism or resistance), I
am not one of them. In the course of developing a recognizably African
moral theory that could give moral theories from other (especially Western)
philosophical traditions pause, I have sometimes had to trade off what some
would consider Africanness for what could be received by non-Africans.
For instance, ancestors—i.e., wise and influential members of a clan who
have survived the deaths of their bodies and who continue to live on Earth
and guide the clan—play no essential role in my favoured interpretation of
African morality. If such ancestors exist, the ethic in principle provides
instruction about how a moral agent should act in respect of them.
However, the ethic does not by definition say that one should treat ancestors
a certain way, as I have sought to set aside metaphysical claims that cannot
resonate amongst philosophers with an array of multicultural backgrounds.
Some African readers might find these kinds of judgements to be
offensive—just another criticism of their cultures by a white settler.
However, the primary goal of this book is to argue that sub-Saharan ethical
philosophy has been unjustly neglected around the world. I hope readers
will appreciate that one major claim here is that the African tradition
grounds a moral theory that is more attractive than predominant modern
Western ones—and on terms that even Western moral theorists should find
compelling.3 In addition, readers should remember that there is no single
African ethic; there are instead many interpretations of sub-Saharan
morality, inviting the use of philosophical judgement to choose between
them or to construct one that tries to avoids all their apparent weaknesses.
What I have sought to do here is to provide a definitive and
comprehensive analysis, application, and defence of my favoured principle
of right action that has been heavily influenced by African philosophy. My
ideas have shifted somewhat from initial statements made nearly fifteen
years ago, and there have been too many piecemeal essays of mine
published and in a variety of places for a given reader to absorb. It is time
for a firm, unified treatment. For me to undertake that project has meant
downplaying concerns about, say, whether I should have rather undertaken
some other project. I wish I could have done more in what follows to
respond in particular to the published critical discussions in the literature,
but, for a variety of reasons, if I had tried to engage with them
systematically here, I would have been unable to complete this book.
I am thankful to the many students and colleagues from Africa who have
supported my work. Their interest and encouragement have helped to keep
me going. Although my intellectual horizons have been broadened because
of my exposure to Africa, it has been difficult at times.4 I would like those
of African descent to know that I have been buoyed by their willingness to
engage with my project. The kind words and other forms of support that I
have routinely received from my sub-Saharan students and colleagues over
the years, beyond sharing their constructive criticisms, are partially
responsible for the appearance of this book. It was also heartening to have
been appointed to a South African parastatal, the National Heritage
Council, because of my work on the southern African ethic of ubuntu
(humanness in the Nguni languages there), as well as to have been
commissioned by senior African scholars to compose a piece titled ‘What
Africa Can Contribute to the World’ for the United Nations’ General
History of Africa project.
My research into African ethics began as a lecturer at the University of
the Witwatersrand, but really took off once I accepted a research post at the
University of Johannesburg in 2009. I am grateful to the latter institution for
having proactively structured a position that would suit my temperament
and support my aims. I hope that it finds some measure of return in this
book, the draft for which I overhauled upon joining the University of
Pretoria in 2020.
Another source of support has been the South African National Research
Foundation (NRF), which awarded me Incentive Funding, grant money
with which I was able to purchase books, organize workshops, travel
abroad, and support postgraduate students, postdoctoral fellows, and other
lecturers in the field of African philosophy. This book is based on work that
was supported financially by the NRF, and any opinion, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in it are those of the author,
with the NRF not accepting any liability in regard thereto.
A Relational Moral Theory includes an array of parts of journal articles,
book chapters, and encyclopaedia entries published since 2007 that I have
reconsidered, revised, and sewn together into what is meant to be a unity,
not a patchwork. I thank the many people who provided input on these
previously published essays, acknowledging here those (besides anonymous
referees) who took the time to share written comments or to speak with me
one-on-one with the aim of mutual understanding and learning, of whom I
recall the following: Martin Ajei, Lucy Allais, Tom Angier, Aribiah Attoe,
Caesar Atuire, Oladele Balogun, Kevin Behrens, Daniel A. Bell,
Mfuniselwa Bhengu, David Bilchitz, Alex Broadbent, Bénézet Bujo,
Munamato Chemhuru, Jonathan Chimakonam, Luis Cordeiro-Rodrigues,
Drucilla Cornell, Louise du Toit, Mbongisi Dyantyi, Edwin Etieyibo,
Cornelius Ewuoso, Nir Eyal, Michael Onyebuchi Eze, Douglas Farland,
Ademola Fayemi, Katrin Flikschuh, Yaw Frimpong-Mansoh, Joseph Gaie,
Robert Goodin, Anke Graneß, Lawrence Hamilton, Shireen Hassim, Nimi
Hoffmann, Kai Horsthemke, George Hull, Elvis Imafidon, Ward Jones,
Aryan Kaganof, Simon Keller, Stephen Kershnar, Reuel Khoza, Hugh
LaFollette, Chenyang Li, Kirk Lougheed, Dirk Louw, David Lutz, Cheryl
Macpherson, Nkosinathi Mahlangu, David Martens, Erasmus Masitera,
Dismas Masolo, Bernard Matolino, John Mbiti, Eusebius McKaiser, Sarah
Clark Miller, Yvonne Mokgoro, Motsamai Molefe, Olusegun Morakinyo,
Pius Mosima, Pascah Mungwini, Ronald Munson, Munyaradzi Murove,
Mechthild Nagel, Amasa Ndofirepi, Joel Netshitenzhe, Uchenna Okeja,
Abraham Olivier, Oritsegbubemi Oyowe, Brian Penrose, Thomas Pogge,
Henry Richardson, Samuel Segun, Jeffrey Sehume, Augustine Shutte,
Marta Soniewicka, Dan Stein, Raymond Suttner, Sharlene Swartz, Pedro
Tabensky, Olufemi Taiwo, Godfrey Tangwa, Monica Taylor, Paul Taylor,
Mark Tschaepe, Ogbo Ugwuanyi, Isaac Ukpokolo, Stan Van Hooft, Neil
Van Leeuwen, Jason van Niekerk, Samantha Vice, Christopher Wareham,
Kwasi Wiredu, Allen Wood, and Charles Yeats.
With regard to the book qua book, I am pleased to acknowledge the
input of my editor, Peter Momtchiloff, who is invariably a source of good
advice (and enormous patience), and two anonymous reviewers for Oxford
University Press, whose comments have helped to strengthen the
manuscript. Special thanks go to Darrel Moellendorf for having organized a
workshop devoted to a draft of the book manuscript at the Normative
Orders Cluster of Goethe Universität. My work benefited greatly from not
only his input, but also that of Lara Denis, Dorothea Gädeke, Jimmy
Lenman, Uchenna Okeja, and Frans Svensson. Special thanks also go to
Hennie Lötter, who convened a similar gathering at the University of
Johannesburg. The active participation there of him, Colin Chasi, Dylan
Futter, Nyasha Mboti, Tristen Taylor, and Nikolai Viedge has also made this
a better book, even though not what many of them would have liked to see.
I am glad to be able to acknowledge the help of Dee Cohen, Vanessa
Freerks, Dimpho Maponya, and Asheel Singh, who over the years have
organized many of the references and secured the permissions to use
materials from the following essays:

• Metz, Thaddeus (2019) ‘Neither Parochial nor Cosmopolitan: Cultural

Instruction in the Light of a Communal Ethic’, Education as Change,
23: 1–16.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2018) ‘An African Theory of Good Leadership’,
African Journal of Business Ethics, 12: 36–53.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2018) ‘An African Theory of the Point of Higher
Education’, in Contemporary Philosophical Proposals for the
University, Stoller, Aaron and Kramer, Eli (eds), New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, pp. 161–86.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2017) ‘A Bioethic of Communion’, in The Ethics of
Reproductive Genetics, Soniewicka, Marta (ed.), Cham: Springer, pp.
49–66.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2017) ‘Ancillary Care Obligations in Light of an
African Bioethic’, Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 38: 111–26.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2016) ‘Exploring the Ethical Foundations of
Nkrumah’s Consciencism’, in Disentangling Consciencism, Ajei,
Martin (ed.), Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 213–27.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2015) ‘African Ethics’, in The International
Encyclopedia of Ethics, LaFollette, Hugh (ed.), Malden, MA:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, pp. 1–9.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2015) ‘How the West Was One: The Western as
Individualist, the African as Communitarian’, Educational Philosophy
and Theory, 47: 1175–84.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2014) ‘Dignity in the Ubuntu Tradition’, in
Cambridge Handbook on Human Dignity, Düwell, Marcus et al.
(eds), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 310–18.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2013) ‘Questioning African Attempts to Ground
Ethics on Metaphysics’, in Ontologized Ethics: New Essays in African
Meta-ethics, Imafidon, Elvis and Bewaji, John (eds), Lanham, MD:
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, pp. 189–204.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2013) ‘The Ethics of Swearing’, Review of Social
Economy, 71: 228–48.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2013) ‘The Western Ethic of Care or an Afro-
Communitarian Ethic?’, Journal of Global Ethics, 9: 77–92.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2012) ‘An African Theory of Moral Status’, Ethical
Theory and Moral Practice, 15: 387–402.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2012) ‘African Conceptions of Human Dignity’,
Human Rights Review, 13: 19–37.
 • Metz, Thaddeus (2011) ‘Ubuntu as a Moral Theory and Human
Rights in South Africa’, African Human Rights Law Journal, 11: 532–
59.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2010) ‘For the Sake of the Friendship: Relationality
and Relationship as Grounds of Beneficence’, Theoria, 57: 54–76.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2010) ‘African and Western Moral Theories in a
Bioethical Context’, Developing World Bioethics, 10: 49–58.
• Metz, Thaddeus and Gaie, Joseph (2010) ‘The African Ethic of
Ubuntu/Botho: Implications for Research on Morality’, Journal of
Moral Education, 39: 273–90.
• Metz, Thaddeus (2007) ‘Toward an African Moral Theory’, The
Journal of Political Philosophy, 15: 321–41.

Having already dedicated my first sole-authored and lengthy book,

begun in the United States, to my first son who was born there, it is apt to
dedicate my second one, begun in South Africa, to my second son who was
born there. Jamil Metz, although you were a young person at the time that I
began to write this book, your empathy, compassion, generosity, and
gregariousness had already taught me a lot about what it means to relate
communally. This work is for you.

1 For some discussion of why I believe it is worth taking this sort of outward approach
in respect to Africa, see Metz (2022a).
2 For one scholar who clearly believes inward aims are more important than outward
ones, see Lamola (2019).
3 I have also begun to put African ethics into critical dialogue with East Asian views,
on which see, e.g., Bell and Metz (2011); Metz (2016a, 2017a).
4 For a reply to some of the political criticisms, see Jones and Metz (2015).
 Contents

1. Introduction
1.1 ‘The Great Gift from Africa’
1.2 An African Moral Theory
1.3 Meta-Ethics: Identifying the Best Moral Theory
1.4 Normative Ethics: The Best African Moral Theory
1.5 Applied Ethics: The Best Moral Theory, from Africa

I . ME TA- E T HI C S : AF RI CAN E T HI CS WI T HO UT A
ME TAP HYS I CAL G RO UND

2. Reconsidering Ontology’s Relevance

2.1 Minding the Is/Ought Gap
2.2 From Materialism to Egalitarianism?
2.3 From the Social Self to Communitarianism?
2.4 More Instances of the Gap
2.5 How Not to Fall into the Gap
3. Analysing African Ethics
3.1 Justifying an African Moral Theory
3.2 An Analytic Approach
3.3 A Secular Content
3.4 The Key Intuitions
3.5 ‘African’: What’s in a Name?

I I . N ORMAT I VE E T HI CS : COMMUNA L I T Y A S T H E
G RO UN D OF AF RI CAN MORAL I T Y
4. The Common Good
4.1 Well-Being as the ‘Master Value’
4.2 The Common Good as Foundation
4.3 The Limits of the Common Good
4.4 Well-Being: Neither Master nor Slave
5. Vital Force
5.1 Life as the ‘Greatest Value’
5.2 Vital Force as Foundation
5.3 The Limits of Vital Force
5.4 Life: Neither Greatest nor Smallest
6. Communal Relationship
6.1 Harmony as the ‘Highest Good’
6.2 Communality: Identity and Solidarity
6.3 The Limits of Extant Communal Principles
6.4 From Highest Good to Basic Duty
7. A Relational Moral Theory
7.1 Rightness as Friendliness
7.2 The Capacity to Commune as Foundation
7.3 Corollaries of the Principle
7.4 Accounting for the Key Intuitions
7.5 Avoiding Common Objections to African Morality
7.6 Turning to Friendly Competition with the West

I I I . A P P L I E D E T HI CS : COMMUN AL I T Y AS T H E
GR OUND OF MORAL I T Y SI MP L I CI T E R

8. Environmental Ethics
8.1 Interacting with Nature
8.2 Neither Individualist nor Holist
8.3 The Capacity to Commune as Foundation Redux
8.4 Humans and Animals
 8.5 Plants, Species, and Ecosystems
9. Biomedical Ethics
9.1 Treating Bodies and Minds
9.2 The Point of Medical Treatment
9.3 Enhancements
9.4 Whom to Treat
9.5 Abortion and Infanticide
9.6 Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide
10. Research Ethics
10.1 Learning about Bodies and Minds
10.2 Free and Informed Consent
10.3 Confidentiality
10.4 Ancillary Standards of Care
11. Education Ethics
11.1 Teaching Students
11.2 Culture as an End
11.3 Virtue as an End
11.4 Knowledge for Its Own Sake?
12. Business Ethics
12.1 Producing Goods and Services
12.2 The Point of a Firm
12.3 Stakeholders
12.4 Managerialism
12.5 Breaking Contracts, Violating Oaths
13. Conclusion
13.1 Some Strengths of a Relational Moral Theory
13.2 From Prescriptive to Descriptive: A Relational Theory of Moral
Behaviour
13.3 From Right Action to Good Character: A Relational Theory of
Virtue
 From Interpersonal to Institutional: A Relational Theory of
13.4
Justice
Epilogue

References
Index
 1
Introduction

1.1 ‘The Great Gift from Africa’

For much of my academic career as a professional philosopher, I have been
aware of patent gaps in contemporary Western moral theory about how we
should treat others.1 I have thought that animals matter for their own sake
but not as much as human beings, that many human beings have a dignity
but that pain is morally relevant insofar as it reduces a person’s quality of
life, and that, despite everyone mattering from a moral point of view, an
agent is obligated to do more for those related to her in certain ways. And I
have found it extremely difficult for Kantianism, utilitarianism, and related
Euro-American-Australasian principles of right action to account for these
judgements.
It is sometimes said that a useful strategy by which to make headway in
a philosophical debate is to reject a premise shared by its major
interlocutors. In this book, I have applied this approach to normative ethical
theory, the project of advancing a basic principle that plausibly entails and
best explains what all morally right (and, conversely, wrong) actions have
in common. I maintain that the major moral theories of the past 200 years in
the Western tradition, ranging from egoism to utilitarianism to Lockean
natural rights to respect for autonomy to respect for human life, share a
certain, individualist claim. Once individualism is rejected, one can develop
a relational alternative that fills in many of the gaps left open by these
competing theories. Or so I argue here.
The idea that morality is a function of relational properties is not new.
Confucianism in the East Asian tradition is an instance of this view, as are
the ethic of care and some of Karl Marx’s ideas in the Western tradition.
However, it is only lately that relationalism has been articulated as a distinct
kind of ethic in English speaking philosophy, despite having predated
more individualist views by many centuries. In addition, adherents to the
above relational perspectives have eschewed my project of systematically
developing and defending a theory of morally right action, for reasons that I
address below.
Although I construct a relational moral theory by drawing occasionally
on the work of Confucians and care ethicists, the sub-title of this book is
telling. It is principally the African philosophical tradition (and then its
large English-language and literate vein) that I have considered for insights.
That is partly because I find the ideas in this tradition particularly
promising, and partly because I believe it is important for African ideas to
contribute meaningfully to world philosophy. About the only thing that
most non-African philosophers seem to know about indigenous sub-
Saharan worldviews is that they are characteristically communitarian.
While that has sometimes taken the unfortunate form of corporatism, which
assigns moral primacy to a community in the sense of a group, it is more
promising to think of morality as a function of communal relationship, a
way that individuals can and should interact. In this book I work to
systematize this relational approach to right action by creating and arguing
for a moral theory with a recognizably sub-Saharan pedigree that should be
weighed up against at least contemporary Western moral theories. The
salient African idea that morality is a function of prizing communality is
what I develop into the form of a normative theory, apply to a variety of
practical debates, and advance as something that an international
philosophical audience should take seriously as a rival to Kantianism,
utilitarianism, and the like.
Although the principle I advance is largely from Africa, it is not meant to
be only for Africans. I argue here that it does better than influential Western
theories at accounting for a wide array of uncontroversial moral judgements
that Westerners themselves (amongst others) hold. Note that I do not argue
that the Western tradition of moral philosophy is utterly bankrupt; any long-
standing body of thought should be expected to have some kernels of truth
in it. And I indeed draw on some salient Western ideas, particularly Kantian
ones about human rights and respectful treatment, when developing a
relational moral theory. However, by the same token, the African tradition,
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Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 5Oct72; LP43162.

LP43163.
Peace pipe. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 12Oct72; LP43163.

LP43164.
Saddled. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 19Oct72; LP43164.

LP43165.
 Fuzz lady. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 2Nov72; LP43165.

LP43166.
Trainee. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 9Nov72; LP43166.

LP43167.
Women! A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 23Nov72; LP43167.

LP43168.
Dinner date. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 30Nov72; LP43168.

LP43169.
Musical mania. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in
association with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
(Emergency!) © Emergency Productions; 7Dec72; LP43169.

LP43170.
Helpful. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 14Dec72; LP43170.

LP43171.
The Professor. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in
association with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
(Emergency!) © Emergency Productions; 1Feb73; LP43171.
LP43172.
Honest. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 15Feb73; LP43172.

LP43173.
Syndrome. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 18Feb73; LP43173.

LP43174.
Seance. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 22Feb73; LP43174.

LP43175.
Rip off. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 8Mar73; LP43175.

LP43176.
Audit. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 5Apr73; LP43176.

LP43177.
Mascot. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 35 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 22Jan72; LP43177.

LP43178.
 Botulism. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with$$ Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 35 mm. (Emergency!)
© Emergency Productions; 29Jan72; LP43178.

LP43179.
Cook’s tour. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 35 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 12Feb72; LP43179.

LP43180.
Brushfire. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association
with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 35 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 19Feb72; LP43180.

LP43181.
Dealer’s wild. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in
association with Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
(Emergency!) Emergency Productions; 26Feb72; LP43181.

LP43182.
Nurses wild. Emergency Productions. 53 min., sd., color.
(Emergency) © Emergency Productions; 4Mar72; LP43182.

LP43183.
Publicity hound. Emergency Productions. 53 min., sd., color.
(Emergency) © Emergency Productions; 11Mar72; LP43183.

LP43184.
Weird Wednesday. Emergency Productions. 53 min., sd., color.
(Emergency) © Emergency Productions; 18Mar72; LP43184.

LP43185.
 Dilemma. Emergency Productions. 53 min., sd., color.
(Emergency) © Emergency Productions; 25Mar72; LP43185.

LP43186.
Hang up. Emergency Productions. 53 min., sd., color. (Emergency)
© Emergency Productions; 8Apr72; LP43186.

LP43187.
Crash. A production of Mark 7, Ltd. Produced in association with
Universal Studios. 53 min., sd., color, 35 mm. (Emergency!) ©
Emergency Productions; 15Apr72; LP43187.

LP43188.
A Case of impotence. A Harbour UTV production. 53 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (The Bold ones) © Universal City Studios, Inc.;
15Oct72; LP43188.

LP43189.
Man, monsters and mysteries. Walt Disney Productions with the
cooperation of the Loch Ness Investigation Bureau, Films of
Scotland, World Book Encyclopedia. 25 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Walt Disney Productions; 10Oct73; LP43189.

LP43190.
John Muir, father of our national parks. Walt Disney Educational
Materials Company. Made by Corsair Films, Inc. 15 min., sd., color,
16 mm. (They made a difference) © Walt Disney Productions;
18Oct73; LP43190.

LP43191.
The Mystery in Dracula’s castle. Pt. 1. Walt Disney Productions. 60
min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Wonderful world of Disney, 1972–73)
© Walt Disney Productions; 5Jan73 (in notice: 1972); LP43191.
LP43192.
The Mystery in Dracula’s castle. Pt. 2. Walt Disney Productions. 60
min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Wonderful world of Disney, 1972–73)
© Walt Disney Productions; 12Jan73 (in notice: 1972); LP43192.

LP43193.
Chandar, the black leopard of Ceylon. Pt. 1. Walt Disney
Productions. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Wonderful world of
Disney, 1972–73) © Walt Disney Productions; 27Nov72; LP43193.

LP43194.
The Nashville coyote. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Wonderful
world of Disney, 1972–73) © Walt Disney Productions; 22Sep72;
LP43194.

LP43195.
Chandar, the black leopard of Ceylon. Pt. 2. 60 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (The Wonderful world of Disney, 1972–73) © Walt Disney
Productions; 27Nov72; LP43195.

LP43196.
Salty, the hijacked harbor seal. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The
Wonderful world of Disney, 1972–73) © Walt Disney Productions;
27Nov72; LP43196.

LP43197.
High flying spy. Pt. 1. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Wonderful
world of Disney, 1972–73) © Walt Disney Productions; 18Oct72;
LP43197.

LP43198.
 Nosey, the sweetest skunk in the West. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
(The Wonderful world of Disney, 1972–73) © Walt Disney
Productions; 9Nov72; LP43198.

LP43199.
High flying spy. Pt. 2. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Wonderful
world of Disney, 1972–73) © Walt Disney Productions; 27Oct72;
LP43199.

LP43200.
Superdad. Walt Disney Productions. 95 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
Based on a story by Harlan Ware. © Walt Disney Productions;
13Dec73; LP43200.

LP43201.
Great moments from “Birth of a nation.” 10 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm.
Add. ti.: Great moments from “The Birth of a nation.” NM:
abridgement, revision & additions. © Epoch Producing Corporation;
8Feb53; LP43201.

LP43202.
Murdock’s gang. A Don Fedderson production. 90 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Darr-Don, Inc.; 20Mar73; LP43202.

LP43203.
Let the good times roll. A Metromedia Producers Corporation
production. 99 min., sd., color, 35 mm. © Metromedia Producers
Corporation & Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 24May73;
LP43203.

LP43204.
Ace Eli and Rodger of the skies. Twentieth Century Fox Film
Corporation. 93 min., sd., color, 35 mm., Panavision. © Twentieth
Century Fox Film Corporation; 11Apr73; LP43204.

LP43205.
Battle for the planet of the apes. Apjac International. 86 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm., Panavision. Based on characters created by Pierre
Boulle. © Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation; 1Jun73;
LP43205.

LP43206.
The Legend of Hell House. Academy Pictures Corporation. 94
min., sd., color, 35 mm. Based on Richard Matheson’s novel, Hell
House. © Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation; 30May73;
LP43206.

LP43207.
Emperor of the North. Inter Hemisphere Productions, Ltd. 120
min., sd., color, 35 mm. Add. ti.: Emperor of the North Pole. ©
Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation; 8Jun73; LP43207.

LP43208.
Gordon’s war. Palomar Pictures International, Inc. 90 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm., Panavision. © Twentieth Century Fox Film
Corporation; 2Nov73; LP43208.

LP43209.
The Last American hero. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation.
A Joe Wizan/Rojo production. 95 min., sd., color, 35 mm.,
Panavision. Based on articles by Tom Wolfe. © Twentieth Century
Fox Film Corporation; 13Jul73; LP43209.

LP43210.
The Phantom of Hollywood. 74 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 12Feb74 (in notice: 1973); LP43210.
LP43211.
Assignment: Munich. 88 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 30Apr72; LP43211.

LP43212.
Mask of Sheba. 98 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Metro Goldwyn
Mayer, Inc.; 9Mar70; LP43212.

LP43213.
Miss Stewart, sir. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. Based on a novel by
Louise Baker. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 31Mar72; LP43213.

LP43214.
Unwritten law. A Charade production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 19Oct73; LP43214.

LP43215.
The First hurrah. A Charade production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 7Dec73; LP43215.

LP43216.
Friend of the family. A Charade production. Produced in
association with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib)
© Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 30Nov73; LP43216.

LP43217.
Illegal aid. A Charade production. Produced in association with
MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro Goldwyn
Mayer, Inc.; 14Sep73; LP43217.
LP43218.
Separate vacations. A Charade production. Produced in
association with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib)
© Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 5Oct73; LP43218.

LP43219.
For richer, for poorer. A Charade production. Produced in
association with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib)
© Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 9Nov73; LP43219.

LP43220.
Murder. A Charade production. Produced in association with
MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro Goldwyn
Mayer, Inc.; 16Nov73; LP43220.

LP43221.
Too many cooks. A Charade production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 28Dec73; LP43221.

LP43222.
Delilah. A Charade production. Produced in association with MGM
TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro Goldwyn
Mayer, Inc.; 2Nov73; LP43222.

LP43223.
Two pairs of pants. A Charade production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 21Sep73; LP43223.

LP43224.
 Danish pastry. A Charade production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 28Sep73; LP43224.

LP43225.
Katey at the bat. A Charade production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Adam’s rib) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 26Oct73; LP43225.

LP43226.
It’s your turn — to steer. A Thirty five-System production. 13 min.,
sd., 16 mm. © Fairchild Industries, Inc.; 4Sep73; LP43226.

LP43227.
It’s a mystery, Charlie Brown. A Lee Mendelson-Bill Melendez
production. Produced in cooperation with United Feature Syndicate,
Inc. & Charles M. Schulz Creative Associates. 30 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © United Feature Syndicate; 1Feb74; LP43227.

LP43228.
Mother lode. 19 min., sd., color, 16 mm. Appl. au.: David Pillar. ©
David Pillar; 1Feb74; LP43228.

LP43229.
Operation: Time fuse. Treasury Productions. 53 min., sd., color, 35
mm. (O’Hara, United States Treasury) © Treasury Productions;
14Oct71; LP43229.

LP43230.
Operation: Hot shot. Treasury Productions. 53 min., sd., color, 35
mm. (O’Hara, United States Treasury) © Treasury Productions;
28Oct71; LP43230.
LP43231.
Operation: Wastepaper world. Treasury Productions. 53 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm. (O’Hara, United States Treasury) © Treasury
Productions; 30Sep71; LP43231.

LP43232.
Jabberwocky. Produced for SIM by Kratky Film. 14 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. © SIM Productions, Inc.; 21Dec73; LP43232.

LP43233.
I am Joe’s spine. A Nicholson Muir production. 29 min., sd., color,
videotape (1/2 inch) in cassette. © The Reader’s Digest Association,
Inc.; 1Nov73 (in notice: 1972); LP43233.

LP43234.
The Possessed. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 2Jan68; LP43234.

LP43235.
Counterattack. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 9Jan68; LP43235.

LP43236.
The Pit. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association with
American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 16Jan68;
LP43236.

LP43237.
 The Organization. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 30Jan68; LP43237.

LP43238.
The Peacemaker. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 6Feb68; LP43238.

LP43239.
The Vise. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 20Feb68;
LP43239.

LP43240.
The Miracle. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 27Feb68;
LP43240.

LP43241.
The Life seekers. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 5Mar68; LP43241.

LP43242.
The Pursued. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 12Mar68;
LP43242.
LP43243.
The Inquisition. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 26Mar68; LP43243.

LP43244.
Condition: red. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 5Sep67; LP43244.

LP43245.
The Saucer. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 12Sep67;
LP43245.

LP43246.
The Watchers. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 19Sep67; LP43246.

LP43247.
Valley of the shadow. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 26Sep67; LP43247.

LP43248.
The Enemy. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 3Oct67;
LP43248.

LP43249.
The Trial. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 10Oct67;
LP43249.

LP43250.
The Spores. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 17Oct67;
LP43250.

LP43251.
Dark outpost. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 24Oct67;
LP43251.

LP43252.
Summit meeting. Pt. 2. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 7Nov67; LP43252.

LP43253.
The Prophet. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 14Nov67;
LP43253.
LP43254.
Labyrinth. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 21Nov67;
LP43254.

LP43255.
The Captive. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 28Nov67;
LP43255.

LP43256.
The Believers. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in
association with American Broadcasting Company Television
Network. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM
Productions; 5Dec67; LP43256.

LP43257.
Task force. A Quinn Martin production. Produced in association
with American Broadcasting Company Television Network. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (The Invaders) © QM Productions; 26Dec67;
LP43257.

LP43258.
Zardoz. 105 min., sd., color, 35 mm., Panavision. © Twentieth
Century Fox Film Corporation; 13Mar74 (in notice: 1973); LP43258.

LP43259.
Jamaica Inn. A Mayflower production. 10 reels, sd., b&w, 35 mm.
© on 10 min. of new material; Film Archives Company; 1Feb74 (in
notice: 1973); LP43259.
LP43260.
Cinderella liberty. A Sanford production. 117 min., sd., color, 35
mm., Panavision. Based on Darryl Ponicsan’s novel. © Twentieth
Century Fox Film Corporation; 18Dec73; LP43260.

LP43261.
The Paper chase. A Thompson/Paul production. 100 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm., Panavision. Based upon the novel by John Jay
Osborn, Jr. © Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation; 16Oct73;
LP43261.

LP43262.
The Seven ups. Philip D’Antoni Productions, Inc. 103 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm. © Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation; 21Dec73;
LP43262.

LP43263.
The Laughing policeman. Twentieth Century Fox Film
Corporation. 112 min., sd., color, 35 mm. © Twentieth Century Fox
Film Corporation; 20Dec73; LP43263.

LP43264.
Urban impact on weather and climate. Davidson Films. 16 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. © Learning Company of America, a division of
Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.; 13Jun72; LP43264.

LP43265.
Slither. 30 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.;
21Mar74; LP43265.

LP43266.
 Honky tonk. A Douglas Heyes production. Produced in association
with MGM-TV. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm., Panavision. © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 1Apr74; LP43266.

LP43267.
The Super cops. A Saint Regis Films, Inc.-Winger Enterprises, Inc.
production. 95 min., sd., color, 35 mm. Based upon the book by L. H.
Whittemore. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 20Mar74 (in notice:
1973); LP43267.

LP43268.
Cop killer. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Shaft) Based on characters
created by Ernest Tidyman. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 1Jan74
(in notice: 1973); LP43268.

LP43269.
Murder on the 13th floor. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Hawkins) ©
Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 5Feb74; LP43269.

LP43270.
Candidate for murder. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Hawkins) ©
Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 5Mar74; LP43270.

LP43271.
Capricorn murders. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Shaft) Based on
characters created by Ernest Tidyman. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer,
Inc.; 29Jan74; LP43271.

LP43272.
Deceived. An Alfra production. Produced in association with MGM
TV. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Medical Center) © Metro Goldwyn
Mayer, Inc.; 7Jan70 (in notice: 1969); LP43272.
LP43273.
Moment of decision. An Alfra production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Medical Center) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 14Jan70 (in notice: 1969); LP43273.

LP43274.
Runaway. An Alfra production. Produced in association with MGM
TV. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Medical Center) © Metro Goldwyn
Mayer, Inc.; 21Jan70 (in notice: 1969); LP43274.

LP43275.
The Killing. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Shaft) Based on characters
created by Ernest Tidyman. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 30Oct73;
LP43275.

LP43276.
Hit-run. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Shaft) Based on characters
created by Ernest Tidyman. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.;
20Nov73; LP43276.

LP43277.
The Kidnapping. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Shaft) Based on
characters created by Ernest Tidyman. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer,
Inc.; 11Dec73; LP43277.

LP43278.
The Executioners. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Shaft) Based on
characters created by Ernest Tidyman. © Metro Goldwyn Mayer,
Inc.; 9Oct73; LP43278.

LP43279.
 Die, darling, die. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Hawkins) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 23Oct73; LP43279.

LP43280.
Blood feud. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Hawkins) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 4Dec73; LP43280.

LP43281.
Murder in the slave trade. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Hawkins) ©
Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 22Jan74 (in notice: 1973); LP43281.

LP43282.
A Life for a life. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Hawkins) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 13Nov73; LP43282.

LP43283.
Murder in Movieland. 90 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Hawkins) ©
Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 2Oct73; LP43283.

LP43284.
Fright and flight. An Alfra production. Produced in association
with MGM TV. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm. (Medical Center) © Metro
Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 4Feb70; LP43284.

LP45285.
A Duel with doom; formerly Second chance. An Alfra production.
Produced in association with MGM TV. 60 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
(Medical Center) © Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Inc.; 11Feb70; LP43285.

LP43286.