Essential mathematics for economic

analysis - Student’s Manual 5th ed.

Edition Carvajal
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/essential-mathematics-for-economic-analysis-student
s-manual-5th-ed-edition-carvajal/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Further Mathematics for Economic Analysis Knut

Sydsaeter

https://ebookmass.com/product/further-mathematics-for-economic-
analysis-knut-sydsaeter/

Elementary Linear Algebra 5th Student Solutions Manual

5th Edition Andrilli Hecker

https://ebookmass.com/product/elementary-linear-algebra-5th-
student-solutions-manual-5th-edition-andrilli-hecker/

Solution Manual for Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis

5th Edition Philip B. Bedient

https://ebookmass.com/product/solution-manual-for-hydrology-and-
floodplain-analysis-5th-edition-philip-b-bedient/

Student Activity Manual for Riga/Phillips’ Ciao!, 8th

Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/student-activity-manual-for-riga-
phillips-ciao-8th-edition/
Student Solutions Manual for Calculus 9th Edition Dale
Varberg

https://ebookmass.com/product/student-solutions-manual-for-
calculus-9th-edition-dale-varberg/

Fundamentals of Structural Analysis Solution Manual 5th

edition Kenneth M. Leet

https://ebookmass.com/product/fundamentals-of-structural-
analysis-solution-manual-5th-edition-kenneth-m-leet/

Essential Microbiology for Dentistry 5th Edition

Edition Lakshman Samaranayake

https://ebookmass.com/product/essential-microbiology-for-
dentistry-5th-edition-edition-lakshman-samaranayake/

Student Laboratory Manual for Health Assessment for

Nursing Practice Susan F. Wilson

https://ebookmass.com/product/student-laboratory-manual-for-
health-assessment-for-nursing-practice-susan-f-wilson/

Mathematics for Engineers 5th New Edition Anthony Croft

/ Robert Davison

https://ebookmass.com/product/mathematics-for-engineers-5th-new-
edition-anthony-croft-robert-davison/
 Student’s Manual

Essential Mathematics for

Economic Analysis
5th edition

Knut Sydsæter
Peter Hammond
Andrés Carvajal
Arne Strøm

For further supporting resources, please visit:

www.mymathlab.com/global
Preface
This Student’s solutions manual accompanies Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, 5th
Edition, Pearson, 2016. Its main purpose is to provide more detailed solutions to the problems
marked ⊂ ⊃ in the book. The answers provided in this manual should be used in combination with
SM

any shorter answers provided in the main test. There are a few cases where only part of the answer
is set out in detail, because the rest follows the same pattern.
We would appreciate suggestions for improvements from our readers, as well as help in weeding
out inaccuracies and errors.

Coventry, Davis, and Oslo, April 2016

Peter Hammond (P.J.Hammond@warwick.ac.uk)
Andrés Carvajal (acarvaes@icloud.com)
Arne Strøm (arne.strom@econ.uio.no)

Contents

1 Essentials of Logic and Set Theory 1

Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Algebra 2
2.3 Rules of algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.5 Fractional powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.6 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.8 Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.11 Double sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Solving Equations 8
3.1 Solving equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Equations and their parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 Nonlinear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5 Using implication arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.6 Two linear equations in two unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Functions of One Variable 12

4.2 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.4 Linear functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6 Quadratic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.7 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.8 Power functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

i
 4.10 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 Properties of Functions 17
5.3 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4 Graphs of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.5 Distance in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.6 General functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

6 Differentiation 18
6.2 Tangents and derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.5 A dash of limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.7 Sums, products and quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.8 The chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.10 Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.11 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

7 Derivatives in Use 23
7.1 Implicit differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.2 Economic examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3 Differentiating the inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.4 Linear approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.5 Polynomial approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.6 Taylor’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.7 Elasticities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.8 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.9 More on limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.10 The intermediate value theorem and Newton’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.12 L’Hôpital’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8 Single-variable Optimization 29
8.2 Simple tests for extreme points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.3 Economic examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.4 The extreme value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.5 Further economic examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.6 Local extreme points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.7 Inflection points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9 Integration 34
9.1 Indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
9.2 Area and definite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

ii
 9.3 Properties of indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.4 Economic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.5 Integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.6 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.7 Infinite intervals of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.8 A glimpse at differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.9 Separable and linear differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

10 Topics in Financial Mathematics 43

10.2 Continuous compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10.4 Geometric series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.7 Internal rate of return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

11 Functions of Many Variables 45

11.2 Partial derivatives with two variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.3 Geometric representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.5 Functions of more variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.6 Partial derivatives with more variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.7 Economic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.8 Partial elasticities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

12 Tools for Comparative Statics 47

12.1 A simple chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
12.2 Chain rules for many variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
12.3 Implicit differentiation along a level curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.4 More general cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.5 Elasticity of substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
12.6 Homogeneous functions of two variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
12.7 Homogeneous and homothetic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
12.8 Linear approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
12.9 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
12.11Differentiating systems of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

13 Multivariable Optimization 54
13.2 Two variables: sufficient conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13.3 Local extreme points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13.4 Linear models with quadratic objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13.5 The Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.6 The general case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
13.7 Comparative statics and the Envelope Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

iii
14 Constrained Optimization 63
14.1 The Lagrange Multiplier method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
14.2 Interpreting the Lagrange Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
14.3 Multiple solution candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
14.4 Why the Lagrange method works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
14.5 Sufficient conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.6 Additional variables and constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.7 Comparative statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
14.8 Nonlinear programming: a simple case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
14.9 Multiple inequality constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
14.10Nonnegativity constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

15 Matrix and Vector Algebra 77

15.1 Systems of linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
15.3 Matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
15.4 Rules for matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
15.5 The transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
15.6 Gaussian elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
15.8 Geometric interpretation of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
15.9 Lines and planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

16 Determinants and Inverse Matrices 82

16.1 Determinants of order 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
16.2 Determinants of order 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
16.3 Determinants in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
16.4 Basic rules for determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
16.5 Expansion by cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
16.6 The inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
16.7 A general formula for the inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
16.8 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

17 Linear Programming 89
17.1 A graphical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
17.2 Introduction to Duality Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
17.3 The Duality Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
17.4 A general economic interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
17.5 Complementary slackness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

iv
1 Essentials of Logic and Set Theory
Review exercises for Chapter 1
3. Consider the Venn diagram for three sets depicted in Fig. SM1.R.3. Let nk denote the number
of students in the set marked (k), for k = 1, 2, . . . , 8. Suppose the sets A, B, and C refer to
those who study English, French, and Spanish, respectively. Since 10 students take all three
languages, n7 = 10. There are 15 who take French and Spanish, so 15 = n2 + n7 , and thus
n2 = 5. Furthermore, 32 = n3 + n7 , so n3 = 22. Also, 110 = n1 + n7 , so n1 = 100. The rest of
the information implies that 52 = n2 + n3 + n6 + n7 , so n6 = 52 − 5 − 22 − 10 = 15. Moreover,
220 = n1 + n2 + n5 + n7 , so n5 = 220 − 100 − 5 − 10 = 105. Finally, 780 = n1 + n3 + n4 + n7 ,
so n4 = 780 − 100 − 22 − 10 = 648. The answers are therefore:

(a) n1 = 100,
(b) n3 + n4 = 648 + 22 = 670,
(c) 1000 − 7i=1 ni = 1000 − 905 = 95.
P

E F
(5)
(1)
(4)
(7)
(2)
(3)

(6)
(8)
S

Figure SM1.R.3

4. (a) ⇒ is true; ⇐ is false, because x = y = 1 also solves x + y = 2.

(b) ⇒ is false, because x2 = 16 also has the solution x = −4; ⇐ true, because if x = 4, then
x2 = 16.
(c) ⇒ is true, because (x − 3)2 ≥ 0; ⇐ false because with y > −2 and x = 3, one has
(x − 3)2 (y + 2) = 0.
(d) ⇒ and ⇐ are both true, since the equation x3 = 8 has the solution x = 2 and no others.1

5. For (a) and (b) see the solutions in the book. For (c), note that when n = 1, the inequality is
obviously correct.2 As the induction hypothesis when n equals the arbitrary natural number k,
suppose that (1 + x)k ≥ 1 + kx. Because 1 + x ≥ 0, we then have

(1 + x)k+1 = (1 + x)k (1 + x) ≥ (1 + kx)(1 + x) = 1 + (k + 1)x + kx2 ≥ 1 + (k + 1)x.

where the last inequality holds because k > 0. Thus, the induction hypothesis holds for
n = k + 1. Therefore, by induction, Bernoulli’s inequality is true for all natural numbers n.
1
In the terminology of Section 6.3, function f (x) = x3 is strictly increasing. See Fig. 4.3.7 and Exercise 6.3.3.
2
And for n = 2, it is correct by part (b).

1
2 Algebra
2.3 Rules of algebra
4. (a) (2t−1)(t2 −2t+1) = 2t(t2 −2t+1)−(t2 −2t+1) = 2t3 −4t2 +2t−t2 +2t−1 = 2t3 −5t2 +4t−1.
(b) (a + 1)2 + (a − 1)2 − 2(a + 1)(a − 1) = (a2 + 2a + 1) + (a2 − 2a + 1) − 2(a2 − 1) = 4.3
(c) (x + y + z)2 = (x + y + z)(x + y + z) = x(x + y + z) + y(x + y + z) + z(x + y + z) =
(x2 + xy + xz) + (yx + y 2 + yz) + (zx + zy + z 2 ) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz.
(d) Put a = x + y + z and b = x − y − z. Then

(x + y + z)2 − (x − y − z)2 = a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) = 2x(2y + 2z) = 4x(y + z)

2.4 Fractions
1 1 x+2 x−2 x+2−x+2 4
5. (a) − = − = = 2 .
x−2 x+2 (x − 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x − 2) (x − 2)(x + 2) x −4
(b) Since 4x + 2 = 2(2x + 1) and 4x2 − 1 = (2x + 1)(2x − 1), the lowest common denominator,
LCD, is 2(2x + 1)(2x − 1). Then,

6x + 25 6x2 + x − 2 (6x + 25)(2x − 1) − 2(6x2 + x − 2) 42x − 21 21

− 2
= = = .
4x + 2 4x − 1 2(2x + 1)(2x − 1) 2(2x + 1)(2x − 1) 2(2x + 1)

18b2 a 18b2 − a(a − 3b) + 2(a2 − 9b2 ) a(a + 3b) a

(c) − + 2 = = = .
a2 − 9b2 a + 3b (a + 3b)(a − 3b) (a + 3b)(a − 3b) a − 3b
1 1 (a + 2) − a 2 1
(d) − = = = .
8ab 8b(a + 2) 8ab(a + 2) 8ab(a + 2) 4ab(a + 2)
2t − t2 −3t2
 
5t 2t t(2 − t) 3t −t(t − 2) 3t
(e) · − = · = · = .
t+2 t−2 t−2 t+2 t−2 t+2 t−2 t+2
1
a− 1


a 1 − 2a
(f) Note that = 1 2 = 4a − 2, so
0.25 4

1


a 1 − 2a
2− = 2 − (4a − 2) = 4 − 4a = 4(1 − a).
0.25

2 1 2(x + 1) + x − 3x(x + 1) 2 − 3x2

6. (a) + −3= =
x x+1 x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
t t t(2t − 1) − t(2t + 1) −2t
(b) − = = 2
2t + 1 2t − 1 (2t + 1)(2t − 1) 4t − 1
3x 4x 2x − 1 3x(x − 2) + 4x(x + 2) − (2x − 1) 7x2 + 1
(c) − − = = 2
x + 2 2 − x (x − 2)(x + 2) (x − 2)(x + 2) x −4
 
1 1 1 1
+ + xy
x y x y y+x
(d) The expression equals = = = x + y.
1 1 1
· xy
xy xy
3
Alternatively, apply the quadratic identity x2 + y 2 − 2xy = (x − y)2 with x = a + 1 and y = a − 1 to obtain
(a + 1)2 + (a − 1)2 − 2(a + 1)(a − 1) = [(a + 1) − (a − 1)]2 = 22 = 4.

2
  
1 1 1 1
− − · x2 y 2
x2 y 2 x2 y 2 y 2 − x2
(e) The expression equals = = 2 .
1 1 y + x2

1 1
+ + · x 2y2
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
(f) To clear the fractions within both the numerator and denominator, multiply both by xy
to get
a(y − x) y−x
=
a(y + x) y+x
 −2  −2
1 1 5 4 1 1 1 1
8. (a) − = − = , so − = = 202 = 400.
4 5 20 20 20 4 5 20
n n·n n2 n(n − 1) − n2 n
(b) n − 1 =n− 1

=n− = =− .
1− n 1− n ·n n − 1 n − 1 n − 1
1 1 1 1 1 u
(c) Let u = xp−q . Then p−q
+ q−p
= + = + = 1.
1+x 1+x 1 + u 1 + 1/u 1+u 1+u
(d) Using x2 − 1 = (x + 1)(x − 1), one has
 
1 1
+ (x2 − 1)
x − 1 x2 − 1 (x + 1) + 1 x+2
  = 2 − 1) − 2(x − 1)
= ,
2 x(x (x − 1)[x(x + 1) − 2]
x− (x2 − 1)
x+1

which reduces to
x+2 x+2 1
2
= = .
(x − 1)(x + x − 2) (x − 1)[(x + 2)(x − 1)] (x − 1)2

(e) Since
1 1 x2 − (x + h)2 −2xh − h2
− = = ,
(x + h)2 x2 x2 (x + h)2 x2 (x + h)2
it follows that
1 1
2
− 2
(x + h) x −2x − h
= 2 .
h x (x + h)2
10x2
(f) Multiplying both numerator and denominator by x2 −1 = (x+1)(x−1) yields ,
5x(x − 1)
2x
which reduces to .
x−1

2.5 Fractional powers

5. The answers for each respective part that are given in the book emerge after multiplying both
numerator and denominator by the following terms:
√ √ √ √ √
(a) 7− 5 (b) 5− 3 (c) 3+2
√ √ √ √ √
(d) x y − y x (e) x+h+ x (f) 1 − x + 1
2
11. (a) (2x )2 = 22x , which equals 2x if and only if 2x = x2 , or if and only if x = 0 or x = 2.

3
 (b) Correct because ap−q = ap /aq .
(c) Correct because a−p = 1/ap .
(d) 51/x = 1/5x = 5−x if and only if 1/x = −x or −x2 = 1, so there is no real x that satisfies
the equation.
(e) Put u = ax and v = ay , which reduces the equation to uv = u + v, or 0 = uv − u − v =
(u − 1)(v − 1) − 1. This is true only for special values of u and v and so for special values
of x and y. In particular, the equation is false when x = y = 1.
√ √
(f) Putting u = x and v = y reduces the equation to 2u · 2v = 2uv , which holds if and
only if uv = u + v, as in (e) above.

2.6 Inequalities
3. (a) This inequality has the same solutions as

3x + 1 3x + 1 − 2(2x + 4) −x − 7
− 2 > 0, or > 0, or > 0.
2x + 4 2x + 4 2x + 4
A sign diagram reveals that the inequality is satisfied for −7 < x < −2. A serious error
is to multiply the inequality by 2x + 4, without checking the sign of 2x + 4. If 2x + 4 < 0,
mulitiplying by this number will reverse the inequality sign.4
(b) The inequality is equivalent to 120/n ≤ 0.75 = 3/4, or (480 − 3n)/4n ≤ 0. A sign
diagram reveals that the inequality is satisfied for n < 0 and for n ≥ 160.5
(c) This is easy: g(g − 2) ≤ 0 and so 0 ≤ g ≤ 2.
(p − 2) + 3 p+1
(d) Note that p2 − 4p + 4 = (p − 2)2 , so the inequality reduces to 2
= ≥ 0.
(p − 2) (p − 2)2
The fraction makes no sense if p = 2. The conclusion that p ≥ −1 and p 6= 2 follows.
(e) The inequality is equivalent to
−n − 2 −n − 2 − 2n − 8 −3n − 10 10
− 2 > 0 ⇐⇒ > 0 ⇐⇒ > 0 ⇐⇒ −4 < n < −
n+4 n+4 n+4 3

(f) x4 − x2 = x2 (x2 − 1) < 0 ⇐⇒ x 6= 0 and x2 < 1 ⇐⇒ −1 < x < 0 or 0 < x < 1

6. (a) It is easy to see by means of a sign diagram that x(x + 3) < 0 precisely when x lies in
the open interval (−3, 0). Therefore we have ⇒ , but not ⇐: for example, if x = 10,
then x(x + 3) = 130.
(b) x2 < 9 ⇐⇒ −3 < x < 3, so x2 < 9 ⇒ x < 3. If x = −5, for instance, we have x < 3
but x2 > 9, hence we cannot have ⇐ here.
(c) If x > 0, then x2 > 0, but x2 > 0 also when x < 0. So, we have ⇐ but not ⇒.
(d) As y 2 ≥ 0 for any real number y, we have that x > 0 whenever x > y 2 . But x = 1 > 0
does not imply that x > y 2 for y ≥ 1. That is, we have ⇒ but not ⇐ .
4
It could be instructive to test the inequality for some values of x. For example, for x = 0 it is not true. What
about x = −5?
5
Note that for n = 0 the inequality makes no sense. For n = 160, we have equality.

4
 √ √ √
9. Note that for any x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0, x − 2 xy + y = ( x − y)2 ≥ 0, which implies that

1 √
(x + y) ≥ xy. (∗)
2
Note also that the inequality is strict unless x = y.
To show that mA ≥ mG , simply let x = a and y = b, so that
1 √
mA = (a + b) ≥ ab = mG ,
2
with strict inequality whenever a 6= b.
To show that mG ≥ mH , use x = 1/a and y = 1/b, so that, from (∗),
  r
1 1 1 1 1
+ ≥ · ≥ 0.
2 a b a b

Rearranging, we get that

r !−1
1 1 1 −1
  
1 1
mH = + ≤ · = mG ,
2 a b a b

where, again, the inequality is strict unless a = b.

2.8 Summation
3. (a)–(d): In each case, look at the last term in the sum and replace n by k to get an expression
for the k th term. Call it sk . Then in (a), (b), and (d) the sum is nk=1 sk , and in (c) we have
P
Pn
k=0 sk .
(e) The coefficients are the powers 3n for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, so the general term is 3n xn .
(f)–(g) See the answers in the Solutions Section of the book.
(h) This is trickier: one has to see that each term is 198 larger than the previous term.6
Pn 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Pn 2
7. (a) Valid: k=1 ck = c · 1 + c · 2 + · · · + c · n = c(1 + 2 + · · · + n ) = c k=1 k .
(b) Wrong, even for n = 2: the left-hand side is (a1 + a2 )2 = a21 + 2a1 a2 + a22 , but the
right-hand side is a21 + a22 , which is different unless a1 a2 = 0.
(c) Valid: both sides equal b1 + b2 + · · · + bN .
(d) Valid: both sides equal 51 + 52 + 53 + 54 + 55 .
(e) Valid: both sides equal a20,j + · · · + a2n−1,j .
(f) Wrong, even for n = 2: the left-hand side is a1 + a2 /2, but the right-hand side is
(1/k)(a1 + a2 ).
6
This problem is related to the story about Gauss in Section 2.9.

5
2.11 Double sums
1. (a) See the solution in the book.
4 
2 X
rs 2 rs 2
  X 
(b) Note first that = 0 when s = 0. So reduces to
r+s r+s
s=0 r=2

2
" 2  2  2 #   2   2  2   2   2   2
X 2s 3s 4s 2 3 4 4 6 8
+ + = + + + + +
2+s 3+s 4+s 3 4 5 4 5 6
s=1

4 9 16 36 16 (4 + 16) · 400 + 9 · 225 + (16 + 36) · 144

which equals + + +1+ + = +1
9 16 25 25 9 3600
8000 + 2025 + 7488 17 513 3113
or +1= +1=5+ .
P3600 3600 P 3600P
(c) Because m n 2 n m m n 2
P P P
i=1 j=1 (i + j ) = j=1P i=1 i + i=1 j=1 j , we can use formulae (2.9.4)
p
and (2.9.5) along with the equality k=1 a = pa to write the sum as
n
X m
X
1 1
1
+ 1) + m 61 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
  
2 m(m + 1) + 6 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) = n 2 m(m
j=1 i=1

= 16 mn[3(m + 1) + (n + 1)(2n + 1)] = 16 mn(2n2 + 3n + 3m + 4)

(d) Using formulae (2.9.4) and (2.9.5) again, we get

m X
X 2 m
X m
X m
X
ij = (i + i2 ) = i+ i2 = 21 m(m + 1) + 61 m(m + 1)(2m + 1)
i=1 j=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
1
= 6 m(m + 1)[3 + (2m + 1)] = 16 m(m + 1)(2m + 4) = 13 m(m + 1)(m + 2).

4. ā is the mean of the column means āj , because

n n m m n
!
1X 1X 1 X 1 XX
āj = arj = arj = ā.
n n m mn
j=1 j=1 r=1 r=1 j=1

To prove (∗), note that because arj − ā is independent of the summation index s, it is a
common factor when we sum over s, so m
P Pm
s=1 (arj − ā)(asj − ā) = (arj − ā) s=1 (asj − ā) for
each r. Next, summing over r gives
m X m
"m #" m #
X X X
(arj − ā)(asj − ā) = (arj − ā) (asj − ā) , (∗∗)
r=1 s=1 r=1 s=1
Pm
because s=1 (arj − ā) is a common factor when we sum over r. Using the properties of sums
and the definition of āj , we have
m
X m
X m
X
(arj − ā) = arj − ā = māj − mā = m(āj − ā).
r=1 r=1 r=1
Pm
Similarly, replacing r with s as the index of summation, one also has s=1 (asj − ā) =
m(āj − ā). Substituting these values into (∗∗) then confirms (∗).

6
Review exercises for Chapter 2
5. (a) (2x)4 = 24 x4 = 16x4 .
1 1
(b) 2−1 − 4−1 = 2 − 4 = 41 , so (2−1 − 4−1 )−1 = 4.
(c) Cancel the common factor 4x2 yz 2 .
(d) Here −(−ab3 )−3 = −(−1)−3 a−3 b−9 = a−3 b−9 ,
so [−(−ab3 )−3 (a6 b6 )2 ]3 = [a−3 b−9 a12 b12 ]3 = [a9 b3 ]3 = a27 b9 .
a5 · a3 · a−2 a6
(e) = = a3 .
a−3 · a6 a3
 3 −3
x 3 8 −3
  
x 2
(f) · −2 = · 8x = (x5 )−3 = x−15 .
2 x 8
10. Parts (a), (b), (d), (e), and (f) are straightforward; their solutions appear in the book. For
the other parts:
√ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √
(c) − 3 3 − 6 = −3 + 3 6 = −3 + 3 3 2 = −3 + 3 2.
(g) (1 + x + x2 + x3 )(1 − x) = (1 + x + x2 + x3 ) − (1 + x + x2 + x3 )x = 1 − x4 .
(h) (1 + x)4 = (1 + x)2 (1 + x)2 = (1 + 2x + x2 )(1 + 2x + x2 ), and so on.

12. Parts (a) and (b) are easy, so we focus on the others:

(c) ax + ay + 2x + 2y = a(x + y) + 2(x + y) = (a + 2)(x + y).

(d) 2x2 −5yz+10xz−xy = 2x2 +10xz−(xy+5yz) = 2x(x+5z)−y(x+5z) = (2x−y)(x+5z).
(e) p2 − q 2 + p − q = (p − q)(p + q) + (p − q) = (p − q)(p + q + 1).
(f) u3 + v 3 − u2 v − v 2 u = u2 (u − v) + v 2 (v − u) = (u2 − v 2 )(u − v) = (u + v)(u − v)(u − v),
which simplifies to (u + v)(u − v)2 .
s s s(2s + 1) − s(2s − 1) 2s
16. (a) − = = 2 .
2s − 1 2s + 1 (2s − 1)(2s + 1) 4s − 1
x 1−x 24 −x(x + 3) − (1 − x)(x − 3) − 24 −7x − 21 7
(b) − − 2 = = = .
3−x x+3 x −9 (x − 3)(x + 3) (x − 3)(x + 3) 3−x
(c) Multiplying both numerator and denominator by x2 y 2 yields
y−x y−x 1
2 2
= =
y −x (y − x)(y + x) x+y

17. (a) Simply cancel the factor 25ab.

(b) Factor x2 − y 2 = (x + y)(x − y), and then cancel x + y.
(2a − 3b)2 2a − 3b
(c) The fraction can be written as = .
(2a − 3b)(2a + 3b) 2a + 3b
4x − x3 x(4 − x2 ) x(2 − x)(2 + x) x(2 + x)
(d) 2
= 2
= 2
=
4 − 4x + x (2 − x) (2 − x) 2−x
25. Let each side have length s. Then the area K of the equilateral triangle ABC shown in
Fig. SM2.R.25 is the sum of the areas of the three triangles ABP , BCP , and CAP , which
equals 12 sh1 + 21 sh2 + 21 sh3 = K. It follows that h1 + h2 + h3 = 2K/s, which is independent
of where P is placed in the triangle.

7
 C

h3 h2 s
s P
h1

A s B

Figure SM2.R.25

29. (a) Using the trick that led to Eq. (2.9.4) in the book,

R= 3+ 5+ 7 + · · · + 197 + 199 + 201

R = 201 + 199 + 197 + · · · + 7+ 5+ 3.

Summing vertically term by term, noting that there are 100 terms, gives

2R = 204 + 204 + 204 + · · · + 204 + 204 + 204 = 100 × 204 = 20400,

and thus R = 10200.

(b) Here one has

S = 1001 + 2002 + 3003 + · · · + 8008 + 9009 + 10010

= 1001(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 8 + 9 + 10) = 1001 · 55 = 55055

3 Solving Equations
3.1 Solving equations
3. (a) We note first that x = −3 and x = −4 both make the equation absurd. Multiplying the
equation by the common denominator (x+3)(x+4) yields (x−3)(x+4) = (x+3)(x−4),
i.e. x2 + x − 12 = x2 − x − 12, and thus x = 0.
(b) Multiplying by the common denominator (x − 3)(x + 3) yields 3(x + 3) − 2(x − 3) = 9,
from which we get x = −6.
(c) Multiplying by the common denominator 15x, assuming that x 6= 0, yields 18x2 − 75 =
10x2 − 15x + 8x2 , from which we get x = 5.

5. (a) Multiplying by the common denominator 12 yields 9y − 3 − 4 + 4y + 24 = 36y, and so

y = 17/23.
(b) Multiplying by the common denominator 2x(x + 2) yields 8(x + 2) + 6x = 2(2x + 2) + 7x
and so 14x + 16 = 11x + 4, from which we find that 3x = −12 and so x = −4.
(c) Multiplying both numerator and denominator in the first fraction by 1 − z leads to
2 − 2z − z 6
= .
(1 − z)(1 + z) 2z + 1
Multiplying each side of the equation by (1 − z 2 )(2z + 1) yields (2 − 3z)(2z + 1) = 6 − 6z 2 .
This simplifies to 2 + z − 6z 2 = 6 − 6z 2 whose only solution is z = 4.

8
 (d) Expanding all the parentheses gives
p 3 1 p 1 p 1
− − + − + =− .
4 8 4 12 3 3 3
Multiplying by the common denominator 24 gives the equation 6p − 9 − 6 + 2p − 8 + 8p =
−8, whose solution is p = 15/16.

3.2 Equations and their parameters

2. (a) Multiply both sides by abx to obtain b + a = 2abx. Hence,
 
b+a b a 1 1 1
x= = + =2 + .
2ab 2ab 2ab a b

(b) Multiply the equation by cx + d to obtain ax + b = cAx + dA, or (a − cA)x = dA − b,

and thus x = (dA − b)/(a − cA) provided that a 6= cA.
(c) Multiply the equation by x1/2 to obtain 12 p = wx1/2 . Thus x1/2 = p/2w and so, after
squaring each side, x = p2 /4w2 .
√
(d) Multiply each side by 1 + x to obtain 1 + x + ax = 0, so x = −1/(1 + a).
(e) x2 = b2 /a2 , so x = ±b/a provided that a 6= 0.
(f) We see immediately that x = 0.

4. (a) αx − a = βx − b if and only if (α − β)x = a − b, so x = (a − b)/(α − β) provided that

α 6= β.
√
(b) Squaring each side of pq = 3q + 5 yields pq = (3q + 5)2 , so p = (3q + 5)2 /q provided
that q 6= 0.
(c) Y = 94 + 0.2[Y − (20 + 0.5Y )] = 94 + 0.2Y − 4 − 0.1Y , so 0.9Y = 90, implying that
Y = 100.
r
(d) Raise each side to the fourth power to obtain K 2 K = Q4 , so K 3 = 2wQ4 /r, and

1/3 2w
hence K = 2wQ4 /r .
(e) Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the left-hand fraction by 4K 1/2 L3/4 leads
to 2L/K = r/w, from which we get L = rK/2w.
1 4 −1
(f) Raise each side to the fourth power to obtain 16 p K (r/2w) = r4 . It follows that
1 4 −3 −1
K = 32 p r w .

3.3 Quadratic equations

3. These results are straightforward and can be found in the book. To illustrate the process,
√ √ √
let us consider part (d): First, rewrite the equation as r2 + ( 3 − 2)r − 6 = 0, and then

9
 apply the formula to obtain
√ √ q√ √ √
−( 3 − 2) ± ( 3 − 2)2 − 4 · 1 · (− 6)
r=
q 2·1
√ √ √ √
 
1
= − 3+ 2± 3−2 6+2+4 6
2
√ √ √
 q 
1
= − 3+ 2± 3+2 6+2
2
√ √ q√ √
 
1 2
= − 3 + 2 ± ( 3 + 2)
2
1 √ √ √ √ 
= − 3 + 2 ± ( 3 + 2) ,
2
√ √ √ √
so the solutions are r = 2 2 2 = 2 and r = − 21 2 3 = − 3.
1

5. (a) See the solution in the book.

(b) If the smaller of the two natural numbers is n, then the larger is n+1, so the requirement
is that n2 + (n + 1)2 = 13. This reduces to 2n2 + 2n − 12 = 0, i.e. n2 + n − 6 = 0, with
solutions n = −3 and n = 2, so the two numbers are 2 and 3.7
(c) If the shorter side has length x, then the other side has length x + 14. According to
Pythagoras’s Theorem one has x2 + (x + 14)2 = 342 , or x2 + 14x − 480 = 0. The only
positive solution is x = 16, and then x + 14 = 30.
(d) If the usual driving speed is s km/h and the usual time spent is t hours, then st = 80.
Since 16 minutes is 16/60 = 4/15 hours, driving at the speed s + 10 km/h for s − 4/15
hours gives (s + 10)(t − 4/15) = 80. From the first equation, t = 80/s. Inserting this
into the second equation, we get (s + 10)(80/s − 4/15) = 80. Rearranging, we obtain
s2 + 10s − 3000 = 0, whose only positive solution is s = 50. So his usual driving speed
is 50 km/h.

3.4 Nonlinear equations

2. (a) The numerator 5 + x2 is never 0, so there are no solutions.
x2 + 1 + 2x (x + 1)2
(b) The equation is obviously equivalent to 2
= 0, or 2 = 0, so x = −1.
x +1 x +1
(c) Because x = −1 is clearly not a solution, we can multiply the equation by (x + 1)2/3 to
obtain the equivalent equation (x + 1)1/3 − 13 x(x + 1)−2/3 = 0. Multiplying this equation
again by (x + 1)2/3 yields x + 1 − 31 x = 0, whose solution is x = −3/2.
(d) Multiplying by x − 1 yields x + 2x(x − 1) = 0, or x(2x − 1) = 0. Hence x = 0 or x = 1/2.

3. (a) z = 0 satisfies the equation. If z 6= 0, then z − a = za + zb, or (1 − a − b)z = a. If

a + b = 1 we have a contradiction. If a + b 6= 1, then z = a/(1 − a − b).
(b) The equation is equivalent to (1 + λ)µ(x − y) = 0, so λ = −1, µ = 0, or x = y.
(c) µ = ±1 makes the equation meaningless. Otherwise, multiplying the equation by 1 − µ2
yields λ(1 − µ) = −λ, or λ(2 − µ) = 0, so λ = 0 or µ = 2.
(d) The equation is equivalent to b(1 + λ)(a − 2) = 0, so b = 0, λ = −1, or a = 2.
7
If we had asked for integer solutions, we would have −3 and −2 in addition.

10
3.5 Using implication arrows
3. (a) If
√ √
x−4= x + 5 − 9, (i)
then squaring each side gives
√
x − 4 = ( x + 5 − 9)2 . (ii)
√
Expanding the square on the right-hand side of (ii) gives x − 4 = x + 5 − 18 x + 5 + 81,
√ √
which reduces to 18 x + 5 = 90 or x + 5 = 5, implying that x + 5 = 25 and so x = 20.
This hows that if x is a solution of (i), then x = 20. No other value of x can satisfy (i).
But if we check this solution, we find that with x = 20 the left-hand side of (i) becomes
√ √
16 = 4, and the right-hand side becomes 25 − 9 = 5 − 9 = −4. This means that
equation (i) actually has no solutions at all.8
y √
y =9− x+5
5

√
y= x−4
x
5 10 15 20 25

-5 √
y= x + 5− 9

Figure SM3.5.3

(b) If x is a solution of
√ √
x−4=9− x + 5, (iii)
then just as in part (a) we find that x must be a solution of
√
x − 4 = (9 − x + 5)2 . (iv)
√ √
Now, (9 − x + 5)2 = ( x + 5 − 9)2 , so equation (iv) is equivalent to equation (ii) in
part (a). This means that (iv) has exactly one solution, namely x = 20. Inserting this
value of x into equation (iii), we find that x = 20 is a solution of (iii).
A geometric explanation of the results can be given with reference to Fig. SM3.5.3. We see
that the two solid curves in the figure have no point in common, that is, the expressions
√ √
x − 4 and x + 5 − 9 are not equal for any value of x.9 This explains why the equation
√
in (a) has no solution. The dashed curve y = 9 − x + 5, on the other hand, intersects
√
y = x + 5 for x = 20 (and only there), and this corresponds to the solution in part (b).10
8
But note that 42 = (−4)2 , i.e. the square of the left-hand side equals the square of the right-hand side. That is
how the spurious
√ solution √ x = 20 managed to sneak in.
9
In fact, x − 4 − ( x + 5 − 9) increases with x, so there is no point of intersection farther to the right, either.
10
In part (a) it was necessary to check the result, because the transition from (i) to (ii) is only an implication,
not an equivalence. Similarly, it was necessary to check the result in part (b), since the transition from (iii) to (iv)
also is only an implication — at least, it is not clear that it is an equivalence. (Afterwards, it turned out to be an
equivalence, but we could not know that until we had solved the equation.)

11
3.6 Two linear equations in two unknowns
4. (a) If the two numbers are x and y, then x + y = 52 and x − y = 26. Adding the two
equations gives 2x = 78, so x = 39, and then y = 52 − 39 = 13.
(b) Let the cost of one table be $x and the cost of one chair $y. Then 5x + 20y = 1800 and
2x + 3y = 420. Solving this system yields x = 120, y = 60.
(c) Let x and y be the number of units produced of B and P, respectively. This gives the
equations x = 23 y and 200x + 300y = 180 000. Inserting the expression for x from the
first equation into the second equation gives 300y + 300y = 180 000, which yields the
solution y = 300 and then x = 450. Thus, 450 units of quality A and 300 units of quality
B should be produced.
(d) Suppose that the person invested $x at 5% and $y at 7.2%. Then x + y = 10 000 and
0.05x + 0.072y = 676. The solution is x = 2000 and y = 8000.

Review exercises for Chapter 3

2. (a) Assuming x 6= ±4, multiplying by the lowest common denominator (x−4)(x+4) reduces
the equation to (x − 3)(x + 4) = (x + 3)(x − 4) or x = −x, so x = 0.
(b) The given equation makes sense only if x 6= ±3. If we multiply the equation by the
common denominator (x+3)(x−3) we get 3(x+3)2 −2(x2 −9) = 9x+27 or x2 +9x+18 = 0,
with the solutions x = −6 and x = −3. The only solution of the given equation is
therefore x = −6.
(c) Subtracting 2x/3 from each side simplifies the equation to 0 = −1 + 5/x, whose only
solution is x = 5.
(d) Assuming x 6= 0 and x 6= ±5, multiply by the common denominator x(x − 5)(x + 5) to
get x(x − 5)2 − x(x2 − 25) = x2 − 25 − (11x + 20)(x + 5). Expanding each side of this
equation gives x3 − 10x2 + 25x − x3 + 25x = x2 − 25 − 11x2 − 75x − 100, which simplifies
to 50x = −125 − 75x with solution x = −1.

4. (a) Multiply each side of the equation by 5K 1/2 to obtain 15L1/3 = K 1/2 . Squaring each
side gives K = 225L2/3 .
(b) Raise each side to the power 1/t to obtain 1 + r/100 = 21/t , and so r = 100(21/t − 1).
(c) abx0b−1 = p, so x0b−1 = p/ab. Now raise each side to the power 1/(b − 1).
(d) Raise each side to the power −ρ to get (1 − λ)a−ρ + λb−ρ = c−ρ , or b−ρ = λ−1 [c−ρ −
(1 − λ)a−ρ ]. Now raise each side to the power −1/ρ.

4 Functions of One Variable

4.2 Basic definitions
1. (a) f (0) = 02 + 1 = 1, f (−1) = (−1)2 + 1 = 2, f (1/2) = (1/2)2 + 1 = 1/4 + 1 = 5/4, and
√ √
f ( 2) = ( 2)2 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.

12
 (b) (i) Since (−x)2 = x2 , f (x) = f (−x) for all x. (ii) f (x+1) = (x+1)2 +1 = x2 +2x+1+1 =
x2 + 2x + 2 and f (x) + f (1) = x2 + 1 + 2 = x2 + 3. Thus equality holds if and only if
x2 + 2x + 2 = x2 + 3, i.e. if and only if x = 1/2. (iii) f (2x) = (2x)2 + 1p= 4x2 + 1 and
√
2f (x) = 2x2 + 2. Now, 4x2 + 1 = 2x2 + 2 ⇐⇒ x2 = 1/2 ⇐⇒ x = ± 1/2 = ± 21 2.

13. (a) We require 5 − x ≥ 0, so x ≤ 5.

(b) The denominator x2 − x = x(x − 1) must be different from 0, so x 6= 0 and x 6= 1.
(c) To begin with, the denominator must be nonzero, so we require x 6= 2 and x 6= −3.
Moreover, since we can only take the square root of a nonnegative number, the fraction
(x − 1)/(x − 2)(x + 3) must be ≥ 0. A sign diagram reveals that Df = (−3, 1] ∪ (2, ∞).
Note in particular that the function is defined with value 0 at x = 1.

4.4 Linear functions

10. The points that satisfy the inequality 3x + 4y ≤ 12 are those that lie on or below the straight
line 3x + 4y = 12, as explained in Example 4.4.6 for a similar inequality. The points that
satisfy the inequality x − y ≤ 1, or equivalently, y ≥ x − 1, are those on or above the straight
line x − y = 1. Finally, the points that satisfy the inequality 3x + y ≥ 3, or equivalently,
y ≥ 3− 3x, are those on or above the straight line 3x + y = 3. The set of points that satisfy all
these three inequalities simultaneously is the shaded set shown in Fig. A4.4.10 in the book.

4.6 Quadratic functions

9. The key to the argument is part (b). We find that f (x) = Ax2 + Bx + C, with coefficients
A = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n , B = 2(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn ), and C = b21 + b22 + · · · + b2n . Now, in case
B 2 −4AC > 0, then according to formula (2.3.4), the equation f (x) = Ax2 +Bx+C = 0 would
have two distinct solutions. This would contradict f (x) ≥ 0 for all x. Hence B 2 − 4AC ≤ 0
and the conclusion follows.

4.7 Polynomials
3
3. (a) The answer is 2x2 + 2x + 4 + , because
x−1
(2x3 + 2x − 1) ÷ (x − 1)= 2x2 + 2x + 4
2x3 − 2x2
2x2 + 2x − 1
2x2 − 2x
4x − 1
4x − 4
3 remainder

13
 (b) The answer is x2 + 1, because

(x4 + x3 + x2 + x) ÷ (x2 + x) = x2 + 1
x4 + x3
x2 + x
x2 + x
0

4x
(c) The answer is x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 1 − , because
x2 + x + 1
(x5 − 3x4 + 1) ÷ (x2 + x + 1) = x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 1
x5 + x4 + x3
− 4x4 − x3 +1
− 4x4 − 4x3 − 4x2
3x3 + 4x2 +1
3 2
3x + 3x + 3x
x2 − 3x + 1
x2 + x + 1
−4x remainder

(d) The answer is

28x2 − 36x + 13
3x5 + 6x3 − 3x2 + 12x − 12 + ,
x3 − 2x + 1
because
(3x8 + x2 + 1 ) ÷ (x3 − 2x + 1) = 3x5 + 6x3 − 3x2 + 12x − 12
3x8 − 6x6 + 3x5
6x6 − 3x5 + x2 + 1
6x6 − 12x4 + 6x3
−3x5 + 12x4 + 6x3 + x2 + 1
−3x5 + 6x3 − 3x2
12x4 − 12x3 + 4x2 + 1
4 2
12x − 24x + 12x
−12x3 + 28x2 − 12x + 1
−12x3 + 24x − 12
28x2 − 36x + 13 remainder

4. (a) Since the graph intersects the x-axis at the two points x = −1 and x = 3, we try the
quadratic function f (x) = a(x + 1)(x − 3), for some constant a > 0. But the graph
passes through the point (1, −2), so we need f (1) = −2. Since f (1) = −4a for our chosen
function, a = 21 . This leads to the formula y = 12 (x + 1)(x − 3).

14
 (b) Because the equation f (x) = 0 must have roots x = −3, 1, 2, we try the cubic function
f (x) = b(x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 2). Then f (0) = 6b. According to the graph, f (0) = −12. So
b = −2, and hence y = −2(x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 2).
(c) Here we try a cubic polynomial of the form y = c(x + 3)(x − 2)2 , with x = 2 as a double
root. Then f (0) = 12c. From the graph we see that f (0) = 6, and so c = 12 . This leads
to the formula y = 12 (x + 3)(x − 2)2 .
8. Polynomial division gives
(x2 − γx ) ÷ (x + β) = x − (β + γ)
2
x + βx
− (β + γ)x
− (β + γ)x−β(β + γ)
β(β + γ) remainder

and so  
β(β + γ) αβ(β + γ)
E = α x − (β + γ) + = αx − α(β + γ) + .
x+β x+β

4.8 Power functions

4. (a) C. The graph is a parabola and since the coefficient in front of x2 is positive, it has a
minimum point.
√
(b) D. The function is defined for x ≤ 2 and crosses the y-axis at y = 2 2 ≈ 2.8.
(c) E. The graph is a parabola and since the coefficient in front of x2 is negative, it has a
maximum point.
(d) B. When x increases, y decreases, and y becomes close to −2 when x is large.
(e) A. The function is defined for x ≥ 2 and increases as x increases.
(f) F. Let y = 2 − ( 21 )x . Then y increases as x increases. For large values of x, one has y
close to 2.

4.10 Logarithmic functions

3. (a) 3x 4x+2 = 8 when 3x 4x 42 = 8 or (12)x 42 = 8, and so 12x = 1/2. Taking the natural log
of each side gives x ln 12 = − ln 2, so x = − ln 2/ ln 12.
(b) Since ln x2 = 2 ln x, the equation reduces to 7 ln x = 6, so ln x = 6/7, and thus x = e6/7 .
(c) One possible way to solve the equation is to rewrite it as 4x (1 − 4−1 ) = 3x (3 − 1), or
4x · (3/4) = 3x · 2, so (4/3)x = 8/3, implying that x = ln(8/3)/ ln(4/3). Alternatively,
start by dividing both sides by 3x to obtain (4/3)x (1 − 1/4) = 3 − 1 = 2, so (4/3)x = 8/3
as before.

For parts (d)–(f) below, we use the definition aloga x = x for all a, x > 0.
(d) log2 x = 2 implies that 2log2 x = 22 or x = 4.
2
(e) logx e2 = 2 implies that xlogx e = x2 or e2 = x2 . Hence x = e.

15
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
for having been employed by Mahomet as amanuensis to record his
early revelations, he had proved in some way unfaithful to the trust;
and on the capture of Mecca, was in consequence proscribed from
the amnesty, and only at the intercession of Othmân escaped being
put to death. Possessed of administrative
ability, he had been appointed by Omar to Abu Sarh supersedes Amru in
the government of Upper Egypt. But some Upper 647.
Egypt. a.h. XXVI. a.d.

years after, he fell out with Amru, in whom

was vested the supreme control of the province; and each appealed
to Othmân. Amru was declared to be in fault, and the Caliph
deposed him altogether from the civil charge of Egypt. Amru
objected. ‘To be over the army,’ he said, ‘and not over the revenue,
was but holding the cow’s horns, while another milked her.’ He
repaired angrily to Othmân, who, after some words of bitter
altercation, transferred the entire administration, civil and military,
into the hands of Abu Sarh. The act was unfortunate for the Caliph. It
threw Amru into the ranks of the disaffected party at Medîna; while
the bad repute of ‘the renegade’ Abu Sarh, though he was an able
warrior, gave point to the charges of partiality and nepotism now rife
against Othmân.[444]
Abu Sarh, left thus in sole command,
carried his arms vigorously along the coast Conquest in Northern Africa.
beyond Tripoli and Barca, and threatened a.h. XXVI. a.d. 647.
Carthage and the far west. The Byzantine Governor, Gregory,
reinforced by the Emperor, advanced against him with an army, we
are told, of one hundred and twenty thousand men. Othmân, warned
of the danger, strengthened Abu Sarh by a large contingent of Arab
troops; and with them marched a numerous company of veterans
and ‘Companions,’ including the sons of Abu Bekr, of Abbâs, and of
Zobeir. The field was long and hotly contested; and Abu Sarh, to
stimulate his men, promised the hand of Gregory’s daughter, with a
large dower, to the warrior who should slay her father. The enemy
was at last discomfited with great slaughter, and a citizen of Medîna
gained the lady for his prize. He carried her off on his camel to
Medîna; and the martial verses which he sang by the way are still
preserved.[445] In this campaign, Othmân incurred much odium by
granting Abu Sarh a fifth of the royal share of the booty as personal
prize. The rest was sent as usual to Medîna; and here again Othmân
is blamed for allowing Merwân his cousin to become the purchaser
of the same at an inadequate price.[446]
But it is as the first commander of a
Moslem fleet that Abu Sarh is chiefly Naval operations, forbidden
famous, in which capacity he both added by Omar.
largely to the conquests of Islam, and also by his pre-eminence
contributed anew to the obloquy Cast on his master’s name. Muâvia
had for a long time keenly missed the support of a fleet, and had
sought permission of Omar to embark his soldiery in ships. ‘The isles
of the Levant,’ he wrote, ‘are so close to the Syrian shore, that you
might almost hear the barking of the dogs and the cackling of the
hens: give me leave to attack them.’ But Omar dreaded the sea, and
wrote to consult Amru, who answered thus:—‘The sea is a
boundless expanse, whereon great ships look but tiny specks; there
is nought saving the heavens above and the waters beneath; when
the wind lulls, the sailor’s heart is broken; when tempestuous, his
senses reel. Trust it little, fear it much. Man at sea is an insect
floating on a splinter, now engulfed, now scared to death.’ On receipt
of this alarming account, Omar forbade Muâvia to have anything to
do with ships. ‘The Syrian sea, they tell me, is longer and broader
than the dry land, and is instant with the Lord, night and day, seeking
to swallow it up. How should I trust my people on the bosom of the
cursed infidel? Remember Alâ. Nay, my friend, the safety of my
people is dearer to me than all the treasures of Greece.’
Nothing, therefore, was attempted by
sea in the reign of Omar. But on his death, But undertaken by Othmân.
Muâvia renewed the petition, and, at his
reiterated request, Othmân at last relaxed the ban, on condition that
the service should be voluntary. The first
fleet equipped against Cyprus, in the Cyprus occupied. a.h. XXVIII.
twenty-eighth year of the Hegira, was a.d. 649.
commanded by Abu Cays as admiral; it was joined by Abu Sarh with
a complement of ships manned by Egyptians, and carried a body of
Arab warriors from Alexandria. Cyprus was taken easily, and a great
multitude of captives carried off. The Cypriots agreed to pay the
same revenue as they had done to the Emperor; but, unable as yet
to guarantee their protection, the Caliph remitted the ordinary poll-
tax. Of Abu Cays we are told that he headed fifty expeditions by land
and by sea, but was killed at the last, while engaged in exploring a
Grecian sea-port.[447]
Three years after the fall of Cyprus,
driven now from the harbours of Africa, and Naval victory off Alexandria.
seriously threatened in the Levant, the a.h. XXXI. a.d. 652.
Byzantines gathered a fleet of five or six hundred vessels of war, and
defied the Arabs at sea. Abu Sarh was appointed to take up the
challenge. He manned every available ship in the ports of Egypt and
Africa; and his squadron, though much inferior in weight and
equipment to the enemy’s, was crowded with valiant warriors from
the army. The Byzantine fleet came in sight near Alexandria. The
wind lulled, and both sides lay for a while at anchor. The night was
passed by the Moslems in recitation of the Corân and prayer, while
the Greeks kept up the clangour of their bells. In the morning, a
fierce engagement took place. The Arab ships grappled with their
adversaries, and a hand-to-hand encounter with sword and dagger
ensued. The slaughter was great on both sides; but the Greeks,
unable to withstand the wild onset of the Saracens, broke and
dispersed. Constantine, who had been in command, sailed away to
Syracuse, where the people, infuriated at the defeat, despatched him
in his bath.[448]
In this expedition, the discontent
against Othmân, notwithstanding the Obloquy cast on Othmân in
splendid victory, for the first time found this affair.
open and dangerous expression among some of the leading
Companions. Mohammed son of Abu Bekr, and Mohammed son of
Abu Hodzeifa (afterwards leaders in rebellion), murmured against
the Caliph for appointing Abu Sarh admiral. ‘Othmân hath changed
the ordinances of his predecessors,’ they said, ‘and made captain of
the fleet a man whom the Prophet proscribed, and desired to have
put to death; and such like men also hath he put in chief command at
Kûfa and Bussorah, and elsewhere.’ The clamour reaching the ears
of Abu Sarh, he declared that none of these men should fight in his
line of battle. Excluded thus from the victory, they were the more
incensed. Spite of the threats of Abu Sarh, the inflammatory
language spread, and men began to speak openly and unadvisedly
against Othmân.[449]
The clouds were louring, and the
horizon of the unfortunate Caliph Caliph’s outlook darkens.
darkening all around.
 CHAPTER XXXI.
DOMESTIC EVENTS DURING THE CALIPHATE OF OTHMAN. HIS
GROWING UNPOPULARITY.

Kûfa and Bussorah at this period

exercised an influence on the destinies of Discontent at Kûfa and
Islam hardly less potent than that of the Bussorah.
Court of Medîna itself. The turbulent and factious atmosphere of
these cities became rapidly and dangerously charged with
sentiments of disloyalty and rebellion, and an unwise change of
governors aggravated the evil.
Moghîra did not long enjoy the power to
which the weakness of Omar had raised Sád reinstated in the
government of Kûfa; a.h.
him. He was removed by Othmân shortly XXXIV. a.d. 645,
after his accession; and, to fill the vacancy,
in obedience (as some say) to the dying wish of Omar, Sád, the
conqueror of Medâin, was reinstated in his former office. The issue
was again unfortunate. To provide for his luxurious living, Sád,
shortly after his appointment, took an advance of money from the
chancellor of his treasury, Ibn Masûd; who, by and by, became
importunate for its repayment. A heated altercation ensued, and Sád
swore angrily at Ibn Masûd. The factious city ranged itself, part with
the great warrior, and part with the quondam slave. The quarrel
reached the ears of Othmân, who was much displeased, and
recalled Sád before he had been a year at Kûfa. As successor, the
Caliph appointed Welîd ibn Ocba, a brave
warrior, but suspected of intemperance, but shortly superseded by
and withal a uterine brother of his own. To Welîd ibn Ocba,
make the choice the more unfortunate, Welîd was son of that Ocba
who, when taken prisoner in the battle of Bedr and about to be put to
death, exclaimed in the bitterness of his soul, ‘Who will care for my
little children?’ and was answered by the Prophet, ‘Hell-fire!’ The
words were not forgotten, and faction was careful now to turn them
to the worst account. Nevertheless, Welîd was popular; and as, for
several years, he directed successive campaigns in the east with
gallantry and vigour, he managed thus to divert the restless spirits of
his people from discontent at home. But in the end, the unruly
populace was too strong for him. A murder took place, and sentence
of death was executed at the city gate against three of the culprits.
[450] Their relatives resented the act of
justice, and lay in wait to find ground of who was deposed for
inebriety. a.h. XXX. a.d. 651.
accusation against the governor, whose
habits gave them ready opportunity to attain their object. Charges of
intemperance were repeatedly laid against him, and as often
dismissed by Othmân, because wanting in legal proof. At last his
enemies succeeded in detaching from his hand the signet-ring of
office while he slept (as they said) from the effects of a debauch, and
carried it off in triumph to Medîna. But still worse, it was established
that Welîd had on one occasion conducted the morning prayers in
such a state of inebriation that, having come to the end of the proper
service, he went on, without stopping, to commence another. The
scandal was great; and the majesty of Islam must be vindicated.
Welîd was recalled to Medîna, scourged according to law, and
deposed.[451]
At Bussorah, too, things were going
from bad to worse. Abu Mûsa had now Abu Mûsa deposed at
been many years governor, when the Bussorah. 650.
a.h. XXIX. a.d.

restless citizens became impatient of his

rule. He had been preaching to the pampered soldiery the virtue of
enduring hardness as good soldiers of the faith, and therefore of
going forth on foot to war. When the next expedition was ready to
start, they watched to see whether he would himself set the
example. And as his ample baggage issued forth, winding in a long
string of mules from the approaches to the castle, they set upon him,
crying out, ‘Give us of these beasts to ride upon, and walk thou on
foot, a pattern of the hardness thou preachest unto us.’ Then they
repaired to Medîna, and complained that their governor had drained
the land of its wealth, pampered the Coreish, and tyrannised over
the Arab tribes. Instead of checking with promptitude their petulance
and insubordination, Othmân gave it new life by deposing Abu Mûsa
on these vague complaints, and appointing an obscure citizen whom
they desired, to be their governor. Found unequal to the post, this
man was deposed, and a youthful cousin of the Caliph, Ibn Aámir,
[452] promoted in his room. When tidings of
his nomination reached Bussorah, Abu Ibn Aámir appointed governor.
Mûsa told the people: ‘Now ye shall have a taxgatherer to your
hearts’ content, rich in cousins, aunts, and uncles; he will flood you
with his harpies!’ And so, in truth, it turned out; for he soon filled all
the local offices and the commands in Persia with creatures of his
own. But in other respects he proved an able ruler, and took a
leading part in the struggle now close at hand.
The government of Kûfa, vacated by
the deposition of Welîd, together with the Saîd governor of Kûfa. a.h.
XXX. a.d. 651.
whole province of Mesopotamia, was
conferred by Othmân upon another young and untried kinsman, Saîd
ibn al Aás. His father was killed fighting against the Prophet at Bedr;
and the boy, thus left an orphan, had been brought up by Omar, and
was eventually sent by him to the wars in Syria. Receiving a good
account of his breeding and prowess, Omar summoned him to his
court, and gave him two Arab maidens to wife.[453] This youth, now
promoted to the most critical post in the empire, was not only without
experience in the art of governing, but was vainly inflated with the
pretensions of the Coreish. Accustomed in Syria to the discipline of
Muâvia’s rule, he wrote to Othmân, on reaching Kûfa, that license
reigned there; that noble birth passed for nothing; and that the
Bedouins were away, beyond control, with the bit between their
teeth. His final address as governor was a blustering harangue, in
which he glibly talked of crushing the sedition and arrogance of the
men of Kûfa with a rod of iron.
Countenanced by the Caliph in his vain Discontent gains ground at
career, he fomented discontent by Kûfa.
advancing to invidious distinction the Coreishite nobility, and treating
with contumely the great body of the citizens. ‘One Coreishite
succeedeth another in this government,’ they said;—‘the last no
better than the first. It is but “out of the frying-pan into the fire.”’ The
under-current of faction gained daily in strength and volume. But the
vigorous campaigns of Saîd in northern Persia, for he was an active
soldier, served for a time to occupy men’s minds, and to stay the
open exhibition of the rebellious spirit.
Meanwhile other causes were at work
throughout the empire calculated to Other causes of disaffection.
increase the disaffection; or which, if
unimportant in themselves, were adroitly seized by the Caliph’s
enemies and turned to that purpose.
First may be mentioned the recension
of the Corân. The Moslem warriors had Othmân’s recension of the
Corân. a.h. XXX. a.d. 651.
spread themselves over such vast areas,
and the various columns, as well as converted peoples, were so
widely separated one from the other, that differences arose in the
recitation of the sacred text, as it had been settled in the previous
reign. Bussorah followed the reading of Abu Mûsa; Kûfa was guided
by the authority of Ibn Masûd, their chancellor; and the text of Hims
differed from that in use even at Damascus. Hodzeifa, during his
campaign in Persia, having witnessed the variations in the different
provinces, returned to Kûfa strongly impressed with the gravity of the
evil and the need of a revision. Ibn Masûd was highly incensed with
the slight thus put upon the authority of his text. But Hodzeifa
persisted in his views, and, supported by Saîd, the governor, urged
Othmân to restore the unity of the divine word, ‘before that believers
began to differ in their scripture, even as do the Jews and
Christians.’ The Caliph took the advice of the leading Companions at
Medîna, and, in accordance therewith, called for samples of the
manuscripts in use throughout the empire. He then appointed a
syndicate, from amongst the Coreish, of men whose authority could
be relied upon, to collate these copies with the sacred originals still
in the keeping of Haphsa, the widow of Mahomet. Under their
supervision the variations were reconciled, and an authoritative
exemplar written out, of which duplicates were deposited at Mecca
and Medîna, Kûfa and Damascus. From these exemplars, copies
were multiplied over the empire; all former manuscripts were called
in and committed to the flames; and the standard text was brought
into exclusive use. The uniformity thus secured by the secular arm,
and maintained by the same in every land and every age, is taken by
the simple believer as a proof of divine custodianship. The action of
Othmân was received at the moment, as it deserved, with a very
general consent, excepting at Kûfa. There Ibn Masûd, who prided
himself on his faultless recitation of the oracle, pure as it fell from the
Prophet’s lips, was much displeased; and the charge of sacrilege in
having burned the former copies of the sacred text, was readily
circulated amongst the factious citizens. By and by the charge was
spread abroad, and was taken up with avidity by the enemies of
Othmân; and, ages afterwards, we find it still eagerly urged by the
partisans of the Abbasside dynasty as an unpardonable offence on
the part of the ungodly Caliph. The accusation, thus trumped up for
party purposes, was really without foundation. Indeed, it was scouted
by Aly himself. When, several years after, he proceeded as Caliph to
Kûfa, he found the citizens still blaming his ill-starred predecessor for
the act. ‘Silence!’ he said; ‘Othmân acted as he did with the advice of
the leading men amongst us; and if I had been ruler at the time,
instead of him, I should myself have exactly done the same.’[454]
A great body of the nobility from Mecca
and Medîna about this time transferred Many of the Coreish migrate
their residence to Irâc. These had no right to Irâc.
to share in the endowments of that province, the special privileges of
which, in virtue of their conquest, were reserved for the present
citizens of Kûfa and Bussorah. They were allowed, however, to do so
on selling to Othmân, on behalf of the State, the properties which
they owned in the Hejâz; and the concession appears to have added
a fresh grievance to foment the rising discontent at the extravagant
pretensions of the Coreish.[455]
The story of Abu Dzarr Ghifâry is
singularly illustrative of the times, and his Story of Abu Dzarr Ghifâry,
harsh treatment is ordinarily mentioned as
a serious ground of complaint against the Caliph. He was one of the
earliest converts to the faith; and tradition asserts that he even
anticipated Mahomet himself in some of the observances of Islam.
An ascetic in his habits, he inveighed against the riches and
extravagance of the day—evils which were altogether alien from the
simplicity of Mahomet, and which, rushing in like a flood, were now
demoralising the people. Gorgeous palaces, crowds of slaves,
multitudes of horses, camels, flocks and herds, profusion of costly
garments, sumptuous fare, and splendid equipage, were the fashion,
not only in Syria and Irâc, but had begun to find their way even into
the Hejâz.[456] The protest of Abu Dzarr points to the recoil of the
stricter class of believers against all this luxury and indulgence; and
the manner in which the discontented classes, and the advocates of
communism, were beginning to turn that recoil to their own account,
and to the discredit of the government. Visiting Syria, the spirit of the
ascetic was stirred at the pomps and vanities so rife around him, and
he preached repentance to the inhabitants of Damascus. ‘This gold
and silver of yours,’ he cried, ‘shall one day be heated red-hot in the
fire of hell; and therewith shall ye be seared in your foreheads, sides,
and backs, ye ungodly spendthrifts![457] Wherefore, spend now the
same in alms, leaving yourselves enough but for your daily bread; or
else woe be to you in that day!’ Crowds flocked to hear him, some
trembling under the rebuke; the envious rejoicing at the contempt
poured on the rich and noble; and the people dazzled by the vision
of themselves sharing in the treasures thus denounced. Uneasy at
the disturbance caused by these diatribes in the public mind, Muâvia
resolved to test the spirit of the preacher. He sent him a purse of a
thousand pieces; in the morning, affecting to have made a mistake,
he demanded the return of the gift; but during the night Abu Dzarr
had distributed the whole in charity. Upon this, Muâvia, apprehensive
of the spread of communistic doctrines, despatched the preacher to
Medîna, telling Othmân that he was a sincere but misguided
enthusiast. Before the Caliph, Abu Dzarr persisted in fearlessly
denouncing the great and wealthy, and urged that they should be
forced to disgorge their riches. Othmân condescended to reason
with him. ‘After men have completely fulfilled their legal obligations,’
he asked, ‘what power remaineth with me to compel them to any
further sacrifice?’ and he turned to Káb, the learned Jewish convert,
in corroboration of what he had said. ‘Out
upon thee, thou son of a Jew! What have I banished by Othman to
to do with thee?’ cried Abu Dzarr, and with Rabadza.
651.
a.h. XXX. a.d.

these words smote Káb violently upon the

stomach. Argument being thus of no further use, Othmân banished
the preacher to Rabadza in the desert of Nejd, where two years after
he died in penury. As he felt his end approach, the hermit desired his
daughter to slay a kid, and have it ready for a party of travellers who,
he said, would shortly pass that way to Mecca, and bury him; then,
making her turn his face toward the Kâaba, he quietly breathed his
last. Soon after, the expected party came up, and amongst them Ibn
Masûd from Kûfa, who, weeping over him, bewailed his fate, and
buried him on the spot on which he died. The death of Ibn Masûd
himself, a few days after, added to the pathos of the incident. The
plaintive tale was soon in everyone’s mouth; and the banishment of
the pious ascetic and preacher of righteousness was made much of
by the enemies of the Caliph. The necessity was forgotten; the
obloquy remained.[458]
When he was himself minded to
assume the office of censor and rebuke the Othmân incurs odium by
ungodliness of the day, the unfortunate putting down unlawful
amusements, and by
Caliph fared no better. The laxity of Syria extending the square of the
had reached even to the sacred precincts Kâaba. a.h. XXVI. a.d. 647.
of the Hejâz; and Othmân, on attempting to
check the games and other practices held to be inconsistent with the
profession of Islam, incurred resentment, especially from the gay
youth whose amusements he had thwarted. Gambling and wagering,
indeed, were put down with the approval of all the stricter classes of
society; but there were not wanting many who, displeased with the
Caliph’s interference, joined in the cry of his detractors.[459]
The enlargement of the grand square of
the Kâaba, commenced by Omar, was The Mosque at Medîna
carried on by Othmân during his visits to enlarged and beautified. a.h.
XXXII. a.d. 653.
Mecca at the time of pilgrimage. And here,
too, the ill-fated Caliph met with opposition. The owners of the
houses demolished in the course of the work refused to accept the
compensation offered, and raised a great outcry against it. The
Caliph put them into prison, for, said he, ‘My predecessor did the
same, and ye made no outcry against him.’ But what the firm arm of
Omar could do, and none stir hand or foot against him, it was a very
different thing for the weak and unpopular Othmân to attempt. He
was more successful with the Great Mosque at Medîna, originally
built by Mahomet, and hallowed by the mortal remains of the Prophet
himself and his two Successors. This was now greatly enlarged and
beautified. The supports, made at the first of the trunks of date-trees,
were removed, and the roof made to rest on pillars of hewn stone.
The walls, too, were built up with masonry, richly carved and inlaid
with rare and precious stones. It was a pious work, and none
objected.[460]
Yet another, and a very gratuitous, cause of murmuring arose
from certain changes made by Othmân in the ceremonial of the
annual pilgrimage, which, though in themselves trivial and
unmeaning, excited strong disapprobation at the Caliph’s court. He
pitched tents for shelter during the few
days spent for sacrifice at Minâ, a thing Unwise changes in the pilgrim
which had never been done before; and, to ceremonial.
653.
a.h. XXXII. a.d.

the prayers heretofore recited there and on

Mount Arafat, he added new ones with two more series of
prostrations. The ritual, as established by the Prophet himself, had
been scrupulously followed by his two successors, and a
superstitious reverence attached thereto even in the minutest detail.
When expostulated with on the rash and unhallowed innovation,
Othmân gave no reasonable answer, but simply said it was his will
that it should be so.[461] Aly, Abd al Rahmân, and others were much
offended at these alterations; and the disregard of the sacred
example of the Founder of the faith raised a scandal among the
Companions unfavourable to Othmân.
On the other hand, beyond the
immediate circle of his kinsfolk, Othmân Othmân makes many
made no personal friends. Narrow, selfish, enemies.
indiscreet, and obstinate—more and more so, indeed, with
advancing years—he alienated those who would otherwise have
stood loyally by him; and he made many enemies, who pursued him
with relentless hatred. We have already seen how Mohammed son
of Abu Bekr, and Mohammed son of Abu Hodzeifa, were embittered
against him at the naval victory of Alexandria. And yet no very
special cause can be assigned for their enmity. The first is said to
have been actuated by ‘passion and ambition.’ The other was nearly
related to Othmân, and as an orphan had been kindly brought up by
him; he was now offended at having been passed over for office and
command. Both joined the rebellion which shortly broke out in Egypt,
and were amongst the most dangerous of the Caliph’s enemies. Nor
was it otherwise with the people at large. A factious spirit set in
against the unfortunate prince. The leaven fermented all around; and
every man who had a grievance, real or supposed, hastened to swell
the hostile cry.[462]
To crown the Caliph’s ill-fortune, in the
seventh year of his reign, he lost the He loses the Prophet’s ring.
signet-ring of silver which had been a.h. XXIX. a.d. 650.
engraven for the Prophet, and which had been worn and used
officially both by him and his successors. It was a favourite and
meritorious occupation of Othmân to deepen the old wells, and to
sink new ones, in the neighbourhood of Medîna. He was thus
engaged when, sitting by the well Arîs,[463] and pointing with his
finger in direction to the labourers, the ring dropped and
disappeared. Every effort was made, but in vain, to recover the
priceless relic. The well was emptied of the water and the mud
cleared out, and a great sum was offered; but no trace of the ring
ever appeared. Othmân grieved over the loss. The omen weighed
heavily on his mind; and it was some time before he was prevailed
upon to supply the place of the lost signet by another of like fashion.
[464]

Othmân had married successively two

of the Prophet’s daughters, both of whom Othmân marries Nâila. a.h.
died before their father. Three of his wives XXVIII.
still survived when, in the fifth year of his Caliphate, being then
between seventy and eighty years of age, he took Nâila to wife. Of
her previous history we know little more than that she had once been
a Christian, but, before her marriage with the Caliph, had embraced
Islam. She bore him a daughter; and through all his trials clung
faithfully by her aged lord, to the bitter end. The days were coming
when he needed such a helper by his side.[465]
 CHAPTER XXXII.
DANGEROUS FACTION AT KUFA. GROWING DISAFFECTION.

A.H. XXXII.—XXXIV. A.D. 653–655

Towards the close of Othmân’s reign,

the ferment, which (excepting Syria Seditious elements at work.
perhaps) had long been secretly at work
throughout the empire, began to make its appearance on the
surface. The Arab people at large were everywhere displeased at
the pretensions of the Coreish. The Coreish themselves were ill at
ease, the greater part being jealous of the Omeyyad branch and of
the favourites of the Caliph. And the temptation to revolt was
fostered by the weakness and vacillation of Othmân himself.
Ibn Aámir had been now three years
governor of Bussorah, when Ibn Saba (or, Ibn Sauda preaches sedition
as he is commonly called, Ibn Sauda), a in Egypt. a.h. XXXII. a.d.
653.
Jew from the south of Arabia, appeared on
the scene, and professed the desire to embrace Islam. It soon
appeared that he was steeped in disaffection to the existing
government—a firebrand of sedition; and as such he was expelled
successively from Bussorah, Kûfa, and Syria, but not before he had
given a dangerous impulse to the already discontented classes. At
last, he found a safe retreat in Egypt, and there became the setter
forth of strange and startling doctrines. Mahomet was to come again,
even as the Messiah was expected to come again. Meanwhile, Aly
was his legate. Othmân was a usurper, and his governors a set of
godless tyrants. The people were stirred. Impiety and wrong, they
heard, were rampant everywhere; truth and justice could be restored
no otherwise than by the overthrow of this wicked dynasty. Such was
the preaching which gained daily ground in Egypt; by busy
correspondence it was spread all over the empire, and startled the
minds of men already foreboding evil from the sensible heavings of a
slumbering volcano.[466]
 The breaking out of turbulence was for
the moment repressed at Bussorah by Ibn Émeute at Kûfa. a.h. XXXIII.
Aámir; but at Kûfa, Saîd had neither power a.d. 654.
nor tact to quell the factious elements around him. He offended even
his own party by ostentatiously washing the steps of the pulpit before
he would ascend a spot pretended to have been made unclean by
his drunken predecessor. He was not only unwise enough openly to
foster the arrogant assumptions of the Coreish,but he had the folly to
contemn the claims of the Arab soldiery, to whose swords they owed
the conquest of the lands around them. He was so indiscreet as to
call the beautiful vale of Chaldæa (the Sawâd) ‘the Garden of the
Coreish’—‘as if,’ cried the offended Arabs, ‘without us—our strong
arm and our good lances—they could have ever won this Garden.’
The disaffection, stimulated by a popular leader named Ashtar, and a
knot of factious citizens, found vent at last in an émeute. As the
governor and a company of the people, according to the custom of
the time, sat one day together in free and equal converse, the topic
turned on the bravery of Talha, who had shielded the Prophet in the
day of battle. ‘Ah!’ exclaimed Saîd, with an invidious contrast, ‘he is a
warrior, if ye choose, a real gem amongst your Bedouin counterfeits.
A few more like him, and we should dwell at ease.’ The assembly
was still nettled at this speech, when a youth incautiously gave
expression to the wish, how pleasant it would be if the governor
possessed a certain property which lay invitingly by the river bank
near Kûfa. ‘What!’ shouted the company with one voice, ‘and out of
our Sawâd!’ So saying, and with a torrent of abuse, they leaped
upon the lad and upon his father, who vainly endeavoured to urge
his youth in excuse of his indiscretion, and went near to killing both.
[467]

The factious spirits were emboldened

by the outbreak; and discontent now found The ringleaders are exiled to
Syria.
open and disloyal expression throughout
the kingdom. Saîd, supported by the Coreishite nobility, appealed
against their machinations to Othmân, who ordered that ten of the
ringleaders should be expelled to Syria.[468] There the Caliph hoped
that the powerful rule of his lieutenant and the loyal example of the
Syrians would inspire the malcontents with better feelings. Muâvia
quartered them in the church of St. Mary; and morning and evening,
as he passed by, abused them roundly on their folly in setting up
their crude claims against the indefeasible rights of the Coreish.
Crest-fallen under several weeks of such treatment, they were sent
on to Hims, where the governor, son of the great Khâlid, subjected
them for a month to like indignities. Whenever he rode forth, he
showered invectives on them as barbarous and factious creatures,
who were doing all in their power to undermine the empire. Their
spirit at last was thoroughly broken, and they professed to be
repentant. They were then released; but, ashamed to return to Kûfa,
they remained for the time in Syria, excepting the dangerous
demagogue Ashtar, who made his way secretly to Medîna.
Months passed, and things did not
mend at Kûfa. Most of the leading men, Saîd expelled from Kûfa. a.h.
whose influence could have kept the XXXIV. a.d. 655.
populace in check, were away on military command in Persia; and
the malcontents, in treasonable correspondence with the Egyptian
faction, gained head daily. Disheartened at this, Saîd, in an unlucky
moment, planned a visit to Medîna, there to lay his troubles before
the Caliph. No sooner had he gone than the conspirators came to
the front, and recalled the exiles from Syria. Ashtar, too, was soon
upon the scene. Taking his stand at the door of the Great Mosque of
Kûfa, he stirred up the people, as they assembled for worship,
against Saîd: ‘He had just left that despot,’ he said, ‘at Medîna,
plotting their ruin, counselling the Caliph to cut down their stipends,
even the women’s; and calling the broad fields which they had
conquered The Garden of the Coreish.’ The acting governor, helped
by the better class of citizens, sought in vain to still the rising storm.
He inculcated patience upon them. ‘Patience!’ cried Cacâa, the great
warrior, in scorn; ‘ye might as well roll back the Great River when in
flood as attempt to quell the people’s uproar till they have the thing
they want.’ Yezîd, brother of one of the exiles, then raised a
standard, and called upon all the enemies of the tyrannical governor
to join and bar his return to Kûfa. When Saîd drew near, they
marched out as far as Câdesîya, and sent forward to say that ‘they
did not need him any more.’ Saîd, little expecting such a reception,
said to them, ‘It had sufficed if ye had sent a delegate with your
complaint to the Caliph; but now ye come forth a thousand strong
against a single man!’ They were deaf to his expostulations. The
servant of Saîd, endeavouring to push on, was slain by Ashtar; and
Saîd himself fled back to Medîna, where he found Othmân already
terrified by tidings of the outbreak, and prepared to yield whatever
the insurgents might demand. At their
desire he appointed Abu Mûsa governor in Abu Mûsa appointed in his
place of Saîd. To welcome him the room.
captains in command of the reserves and outlying garrisons came in
from all quarters; and Abu Mûsa received them in the crowded
Mosque of Kûfa. He first exacted from all present the pledge of
loyalty to the Caliph, and then installed himself in office by leading
the prayers of the great assembly.
If, instead of giving way, Othmân had
inflicted on the ringleaders condign Othmân’s fatal mistake.
punishment, he might haply have
succeeded in weathering the storm. It is true that thus he would, in
all likelihood have precipitated rebellion, not only in Kûfa, but also in
Bussorah and Egypt. But, sooner or later, that was inevitable; and in
the struggle, he would now have had a strong support. For here the
contention was between the Coreish and the nobility of Islam on the
one hand, and the Arab tribes and city rabble on the other; and in
this question the leaders of martial renown would all have rallied
round the throne. By his pitiable weakness in yielding to the
insurgents, Othmân not only courted the contempt of all around him,
but lost the opportunity of placing the great controversy about to
convulse the Moslem world, upon its proper issue. It fell, instead, to
the level of a quarrel obscured by personal interests, and embittered
by charges of tyranny and nepotism against himself. The crisis was
now inevitable. Men saw that Othmân lacked the wisdom and the
strength to meet it, and each looked to his own concern. Seditious
letters circulated freely everywhere; and the claims began to be
canvassed of successors to the irresolute and narrow-minded
Caliph, who, it was foreseen, could not long retain the reins of
empire in his grasp.