LECTURE 5: HYDRODYNAMIC By Suraya Abdul Sani

6th October 2015

METHODS
LECTURE OUTLINE
1) Viscosity – Definition, Measurement
2) Sedimentation
3) Methods of varying buffer conditions – Ultracentrifugation, Dialysis, Precipitation
4) Flow Cytometry
WHAT IS HYDRODYNAMIC ???
 A branch of physics that deals with the motion
of fluids and the forces acting on solid bodies
immersed in fluids and in motion relative to
them.

DYNAMICS of FLUIDS in Motion

Investigating
Viscosity
WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF THESE Runny
LIQUIDS?
Pours easily
water Flows slowly
milk
Smooth
cream
cooking oil Free
washing up liquid Sticky
golden syrup
Slow
Thick
Gloopy
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY
‘VISCOSITY’? water
At what speed milk
can you pour the cream
following liquids? cooking oil
washing up liquid
What affects
the speed at golden syrup
which you can
pour the
different liquids?
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY
‘VISCOSITY’?
Different liquids have different properties. One of
these properties is viscosity, the liquid's resistance to
flowing.

Not all liquids are the same. Some are thin and flow easily
these have a low viscosity. Others are thick and gooey
and have a high viscosity.
MILO Honey
CONTONUE….
Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
Weak vs strong intermolecular forces
Real fluids have a certain amount of internal friction
Increasing temperature lowers the viscosity of liquid
TWO TYPES OF VISCOSITY
Dynamic (or Absolute) Viscosity:
The dynamic viscosity(η) of a fluid is a measure of the resistance
it offers to relative shearing motion.
η= F/ [A×(u/h)]
η= τ /(u/h) N.s/m²

Kinematic Viscosity :
It is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity to the density of
fluid.
ν= η/ρ m²/s ; ρ= density of fluid
 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS
Capillary Viscometers
It gives the ‘kinematic viscosity’ of the fluid. It is based on
Poiseuille’s law for steady viscous flow in a pipe.
 WHEN DO WE NEED TO USE DYNAMIC VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
- When you want to know the internal resistance of a fluid OR the force required to
move one plane of the liquid over another.

For Example:

-To indicate proper flow characteristics of Ketchup.

- It needs Lower Viscosity as it flows, to get it out of the bottle .
- It needs to be thick when sitting on the burger.

Testing the viscosity at different speeds (equating to different levels

of force) will help ensure that the ketchup is behaving as it should
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase the temperature.
The viscosity of gases increases with the increase the temperature.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE

fig: Viscosity-temperature characteristics of selected oils

EFFECTS OF PRESSURE
Lubricants viscosity increases with pressure.
For most lubricants this effect is considerably largest than
the other effects when the pressure is significantly above
atmospheric.
The Barus equation :
EFFECTS OF PRESSURE
A Newtonian fluid is any fluid that exhibits a viscosity that remains
constant regardless of any external stress that is placed upon it, such
as mixing or a sudden application of force.
E.g: water, thin motor oil

A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose viscosity is variable based on

applied stress.

E.g: cornstarch dissolved in water, paint

APPLICATIONS
Selection of lubricants for various purpose.
- we can choose an optimum range of viscosity for engine oil.
- for high load and also for speed operation high viscous lubricants is
required.
In pumping operation
- for high viscous fluid high power will require.
- for low viscous fluid low power will require.
In making of blend fuel
- less viscous fuels easy to mix.
In the operation of coating and printing.
SEDIMENTATION
Centrifugation
A mechanical method of separating immiscible
liquids or solids from liquids by the application of
centrifugal force. Separating particles from the
solution according to;

size

shape

density

Viscosity of the medium

Rotor speed
CENTRIFUGATION
A centrifuge is used to separate particles of macromolecules :
-CELLS, SUB-CELLULAR COMPONENTS, PROTEINS, NUCLEIC ACIDS
Basis of separation: -SIZE, SHAPE, DENSITY

Methodology:
- utilizes density differences between the particles/macromolecules
and the medium in which these are dispersed.
- Dispersed systems are subjected to artificially induced
gravitational fields
Physical Basis of Centrifugation

The force that the sample is subjected to, is expressed as some number
times the force of gravity, or relative centrifugal force (RCF).
DENSITIES OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL
Material Density (g/cm3)
Microbial cells 1.05-1.15
Mammalian cells 1.04-1.10
Organelles 1.10-1.60
Proteins 1.30
DNA 1.70
RNA 2.00
The Centrifugal Force

Fc = M * ω2 * r
 Mo is the particle weight, or molecular weight
  (omega)= angular velocity (radians/sec)

 r is the radius of rotation

This equation says that:

the larger the molecule, or the faster the centrifugation,
or the longer the axis of rotation:
the greater the centrifugal force and the rate of
sedimentation.
Frictional Force
Particles passes through the solvent- experience resistance
frictional force, F*

Ff= f. v

where

f – frictional coefficient
v - velocity of the particles

Frictional force (resistance of a molecule to

movement)
 The frictional coefficient f depends upon:

1) The size
2) shape of the molecule,
3) the viscosity of the gradient material.

 The frictional coefficient f of a compact particle is

smaller than that of an extended particle of the
same mass.
BUOYANT FORCE
the upward force exerted on an object wholly or partly immersed in a fluid.
This upward force is also called Upthrust.
Due to the buoyant force, a body submerged partially or fully in a fluid appears to
lose its weight, i.e. appears to be lighter.

Fb = mdis .ω2.r
Particles behaviour in centrifugal force

Particles in suspension can be separated by either

sedimentation velocity, (differential centrifugation) or
by sedimentation equilibrium(isopycnic or density
centrifugation).

Their separation depends on:

Sedimentation Velocity
Sedimentation Coefficient (S for Svedberg)
Diffusion Coefficient
What is important is that S can be measured and will give an important clue
as to the physical structure and size of the particle.

The sedimentation coefficient is given by the formula:

S = 1/ ω2r × dr/dt

ω= angular velocity of the rotor in radians/sec calculated as 0.10472 x RPM

r = the distance between the particle and the center of rotation(mm)
dr/dt= the rate of movement of the particle (cm/sec)
Sediment Coefficient (s)
Partial specific volume (1/ particle density)
The Svedberg Equation
The Svedberg equation relates molecular mass to intrinsic
physical properties of the particle (s and ν), experimental
conditions (D, T and ρ) and a physical constant (R).

M or Mr-molecular mass
R- physical constant
T- absolute temperature
D- diffusion coefficient
s- sedimentation coefficient
The Svedberg Equation (Please refer SHEET 1 -
Derivation of Sedimentation Coefficient Equation)
It is the time dimensional constant of sedimentation
coefficient.

The basic unit of which is taken is 10-13 s. It is denoted as ‘S’

► E.g: a molecule possessing a sedimentation coefficient of

5 x 10-13 secs, will have a value of 5S.
► This gives and idea about the size of the molecule
FROM THE EQUATION WE OBTAIN FOUR IMPORTANT PRINCIPLE

1) The higher the mass, the greater the sedimentation speed

• For 2particlese of unequal mass by same shape and size, the one with high mass will travled down to the bottom of
test tube rapidly

2) Shape of particle affects its sedimentation speed

• More spherical particles have lower frictional coefficient (f) values than of less spherical particles of equal mass.
Therefore, more spherical particles move more rapidly.

3) A more dense partice moves quicker than a less dense one

• A dense particle experience smaller resistive force

4) Density of the fluid also affects sedimentation speed Noticed that if :

• Vp = 1, particle will not move (densities are equal)
• Vp > 1, particle will float (particle less dense)
• Vp < 1, particle will sink (particle more dense)
EQUIPMENT USE IN CENTRIFUGATION
Centrifuge

 Centrifuge is a piece of equipment, generally driven by

a motor, that puts an object in rotation around a fixed
axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis. The
centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle.

 Theory: The amount of acceleration to be applied to the

sample, rather than specifying a rotational speed such as
revolutions per minute.
 General Principles of Centrifuges
➢ Basis of separation:
-Size –Shape -Density

Methodology:
- Utilizes density difference between the particles and the medium in which these
are dispersed
- Dispersed systems are subjected to artificially induced gravitational fields.
- The centrifugal force causes the sedimentation of heavier solid particles.

Supernatant
Induced
gravitatio Precipitate
nal field
Suspension In process Separation
complete
Parameters centrifugation

 Parameters you need to know:

1. Type of rotor:
 fixed angle, swinging bucket, vertical

2. Type of centrifuge:
 Low speed , high Speed, ultracentrifuge

3. Type of centrifugation
 Differential, preparative, or analytical

 Also, the Speed and duration of centrifugation

Type of Rotor
 Figure 1 A vertical tube rotor.

Figure 3 A swing-out rotor.

Figure 2. A fixed-angle rotor.
Rotor used in centrifugation
 CENTRIFUGE ROTORS
axis of rotation

Swinging-bucket

At rest Spinning g
g

Fixed-angle
Types of Centrifuge
Low Speed Centrifuge
Also called: microfuge, Clinical, Table top or bench top centrifuges

Max speed ~ 20,000 rpm

Operate at room temperature

Fixed angle or swinging bucket can be used

Commonly used for rapid separation of coarse particles

 E.g. RBC from blood, DNA from proteins, etc.

 The sample is centrifuged until the particles are tightly
packed into pellet at the bottom of the tube. Liquid portion,
supernatant, is decanted.
High-speed Centrifuges

Preparative centrifuges.
Max speed ~ 80,000 rpm
Often refrigerated, and requires vacuum to operate
Fixed angle or swinging bucket can be used
Generally used to separate macromolecules (proteins or nucleic
acids) during purification or preparative work.
Can be used to estimate sedimentation coefficient and MW,
 No optical read-out
Preparative ultracentrifuge
Ultracentrifuge

The most advanced form of centrifuges: (specialized and expensive)

Used to precisely determine sedimentation coefficient and MW of

molecules, Molecular shape, Protein-protein interactions

Uses very high speed and/or RCF

Uses small sample size (< 1 ml)

Uses relatively pure sample

Built in optical system to analyze movements of molecules during

centrifugation
 Types of centrifugation

Differential Analytical
Centrifugation Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient
centrifugation
Sedimentation Sedimentation
Velocity Equilibrium
Analysis Analysis
Zonal Isopycnic
Subcellular Fractionation

Centrifugation of cell homogenates therefore allows

preparation of highly-purified fractions enriched in one or
other cell compartment such as the nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum or mitochondria in a process called subcellular
fractionation
to assess the quality of separation of individual fractions and this is
achieved by using marker molecules (usually enzymes) known to
be expressed in a compartment
Centrifugations in Subcellular Fractionation

Differential centrifugation -separates particles on the

basis of size and yields crude fractions
-usually first step in fractionation

Density gradient (isopycnic) centrifugation-

separates particles on the basis of density and size, and
yields purer organelle fractions
Subcellular Fractionation
 Differential Centrifugation

Density of liquid is uniform

Density of liquid << Density of particles

Viscosity of the liquid is low

Consequence:

Rate of particle sedimentation depends mainly on its

size and the applied g-force.
 Size of Major Organelle

Nucleus 4-12 m
Plasma membrane sheets 3-20 m
Golgi tubules 1-2 m
Mitochondria 0.4-2.5 m
Lysosomes/peroxisomes 0.4-0.8 m
Microsomal vesicles 0.05-0.3m
 Differential Centrifugation of A Tissue
Homogenate

Decant
1000g/10 min supernatant

etc. 3000g/10 min

 Differential Centrifugation of A Tissue
Homogenate
Differential Centrifugation of a Tissue Expected Contents of Pellets

1 Homogenate – 1000g Pellet 1 nuclei, plasma membrane

for 10 min sheets

2 Supernatant from 1 – Pellet 2 large mitochondria, Golgi

3000g for 10 min tubules

3 Supernatant from 2 – Pellet 3 small mitochondria,

15,000g for 15 min lysosomes, peroxisomes

4 Supernatant from 3 – Pellet 4 microsomes

100,000g for 45 min

g = centrifugal force
 Differential Centrifugation

Poor resolution and recovery because of:

Particle size heterogeneity

Particles starting out at rmin have furthest to travel but initially

experience lowest RCF

Smaller particles close to rmax have only a short distance to

travel and experience the highest RCF
Or zonal
 Density Gradient Centrifugation

Density gradient Centrifugation

-Important technique for purifying protein and nucleic acid

Zonal(Rate Zonal) Centrifugation- Iso-density (Isopycnic)

Centrifugation
 Density Gradient Centrifugation

Achieved by establishing a density gradient between a region of

high density at the bottom of the centrifugation tube and a
region of low density at the top (Figure).
The density gradient can be established
➢ Before particle centrifugation (zonal
centrifugation)
➢ During centrifugation (isopycnic centrifugation)

The most common materials used to generate

density gradients are sucrose,Ficoll, and CsCl.
 Zonal(Rate Zonal) Centrifugation

In rate-zonal centrifugation (or velocity sedimentation) the sample

is loaded as a thin layer on the top of a density gradient medium.

During centrifugation, the sample separates into bands, and the

particles are separated on the basis of their different
sedimentation coefficients (s).
➢ For biological particles, the coefficient s is
mainly related to the size of the particles

➢ Applications include the separation of

proteins and nucleoproteins, like ribosomes.
Zonal(Rate Zonal) Centrifugation
Photograph of an actual tissue separation: subfractionation of a rat hepatic light
mitochondrial fraction by rate zonal centrifugation using a vertical rotor.
FURTHER READING
 Isopycnic Centrifugation

In isopycnic centrifugation (or equilibrium sedimentation) the

particles move through a density gradient until they arrive at their
isopycnic points.

This is the point where :

the density of the solution = the density of the particle.

At this point, the particle stops moving.

Isodensity (isopycnic)
Modes of density gradient centrifugation: (upper) rate zonal
centrifugation and (lower) isopycnic centrifugation.
The isopycnic method has been used to dramatically demonstrate
semiconservative DNA replication, using CsCl density gradients.

Separation of DNA, RNA, protein, and carbohydrates can be

performed in dense CsCl solutions, where the

RNA pellets, the DNA forms bands,

protein and carbohydrates form a thin layer called a pellicle at

the top of the gradient.
Analytical Ultracentrifugation (AUC)
Analytical ultracentrifugation was important for highly accurate
absolute calculation of the molecular weight of biological
materials and polymers.

Information obtained from ultracentrifugation experiments

applies to analytes present under native conditions, while many
other techniques (e.g., size exclusion chromatography, gel
electrophoresis, and MS) apply to denatured or fragmented
biomolecules..
Analytical ultracentrifugation is carried out in low-
volume centrifuge cells (1 mL or less), using high
purity samples,

in a specially designed centrifuge, equipped with an

optical detection system to follow the sedimentation
process continuously.
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What data can be determined??

In addition to the determination of molecular weight, it is possible to:

➢determinate molecular size and shape,

➢ sedimentation coefficients, density, and frictional coefficients.

➢to demonstrate the semiconservative replication of DNA,

➢the conformational changes that arise when enzyme–

substrate complexes form

➢the study of macromolecular interactions

Typical samples
proteins,

lipoproteins,

nucleic acids,

polysaccharides,

subcellular particles,

cells

viruses.
Outline design of an analytical ultracentrifuge.
Sample is placed in a sample cell in a rotor contained in an evacuated and
refrigerated chamber. Centrifugation is carried out at very high speed during
which the behaviour of the sample is analysed. The cell is scanned with
parallel light as it passes through the detection system on each revolution.
 Sedimentation Velocity Analysis
An analytical ultracentrifugation
(AUC) method that measures the
rate at which molecules move in
response to centrifugal force
generated in a centrifuge.
Sedimentation velocity is particularly valuable for;

verifying whether a sample is entirely homogeneous

in mass and conformation

detecting aggregates in protein samples and

quantifying the amount of aggregate

measuring the distribution of sizes in samples which

contain a very broad range of sizes

detecting changes in protein conformation

 Sedimentation Equilibrium Analysis
-Sedimentation equilibrium is
an analytical
ultracentrifugation (AUC)
method for measuring
protein molecular masses
in solution and for studying
protein-protein interactions.
It is particularly valuable for:

establishing whether the native state of a protein

is a monomer, dimer, trimer, etc.

measuring the equilibrium constant (Kd) for

association of proteins which reversibly self-
associate to form oligomers
measuring the stoichiometry of complexes
between two or more different proteins (e.g. a
soluble receptor and its ligand or an antigen-
antibody pair), or between a protein and a non-
protein ligand

measuring the equilibrium constants for

reversible protein-protein and protein-ligand
interactions (approximate Kd range 1 nanomolar
to 1 millimolar)
Methods of Varying Buffer Conditions

Ultrafiltration

Dialysis

Precipitation
 Ultrafiltration (UF)

❖UF is a variety of membrane filtration in which hydrostatic

pressure forces a liquid against a semipermeable membrane.
Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are
retained, while water and low molecular weight solutes pass
through the membrane.
➢ used in industry and research for purifying and
concentrating macromolecular (103 - 106 Da) solutions,
especially protein solutions

➢Mr(relative molecular mass) molecules <10 kDa -pass

freely through membrane -Permeate
➢Mr molecules>10kDa -retained- Retentate
UF is a low pressure process for separating larger size solutes from aqueous
solutions by means of a semi-permeable membrane.
Ultrafiltration. (a) Outline of apparatus used. Sample is placed in a
chamber where it can be stirred continuously.
1) Sample contains molecules of a range of masses(only two are shown for simplicity).
(2) Molecules smaller than the cutoff pass freely through pores in the membrane while
larger molecules cannot.
(3) This achieves size-fractionation of the sample in that the retentate is enriched for
larger mass molecules while the permeate is enriched for smaller molecules.
changed
 Three main types of applications
1- Concentration of biomacromolecule solution

E.g: if a 200 ml solution of dilute protein is concentrated to 20 ml

in an hour, then this 20 ml can be applied to a chromatography
column ten times faster than would the unconcentrated solution.
2) Swap macromolecules from one buffer to another

200 ml of buffer A is concentrated to 20 ml, and then diluted to

200 ml with buffer B, reconcentrated and the process repeated
3–4 times, then the macromolecules will eventually be
surrounded by buffer B.
3 ) Size fractionation
E.g : if a protein solution which passes through a 50 kDa cutoff
membrane is then passed through a 10 kDa membrane, a fraction
rich in molecules of mass-range 10–50 kDa can be selected.

This is a comparatively easy way to achieve a significant

enrichment during protein or peptide purification or to decide
if a particular biological activity is associated with small,
intermediate or very large molecules
 Examples of UF Applications
Application Permeate Concentrate Benefits of UF
(Retentate)
Potable Water Potable water free of Water, particulate Certified for 4-log
suspended solids, solids removal of bacteria,
turbidity, bacteria and giardia,
large viruses cryptosporidium
and viruses from
drinking water.

Turbidity < 0.1 NTU

Oily Wastewater Oil free (< 50 mg/L) Water, Consistent
water suspended permeate water
solids, insoluble quality even when
metal feed composition
hydroxides, etc. subject to
upsets. Highly
concentrated oil
emulsion for waste
disposal.
Electrocoat Paint Water, dissolved salts and
solvents
Milk Lactose and salts solution
Apple juice Low turbidity, clear juice
clarification
Reuse of municipal Water free of suspended
wastewater solids, bacteria & viruses
Turbidity < 0.1 NTU
SDI15 < 3
Water, paint resins Allows the recovery
and pigments of valuable paint
resins and pigments.
Protein concentrate Protein
concentration at
lower energy cost
than evaporation.
Juice, suspended Removes suspended
solids, pulp, colloidal solids and turbidity
haze particles. while allowing the
passage of juice,
sugar and taste.
Water, particulate Polishes biologically
solids treated municipal
effluent for
discharge, reuse, or
feed to reverse
osmosis
Sterile Filtration
To sterilize solution which would not
withstand heat sterilization
Small scale ultrafiltration :Centrifugal concentrators
Dialysis

Dialysis is the term used to describe the diffusion of solutes

through semi permeable membranes when the membrane forms
the boundary between solutions of different concentrations
Principle of dialysis. A
solution of macromolecules
(e.g. protein or nucleic
acids) is placed in a dialysis
bag and this is tied at each
end with a knot or clip,
allowing some space for
water uptake as a result of
osmosis,
As shown in the detail presented in
dashed box (right), molecules
larger than the Mr cutoff for the
membrane (usually 10 kDa) are
retained inside the bag while buffer
components and other molecules
smaller than the cutoff equilibrate
between the inside and the outside.
Microdialysis
Microdialysis is a technique used to determine the chemical
components of the fluid in the extracellular space of tissues.

Involves small-scale dialysis in which a large number of

samples can be dialyzed simultaneously.
ELECTRODIALYSIS

Electrodialysis involves speeding up the exchange of charged buffer

components by exposing the macromolecule solution to an electric field
Charged molecules migrate out of the solution contained in the dialysis
chamber while macromolecules are retained.
Precipitation
• The procedures outlined in the two previous sections
facilitate changing the buffer conditions of a
macromolecular solution by taking advantage of the fact
that small molecules can pass through pores which are
too small to allow passage of large biomacromolecules.

• It is also possible selectivelyprecipitate

to
biomacromolecules and thus remove them from solution
• All precipitation procedures affect
interactions between the
biomacromolecule and the buffer
responsible for keeping it in solution.
Precipitation Method
Salting out
SALTING OUT
Salting out is a purification method that utilizes the reduced
solubility of certain molecules in a solution of very high ionic
strength. Salting out is typically, but not limited to, the precipitation
of large biomolecules such as proteins.

The type of salt being used and the concentration of the salt can
be varied to selectively precipitate a the molecule
MECHANISM OF SALTING OUT
The conformation of large biomolecules in vivo is typically controlled by
hydrophobic and hydrophillic interactions with the cellular environment. These
interactions largely govern the molecule's final conformation by folding in such a
way that most hydrophobic functional groups are shielded from the polar cellular
environment. To achieve this conformation the molecule folds in such a way that all
of the hydrophobic parts of a molecule are aggregated together and the
hydrophillic groups are left to interact with the water. In the case of proteins it is
the charged amino acids that allow selective salting out to occur. Charged and
polar amino acids such as glutamate, lysine, and tyrosine require water molecules
to surround them to remain dissolved. In an aqueous environment with a high ionic
strength, the water molecules surround the charges of the ions and proteins. At a
certain ionic strength, the water molecules are no longer able to support the
charges of both the ions and the proteins. The result is the precipitation of the least
soluble solute, such as proteins and large organic molecules.
Immunoprecipitation
Immunoprecipitation is a technique that uses antibodies
specific to a protein to remove those proteins from solution.

The antibody-protein complexes are precipitated out of solution

with the addition of an insoluble form of antibody binding
proteins.
Examples include Protein A, Protein G, Zysorbin,
Immunoprecipition, or the addition of a second antibody to
the solution
INTO THE BASIC OF

FLOW CYTOMETRY
WHAT IS FLOW CYTOMETRY
▪ Technical process that allows for the individual
measurements of cell fluorescence and light
scattering. This process is performed at rates of
thousands of cells per second.

▪ This information can be used to individually sort or

separate subpopulations of cells
Labelling technique for marker
FLUORESCENCE ACTIVATION PROCESS
(IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE)
▪ Antibodies recognize specific molecules in the
surface of some cells.
▪Antibodies are artificially conjugated to
fluorochromes.
▪When the cells are analyzed by flow cytometry the
cells expressing the marker for which the antibody is
specific will manifest fluorescence. Cells who lack the
marker will not manifest fluorescence.
THEORY OF FLUORESCENCE
1) Monoclonal antibody is labelled with a fluorochrome.
2) Fluorescent molecule :

Absorb light of one Emits light of a longer

wavelength (Excitation) wavelength (emission): “Stokes
Shift”
FLOW CYTOMETRY APPLICATION
1) Immunofluorescence
2) Cell Cycle kinetics
3) Cell Kinetics
4) Genetics
5) Molecular Biology
6) Animal Husbandry
7) Microbiology
8) and lots more……
FLOW CYTOMETRY INTEGRATES ELECTRONICS,
FLUIDICS AND OPTICS
1) Electronics are involved in signal processing, computer
display and analysis.

2) Fluidics are applied to sample processing and cell

sorting

3) Optics component are involved In fluorescence

detection.
SUMMARY FOR TODAY CLASS
What is Viscosity ? – Example of measurement. Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluid

Centrifugation – Factors for centrifugation? Svedberg equation? Types of

Centrifugation. Type of rotors used? Type of centrifuge?

Ultrafiltration? Dialysis? Precipitation?

Flow Cytometry? Principle used? Application? Types of data being analyze?