BXE Lab Manual SPPu

Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s College of Engineering, Karvenagar, Pune - 52
Year Engineering Semester II Basic Electronics Engineering
Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s

College of Engineering, Pune
Karvenagar, Pune 411052
Accredited with ‘A++’ Grade by NAAC
Department of Electronics Engineering
LAB MANUAL
104010-BASIC ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Index
Sr. Name of Experiment Page Date Remark Sign
No No.
1 Study of Active and Passive components
2 Measurements using various measuring equipment
3 V-I characteristics of P-N Junction Diode Study

the data-sheet of typical PN junction diode 1N
400X), Zener Diode (Study the data-sheet of
typical Zener diode 1N 4148)
4 Rectifier circuits:
a) Implement half wave, full wave and bridge
rectifier using diodes
b) Observe the effect of capacitor filter on
rectifier output
5 Frequency response of MOSFET:

a) To plot frequency response of BJT
amplifier.(Simulation)
b) To plot frequency response of
MOSFET amplifier.(Simulation)
6 Linear applications of Op-amp: Build inverting and

non inverting amplifier using op-amp (Study the
data-sheet of typical Op-Amp 741)
7 Test and verify the truth tables of:

a) Basic and Universal Gates (Study the data
sheet of respective IC’s)
b) Half / Full Adder c) RS/JK/T/D flip flop
8 Study of transducers : (Any 3) LDR, Ultra-sonic,

LM 35
9 Build and test any circuit using

BJT/MOSFET/Op Amp/Logic Gates using
any one sensor.
10 Case Study of any one electronics appliances with

block diagram, specification etc.
CERTIFICATE
Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s

College of Engineering, Karvenagar, Pune - 52
First Year Engineering Semester II
Basic Electronics Engineering
BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(104010)
(This is to certify that
Mr./Ms.______________________________________ Roll No.
University Exam No. of First Year
Engineering has satisfactorily completed the term work in the subject of Basic
Electronics Engineering in the Department of Engineering Sciences of Marathwada
Mitra Mandal’s College of Engineering, Pune as prescribed by the University of
Pune during Semester I/II of Academic year 2023-24.)
Faculty In-charge Head of Dept. Principal

DES MMCOE
Vision
To aspire for the Welfare of Society through excellence in science and
Technology.
Mission
Our Mission is to
⚫ Mold young talent for higher endeavors.
⚫ Meet the challenges of globalization.
⚫ Commit for socially progress with values and ethics.
⚫ Orient faculty and students for research and development.

⚫ Emphasize excellence in all disciplines.
Department of Engineering Sciences
Vision: Empowering Engineering Aspirants with knowledge, skills and moral values
Mission: To provide broad theoretical and practical knowledge of Basic Science
and Engineering to the students that can be applied for betterment of Society.
OBJECTIVES
1. To develop higher order thinking abilities by imparting basic and
advanced knowledge
2. To provide necessary platform for enhancing personal skills and talents
3. To create awareness and sensitivity
Preface
Electronics has become an inseparable part of life.

Instructions to student
● Please follow instructions given by Lab Assistant and teacher.
● Follow electrical safety rules .
● Return devices after use.
● Do not alter settings of the instrument without permission of the teacher.

● Keep bags in the rack .
● Do not use a DC/AC power supply without permission of the teacher.
PROGRAMS OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identity, formulates, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research – based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
Course Objectives
104010.1 The principle of electronics and working principle of PN junction diode and
special purpose diodes
104010.2 The functioning of transistors like BJT, MOSFETs and OPAMP.
104010.3 Basics of various logic gates, digital circuits and their applications.
104010.4 Working and functions of various electronic instruments.
104010.5 The operating principles and applications of various active and passive
sensors.
104010.6 Basic principles of communication systems.
Course Outcome
Course Statement
Outcome
At the end of the course ,a student will be able to
104010.1 Explain the working of P-N junction diode and its circuits.
104010.2 Identify types of diodes and plot their characteristics and also can compare BJT
with MOSFET.
104010.3 Build and test analog circuits using OPAMP and digital circuits using
universal/basic gates and flip flops.
104010.4 Use different electronics measuring instruments to measure various
electrical parameters.
104010.5 Select sensors for specific applications.
104010.6 Describe basic principles of communication systems.
PO mapping
Expt No. Program outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 1
2 1
3 1
4 1
5 2
6 1
7 2
8 1
9 1 1
10 1
First Year Engineering Semester I / II Basic Electronics Engineering
Experiment No. 1
TITLE: Study of different electronic components

AIM: To study Resistors (Carbon Film, Metal Film, Wire Wound, Variable),
Capacitors, Inductors, Connectors, Switches.
THEORY:
A] Resistor:- The circuit elements which introduce electrical resistance into the
circuit are called as resistors. If the electrical resistance value is going to be constant,
it is a fixed resistor. If electrical resistance value is adjustable, then it is a variable
resistor.
Fig.1.1: The symbolic representation of resistors

Resistor Types:
1] Fixed resistors - Carbon Film, Metal Film, and Wire wound
2] Variable resistors - Rheostat & potentiometers
1] Fixed resistors: Value of fixed resistors can be found out from the color rings
marked on it as shown in fig.1.2. The first three rings give the value of resistor while
the last one gives the tolerance value. Color coding is given below
1
Example: The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the
resistor value as shown in fig.1.2. The first band is brown, so the first digit is 1.The
second band gives the SECOND DIGIT. This is a red band, making the second digit 2.
The third band is called the MULTIPLIER and is not interpreted in quite the same
way. The multiplier tells you how many zeros you should write after the digits you
already have. A brown band tells you to add 1 zeros. The value of this resistor is
therefore 120 ohms.
The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the percentage
accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold-colored
tolerance band, indicating that the actual resistance value is with + or - 5% of the
nominal value. Other tolerance colors are:e.g. For resistor of 12 K with 5%
tolerance means its value will be in the range 11.4K to 12.6K. Due to parameters like
temperature, humidity etc. the value of resistor may change. For that different
standard values are specified by a manufacturer. Tolerances, temperature coefficient,
voltage coefficient, maximum operating temperature are some important parameters.
CLASS TOLERANCE
General purpose +/-20 to +/-5%
Semi precision +/-5% to +/-1%
Precision +/-1% to +/- 0.1%
Ultra precision +/- 0.1% to +/- 0.01%
Carbon Film Resistor

A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a
long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of amorphous
carbon (ranging from 500 to 800 μΩ m), can provide a variety of resistances. Carbon
film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C. Resistances
available range from 1 ohm to 10 megaohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating
temperature range of −55 °C to 155 °C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working
voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high
pulse stability.
2
A common type of axial resistor today is referred to as a metal-film resistor. Metal

electrode leadless face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology, but are a
cylindrically shaped resistor designed for surface mounting. Note that other types of
resistors (e.g., carbon composition) are also available in MELF packages.Metal film
resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with
any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film
resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering
(though that is one such technique). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resistance
value is determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching.
(This is similar to the way carbon resistors are made.) The result is a reasonable
tolerance (0.5%, 1%, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient that is generally between
50 and 100 ppm/K. Metal film resistors possess good noise characteristics and low
non-linearity due to a low voltage coefficient. Also beneficial are the components
efficient tolerance, temperature coefficient and stability.
Wire wound resistors:

When higher power handling capacity is required in same physical size, we can use
the wire wound resistors instead of carbon composition resistor. Their normal power
rating is above 2W. These resistors are suitable for low resistance value and low noise
applications. Fig.1.5 shows construction of wire wound resistor. The wire wound
resistors are used in DC and audio frequency applications. They cannot be used in
high frequency applications due to inductance and capacitance present in the resistor.
3
.
2] Variable Resistor
As shown in the fig.1.6, a variable resistor consists of a track which provides the
resistance path. Two terminals of the device are connected to both the ends of the
track. The third terminal is connected to a wiper that decides the motion of the track.
The motion of the wiper through the track helps in increasing and decreasing the
resistance. The track is usually made of a mixture of ceramic and metal or can be
made of carbon as well. As a resistive material is needed, carbon film type variable
resistors are mostly used. They find applications in radio receiver circuits, audio
amplifier circuits and TV receivers. For applications of small resistances, the
resistance track may just be a coil of wire. The track can be in both the rotary as well
as straight versions. In a rotary track some of them may include a switch. The switch
will have an operating shaft which can be easily moved in the axial direction with one
of its ends moving from the body of variable resistor switch. Variable resistors are
also called as potentiometers, trimmers, rheostats etc.
B] CAPACITOR:
Fig.1.8. Capacitor construction and symbol

A Capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can
be made of many insulating materials such as air, glass, paper; plastic etc. A capacitor
is capable of storing electrical charge and energy. The higher the value of
capacitance, the more charge the capacitor can store. The larger the area of the plates
or the smaller their separation the more charge the capacitor can store. A capacitor is
said to be “Fully Charged” when the voltage across its plates equals the supply
voltage. The symbol for electrical charge is Q and its unit is the Coulomb. Electrolytic
capacitors are polarized. They have a positive and a negative terminal. Capacitance is
measured in Farads, which is a very large unit
so micro-Farad ( µF ), nano-Farad ( nF ) and pico-Farad ( pF ) are generally used.
Capacitors that are daisy chained together in a line are said to be connected in Series.
Capacitors that have both
4
E +/- 0.5% F +/- 1%
G +/- 2% H +/- 3%
J +/- 5% K +/- 10%
M +/- 20% N +/- 30%
P +100% ,-0% Z +80%, -20%
Different classes of capacitors have different meanings for their letter codes.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups:
A. Polarised B.Unpolarised.
A) Polarised capacitors :
Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -.They are not damaged by heat
when soldering. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should
always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list
does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the
project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.
B)Unpolarised capacitors
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They
are not damaged by heat when soldering except for one unusual type (polystyrene).
They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult
to find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of capacitors
have their value printed without a multiplier.
For example 0.1 means 0.1µF=100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used m place of
the decimal point: for example: 4n7 means 4.7nF
Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are the most common type of non-polarized capacitor. They are a
well-tested technology and the cheapest kind of capacitor. The oldest style (dating
back to the 1930's) is disk shaped, but the newer styles are block shaped. They work
well in radio frequency circuits and the newer models work in the microwave range.
5
They are available in the 10 pico-farad to 1 microfarad range. They have some
leakage (across the dielectric) and their performance and temperature stability varies
depending on the manufacturer.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to
identify their capacitance value in pico-farads. Generally the first two digits indicate
the capacitors value and the third digit indicates the number of zero’s to be added. For
example, a ceramic disc capacitor the digits 104 would indicate 10 and 4 zero’s in
pico-farads which is equivalent to 100,000 pF or 100 nF and so on. The digit 154
would indicate 15 and 4 zero’s in pico-farads which is equivalent to 150,000
pF or 150nF or 0.15µF. Letter codes are sometimes used to indicate their tolerance
value such as: J = 5%, K = 10% or M = 20% etc.
Polyester capacitor construction
The polyester capacitor or PET capacitor may be seen in two main varieties, namely a
metallised film capacitor and also a foil version.Polyester capacitors use layers of
metal and polyester or Mylar dielectric to make a wide range of capacitance values
but normally within a relatively small package and for low voltages.The use of
"rolled" film layers lead to high dissipation and capacitance vs. temperature problems.
Also operation at high frequencies as a result of the construction, etc was poor and as
a result they were not used for high frequency or high current applications.Polyester
has a high dielectric constant and it is able to deliver a low cost product within a small
outline and it is able to operate at high temperatures up to 125°C for example, albeit
with a reduced voltage rating - it may be around half the rated voltage at these
extended temperatures.
Some typical polyester capacitor applications include:

 Circuits where the capacitor needs to handle high peak current levels
 General coupling and decoupling applications and DC blocking.
 Filtering, where high tolerance levels are not required.
 Audio applications
 Power supplies where the very high capacitance of electrolytic capacitors are
not needed.
Polyester capacitors are often regarded as general purpose capacitors. They provide a
good level volume efficiency when compared to other types of film capacitor, and this
comes at a moderate level of cost.
6
Trimmer capacitors Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable

capacitors. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The
process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the
tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer.
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. A small screwdriver

or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires
patience because the presence of your hand and the tool will slightly change the
capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer.
C] INDUCTORS, TRANSFORMERSINDUCTOR:
Fig.1.13: Various types of inductors Fig.1.14: inductor color coding
An inductor is a coil of wire which may have a core of air, iron or ferrite (a brittle
material made from iron). Its electrical property is called inductance. Inductance is the
circuit's resistance to change in current. The unit for this is Henry, symbol H. 1H is
very large so mH and µH are used, 1000 µH = 1mH and 1000mH = 1 H.
Iron and ferrite cores increase the inductance. Inductors are mainly used in tuned
circuits and to block high frequency AC signals (they are sometimes called chokes).
They pass DC easily, but block AC signals; this is the opposite of capacitors. An
inductor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required
when soldering.
Color Coding
Small capacity molded inductors are given a color code for easy identification when
they are mounted in circuits. Four-color bands are given in circles around the inductor.
The bands are called 1st band, 2nd band, the third band is the multiplier and the fourth
band indicates the tolerance. Colors used are: black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, violet, gray, white, no color, gold and silver. Colors in the first and second band
have a specific value of inductance, the third band is a multiplier and the fourth band
stands for the +- inductance tolerance like 1 %, 2%, 3%, 20%, etc.
Types:
a. Air Core Inductor b. Iron Core Inductor c. Ferrite Core Inductor
7
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is an apparatus by means or which electric power in one circuit is
transformed to electric of the same frequency in other circuit. They are classified as:
Fig15: Transformer
1) Core Type Transformer 2) Shell Type Transformer
Fig 16: Types of transformer

In core type transformers, there is a single magnetic circuit where as shell type
transformer has double magnetic circuit because both secondary and primary are
wound on central limb.
Types of Transformers
Audio Frequency Transformer, R.F and I.F transformer, Power Transformer, Isolation
Transformer, Auto Transformer, Fly Back Transformer, Pulse Transformer, Line
Transformer, Communication Transformer, Cement Transformer, Impedance
Transformer, Contact Type Transformer, Variable Transformer.
D] CONNECTORS, SWITCHES
CONNECTORS:
An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical
circuits as an interface using a mechanical assembly. The connection may be
temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or
serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices. There are
hundreds of types of electrical connectors. Connectors may join two lengths of
flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable or optical interface to an
electrical terminal.
SWITCHES:
A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting
the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
Types of Switches:
Electrical switches: circuit breaker, mercury switch, wafer switch, DIP switch, surface
mount switch, switch, wall switch (U.S. style), miniature toggle switch, in-line switch,
push-button switch, rocker switch, micro switch.
8
Result Table:
For Resistor
Resistor Colors Resistor Value Tolerance
For Capacitor:
Capacitor Type Capacitor color code Capacitor Value
For Inductor:
Inductor Type Inductor Color Code Inductor Value
9
CONCLUSION:
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FAQs:
Q.1. Explain Ohm's Law?
Q.2.If the voltage in the given circuit was cut in half, what would the current
equal?
Q.3. What are the SI units for measurement of resistance, capacitance and
inductance?
Q.4. List any five switches and connector? Give its applications.
Q.5. what is a capacitor? And give its applications.
10
EXPERIMENT NO: 2
TITLE: Study of different electronic measuring instruments
AIM: A] To study different controls of DMM and measurement of parameters like
AC and
DC voltage, Current.
B] To study controls of CRO. Measurement of frequency, phase, AC and
DC Voltages.
C] To study various controls of a signal generator.
EQUIPMENTS:- DMM, function generator, DC power supply, diode and transistor

to be tested, CRO, Resistor, Bread board, Variable resistor box, Capacitor,
Connecting wires
THEORY
A] DMM
The digital multimeter is one of the most versatile instruments, capable of acquiring a
variety of measurements. Digital multimeters are easy to use and are a necessity when
testing and debugging electronics or electrical circuits. Digital multi meters have
multiple functionality and serve as a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter combined in
one
package.
Fig 2.1: Digital Multimeter
11
1) Controls of DMM:
l.Digital Display
Liquid crystal display with automatic decimal point positioning, Updated two times
per second. When the meter is first turned on, all display segments appear while the
instrument performs a brief power-up self-test.
2. Function Selector Rotary Switch
Turn to select any of 10 different functions, ON or OFF. Refer to the Specifications
for available ranges and to manual for input terminals and limits
3. Volt, Ohms, Diode Test Input
Input terminal used in conjunction with the volts, mV (ac or dc), ohms, or diode test
position of the function selector rotary switch.
4. COM Common Terminal
Common or return terminal used for all measurements.
5. Milliamp/Microamp Input Terminal
Input terminal used for current measurements up to 320 mA (ac or dc) with the
function selector rotary switch in the mA or µA positions.
6. Amperes Input Terminal
Input terminal used for current measurements up to 10A
7. Overload Indication
These symbols indicate the input is too large for the input circuitry. (The location of
the decimal point depends on the measurement range.)
8. Overflow Indication
These symbols indicate the calculated difference in the Relative mode is too large to
display (>3999 counts) and that the input is not overloaded.
2) Measurement parameters:-
1. Voltage measurement
A digital multimeter can be used as a voltmeter to determine the potential voltage
difference across several leads of an electrical component or from a lead referenced
to ground. To measure the voltage across two leads, place the positive terminal on
the lead with higher voltage (if known) and the negative terminal on the lead with a
lower voltage. To measure the voltage of a specific location referenced to ground,
connect the positive terminal to the desired location and the negative terminal to
ground. When used as a voltmeter, the digital multimeter has very large input
impedance and thus draws very little current.
2. Current measurement:
A digital multimeter can be used as an ammeter to determine the current flow through
a wire or electrical component. This measurement is accomplished by placing the
digital multimeter in series with the wire that the current is flowing through. When
used as an ammeter, the digital multimeter has a very small impedance (resistance)
resulting in a small voltage drop across the multimeters leads.
3. Diode and transistor testing:-

Diode, transistor testing is critical for the semiconductor, and telecommunications
industries. Because of this demand a select number of digital multimeters, have a
mode that easily allows the user to make diode measurements. The process for taking
a diode testing involves supplying the diode with a constant current source and
reading the resulting voltage drop across the leads.
12
PROCEDURE:
Measuring Voltage & current with DMM:
 Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to be.
 Connect the meter making sure the leads are the correct way round.
 Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an analog meter may be
damaged.
 If the reading goes off the scale immediately disconnect & select a higher
range
B] CRO:
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is a very versatile instrument out of many electronic
instruments. It can measure number of parameters as well as it can display some
patterns in x-y directions. It is primarily used for display of waveforms. The heart of
the oscilloscope is a cathode ray
Fig 2.4: Front view of CRO

tube (CRT). The rest of the instrument consists of circuitry necessary to operate the
CRT.
A CRT basically consists of the following components:-
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1) Electron Gun: It produces a sharply focused beam of electrons accelerated to a

very high velocity.
2) Deflection System: It deflects the electron beam in vertical & horizontal planes.
3) Fluorescent Screen: The electron beam impinges on this screen to produce spot of
visible light. These three essential components of a CRT are put inside a highly
evacuated glass envelop. The screen is coated inside with phosphor material. This
material is fluorescent; when high velocity electron strikes it converts the energy of
electrons into visible light. When the beam strikes the screen, besides giving the light,
secondary emission electrons are also released. All these electron are collected by the
conductive coating deposited on the inside surface of the glass bulb. The electron gun
gets its name because it fires electrons at a very high speed. Electrons are emitted
from an indirectly heated cathode. The control grid is a nickel cylinder surrounding
the cathode. The only way the electrons emitted can pass this grid is through this
small hole. The control grid controls the number of electrons passing through it by
varying the negative voltage applied to it with respect to cathode, Since the brightness
of the spot on the screen depends upon beam intensity, it can be changed by changing
the negative bias on the control grid. The same is done by the intensity control
provided on the front panel of CRO. .
Applications of CRO:
 For analysis of a circuit, by observing waveforms at various points of the
circuit.
 To measure voltage, time and phase shift.
 To measure modulation index of an AM wave.
 For testing the components such as diodes.
 In an industrial application such as destructive testing of materials.
 In radars, CRO is used to display transmitted and received pulses to measure
distance.
 In many of the medical equipment used in the intensive care unit (I.C.U.) of a
hospital. It is used as a display device such as displaying the ECG
continuously.
MEASUREMENTS WITH THE OSCILLOSCOPE
l. Voltage Measurement:
When voltage is applied to the vertical input, the height of the vertical deflection of
the displayed trace combined with the setting of V /Div switch yields the peak to peak
voltage of the input signal
Voltage (V) = No. of vertical div × volts / division.
14
Fig.2.5: Voltage, Time & Frequency Measurement waveform.

2. Time measurement
In the triggered sweep mode, the time base circuit is used to provide sweep
waveforms with various values of sweep times (sec/div). The number of horizontal
divisions between two points along the signal waveform is a measure of the time
elapsed.
Time (T) = No. of horizontal divisions of one complete cycle × time / division.
3. Frequency Measurement
For a periodic waveform, time period T is the time of one cycle. By measuring T
using time measurement we can compute frequency by, f= 1/T.
4. Phase measurement
This can be done with (a) Triggered Sweep Mode and (b) Lissajous Figures
a) Triggered Sweep Mode
Display the signals on dual trace and measure the time delay between them. Calculate
the phase angle for this as the complete cycle takes 360º
Fig.2.6: Phase difference

b) Lissajous pattern
Most oscilloscopes have
both an X and Y axis input. This is convenient for direct
comparison of frequencies. Use two signal generators to
observe this, one to the X input and one to the Y input.
When they have the same frequency and amplitude, the
oscilloscope's beam should orbit around a perfect circle or
ellipse on the screen. [If the relative phase is just right, you
may see a tilted straight line.] Representing the phase angle
between the two sine waves by Referring to the diagram,
we see that just two measurements, X and Y, from the
screen are sufficient to determine the phase angle.
∅= sin−1 = 𝑦1
𝑦2
Fig.2.7: Lissajous Pattern (to determine phase angle)
NOTE:
 The slope of the above Lissajous pattern will go on changing.
 If two sine waves of the same frequency are in phase then pattern is diagonal
line making an angle (If 45° with the X axis)
 For the phase difference of 90° if amplitude and frequency are identical then
figure is circle.
 If signals are 180º out of phase then we get line making an angle of 135° with
X axis.
C] SIGNAL GENERATOR:
Controls of signal generator:-
 Power switch: - Pressing this push switch turns ON power.
 Power lamp: - LED lights up when power is ON.
 Frequency dial: - The variable potentiometer varies output frequency within
the selected range with frequency range selector.
 Swap width/ Release on control: - Releasing the switch selects internal swap
15
and rotating. Variable potentiometer controls swap width. Rotate it
counterclockwise to get minimum swap width and rotate it clockwise to get
maximum swap width.
 Swap rate control: - This controls swap rate i.e. swap frequency of internal
swap oscillator.
 Symmetry control: - (Release ON):- This controls duty cycle of the output
signal waveform within range of 10: 1 to 1: 10.
 DC offset control (Release ON):- It can be provided up to +/-10V open circuit
or +/- 5V in to 50 ohms. Clockwise rotation admixes positive voltage and
counterclockwise rotation admixes negative voltage.
 Amplitude/Release -20dB,-40dB,-60dB control:- Amplitude of output signal
can be controlled by this potentiometer. Maximum attenuation is -60dB (when
both -20dB,-40dB) are released.
 Frequency range selector: - 7 ranges are available, by pressing any, range of
frequencies for output signal is selected. (Range- 0.2 Hz to 2 MHz).
 Function selector: - Push one of three knobs to get desired waveform out of
sine wave, triangular wave and square wave.
 VCF IN connector: - Frequency of output signal can be varied by applying
external voltage to this connector.
 TTL output connector: - We can get TTL level output square waveform at this
output terminal.
 Output connector: - This is main output connector for sine, triangular and
square wave.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
1. Voltage, Time measurement on CRO
Amplitude
Waveform Time period (T) Frequency(F)
(Vpp)
Sine wave
Triangular wave
Square wave
Lissajous Pattern (to determine phase angle)

Diagram and Formula
16
Calculations
CONCLUSION:
FAQs:
Q.1. Where do you use CRO?
Q.2. List applications of CRO.
Q.3.What is a digital multimeter?
Q.4. How to measure voltage and resistance using DMM?
Q.5. Give applications of Function Generator.
17
Experiment No. 3
Title: Study of VI characteristics of p-n junction diode

Aim:
Equipment:
Experiment kit
Objectives
At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to
Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode
Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode
Structure of a P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead
connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is
marked by a solid line on the diode.
Figure 1
Figure 2 Symbol
Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias
The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-
type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction
and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential
applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to
the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in potential between the p side
and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the
depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot
counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence
reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type
material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby
neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines
the amount of current that may flow through the diode.
18
Figure 3
Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias
The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little
current will flow until the diode breaks down.
Figure 4
The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-
type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and
causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type
region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away
from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high
resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to
cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the
junction behaving as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage
increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n
junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the
Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are
non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not
reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal
damage.
Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode
n forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will
conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion
region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward
biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing
the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a
19
silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the
graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
Figure 5
In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing,
the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the
depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to
overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no
current flow.
Diode Equation
In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current (If), and the voltage
(Vf), of a semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation:
Procedure
Forward Bias-Si Diode
 Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
 Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Silicon diode.
20
 Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with

resistor.
 The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of
the diode.
 Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter
reading for particular DC voltage .
 Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode
and Ammeter reading.
 Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
 Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting
when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode).
This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
Figure 6
Reverse Bias-Si Diode
 Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
 Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Silicon diode.
 Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
 The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
 Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
DC voltage .
 Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter
reading.
 Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
21
Conclusion:
Thus we have studied the VI characteristic of a p-n junction diode and we learnt that diode
works only in forward bias and not in reverse bias.
FAQ
 Explain operation of pn junction diode in forward bias
 Draw VI characteristics of pn junction diode and explain
 Explain working of Zener diode in reverse bias
 How Zener diode works as a voltage regulator?
22
EXPERIMENT No. 4
TITLE: Study of half wave and full wave rectifier circuits
AIM:
To measure output voltage, load current and observe waveforms at transformer
secondary, output of rectifier with and without capacitor filter.
EQUIPMENT: Rectifier kit, CRO, Connecting probes, DMM
THEORY:
A rectifier is a circuit that converts ac into DC voltage / current. There are two
main types of rectifier circuits:
1. Half Wave Rectifier.
2. Full Wave Rectifiers.
Half wave rectifier converts only half of input wave to DC. Full wave rectifier
converts both halves of input wave to DC. Half wave rectifiers possess following
disadvantages:-
 Excessive ripple (r=1.21)
 Low rectification efficiency (η=0.406)
 Low transformer utilization factor (TUF= 0.287)
 Due to unidirectional current flowing in the secondary, there are saturation
related problems.
A full wave rectifier overcomes or reduces many of the above disadvantages. There
are two types of full wave rectifiers:
1. Center tapped Full wave rectifier
2. Bridge rectifier
Bridge rectifier is superior to the Center tapped full wave rectifier in following three
aspects:
1. The PIV of the diodes in Bridge rectifier is only Vm in contrast to 2 Vm in Center

tapped F.W.R
2. The Transformer Utilization Factor in Bridge rectifier is 0.812 in contrast to 0.693
in Center tapped F.W.R.
3. No need of special center tapped transformer.
23
HWR WORKING
During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer
secondary winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half
cycle diode D1 is forward biased and current flows through the load resistance RL,
and returns back. During second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the
transformer secondary winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diode
becomes reverse biased and current does not flow through the load resistance R L, and
returns back. The direction of flow of current through the load resistance RL remains
the same during both half cycles of the input supply voltage. The load current/voltage
is pulsating DC.
FWR WORKING
24
Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows unidirectional
current through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half the
cycle in the half-wave). A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input
waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Let us see
our half wave rectifier example and deduce the circuit.
So, we have seen that this rectifier circuit consists of two sources which have a phase
difference along with two diodes. When V1 is positive, V2 is negative. Hence the top
diode(D1) will be a short and the bottom diode(D2) will be an open. On the other
hand, when V1 is negative, V2 is positive. Hence the bottom diode(D2) will be on and
the top diode(D1)
B] Filter Circuits:
The output of the rectifier is pulsating d c. Such a pulsating D.C. voltage/current is
useless in practice for most of the electronic circuits. They require more or less
constant dc value. Therefore, in addition to rectifiers some other circuits are used
which convert this pulsating DC to nearly pure, constant d.c. output. These circuits
are called filters.
There are different two types of filter circuits 1. Inductor Filter 2. Capacitor Filter.
The capacitor filter consists of only a suitable value capacitor placed in parallel to the
load. The capacitor is energy storing device. It stores energy in the form of charge on
its plates during the time when the rectifier voltage is more positive. When the
rectifier voltage begins to drop down the capacitor starts discharging through load.
Maintain the flow of current to the load. Thus, with the addition of the capacitor filter
to the rectifier, the output voltage remains fairly constant. When the load current is
increased, the ripple component in the output increases increasing the ripple factor.
PROCEDURE
1. Make the connections as shown in the figure (without connecting capacitor)
2. Apply the 230 V ac input to the transformer.
3. Apply the 230 V ac input to the transformer.
4. Observe the output voltage on CRO.
5. Connect capacitor filter and observe output voltage on CRO.
6. Draw observed waveforms on graph paper
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Circuit VL(without IL(without VL(with IL(with
filter) filter) filter) filter)
HWR
FWR
25
CONCLUSION:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAQ’s:
Q.1. How can you convert AC input signal into DC output signal using power
supply and which components are used in this procedure?
Q.2. Which diode have you used in the rectifier circuit? Explain the working.
Q.3. Which type of capacitor used as an filter?
Q.4. Which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
Q.5. Which type of rectifier is used in your power supply circuit design?
26
Experiment No. 5
Title: Simulation of MOSFET OR BJT bases CE amplifier
Aim: Study of frequency response of CE amplifier using BJT
Procedure
Experiment
The source voltage (VS) is set to 50mV at 1 KHz frequency.

Keeping source voltage constant, vary the frequency from 50 Hz in regular steps.
Set Source Resistance(RS)=100Ω.
Set Collector Resistance(RC)=4000Ω, Set Emitter Resistance(RE)=1000Ω, Set
Load Resistance(RL)=2000Ω.
Set Base Resistance1(RB1)=47 KΩ, Set Base Resistance2(RB2)=10KΩ.
Set Coupling Capacitor1(CC1)=10μF, Set Coupling Capacitor2(CC2) =10μF,
Set Bypass Capacitance(CE)=10μF.
Click on "Add to Table" button to add the readings to the table.
Vary the Frequency by keeping the resistances constant.
Click on "Plot" button to plot the Magnitude graph of the CE Amplifier,
Frequency(Hz) along X-axis and Magnitude(dB) along Y-axis.
Click on "Clear" button to take another set of readings.
Theory:
The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier as it has both
voltage and current amplification.
Resistors RB1 and RB2 form a voltage divider across the base of the transistor. The
function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and ensure that emitter-
base junction is operating in the proper region.
In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, biasing is done in such a way that the
operating point is in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that
the load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design VCE is always set to VCC/2.
This will confirm that the Q-point always swings within the active region. This
limitation can be explained by maximum signal handling capacity. For the maximum
input signal, output is produced without any distortion and clipping.
The Bypass Capacitor
The emitter resistor RE is required to obtain the DC quiescent point stability. However
the inclusion of RE in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification at higher
frequencies. In order to avoid such a condition, it is bypassed by a capacitor so that it
acts as a short circuit for AC and contributes stability for DC quiescent condition.
Hence capacitor is connected in parallel with emitter resistance.
27
The Input/ Output Coupling (or Blocking) Capacitor
An amplifier amplifies the given AC signal. In order to have noiseless transmission of a signal (without
DC), it is necessary to block DC i.e. the direct current should not enter the amplifier or load. This is
usually accomplished by inserting a coupling capacitor between two stages.
28
CC - Output Coupling Capacitor

CB - Input Coupling Capacitor
Frequency response of Common Emitter Amplifier
Emitter bypass capacitors are used to short circuit the emitter resistor and thus
increases the gain at high frequency. The coupling and bypass capacitors cause the
fall of the signal in the low frequency response of the amplifier because their
impedance becomes large at low frequencies. The stray capacitances are effectively
open circuits. In the mid frequency range large capacitors are effectively short circuits
and the stray capacitors are open circuits, so that no capacitance appears in the mid
frequency range. Hence the mid band frequency gain is maximum. At the high
frequencies, the bypass and coupling capacitors are replaced by short circuits. The
stray capacitors and the transistor determine the response.
The input resistance is medium and is essentially independent of the load resistance
RL . The output resistance is relatively high and is essentially independent of the
source resistance.
Following is the frequency response of CE amplifier to audio frequencies.

Conclusion:
29
EXPERIMENT NO 6
TITLE: Study of inverting & non inverting amplifier using op-amp.
AIM: a] Identify pins of an Op-amp ( LM 741)

b] Implement inverting & non inverting amplifier circuits.
EQUIPMENT: Experimental kit with IC LM 741, Resistors, Dual regulated Power

supply, DMM, CRO.
THEORY:
The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well
as ac input. It is also capable of performing mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication & integration.
The IC 741 is an internally frequency compensated operational amplifier. It can be
used as integrator, summing amplifier, voltage follower and in other general feedback
applications. The features of the IC 741 are as follows:
 No external frequency compensation required.
 Short circuit protection.
 Offset null capability.
 Large common mode & differential voltage ranges.
 Low power consumption.
 No latch up problem.
Fig.6.1: Pin configuration of IC 741

1. Inverting Amplifier:
Input signal is applied to inverting input (-) of Op amp in inverting amplifier. This
input signal is amplified by gain of -Rf /R1 at the output. The non inverting (+) input
of Op-amp is connected to ground. Hence inverting input also has potential of
approximately 0 V because of concept virtual ground. Also there is no input current.
That means input current I1 and feedback current If passing through RF are same.
30
Fig.6.2: Inverting amplifier

Iin = If + IB1
But IB1 = 0, Iin = If (Vin-
0) / R1 = (0-Vo) / RfVin /
R1 = -Vout / Rf
A= Vo /Vin = - Rf / R1
Vo = - Rf / R1 (Vin)
2. Non Inverting Amplifier:

Input signal is applied to non inverting input (+) of Op amp in non inverting amplifier.
This input signal is amplified by gain of(1+Rf / R1) at the output. The inverting (-)
input of Op-amp is connected to ground through resistance R1. Hence inverting input
also has potential same as Vin. Also there is no input current.
Fig.6.3: Non Inverting Amplifier

Iin = If + IB1
But IB1 = 0, Iin = If
(0 - Vin ) / R1 = (Vin - Vo) / Rf
Vin (1 / R1 + 1 / Rf ) = Vo
A = Vo / Vin = 1 + Rf / R1
Vo = (1 + Rf / R1) (Vin)
31
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect supply voltages of +12V& -12V.
2. Complete connections of Inverting Amplifier on experimental kit.
3. Connect R1 = 1kΩ , Rf = 10kΩ or 4.7kΩ
4. Connect Vin = any DC voltage as 0.5V or 0.2V etc.
5. Measure Vo on DMM; also observe Vo = +Vsat or -Vsat by giving appropriate Vin.
6. Complete connections of Non Inverting Amplifier on experimental kit & repeat
steps 3 to 5.
RESULT TABLE:
1. Inverting Amplifier:
Vin R1 Rf Vo Vo
(Theoretical) (Practical)
2. Non Inverting Amplifier:

Vin R1 Rf Vout Vout
(Theoretical) (Practical)
CALCULATIONS:
Inverting amplifier
Vo = - Rf / R1 (Vin)
Non Inverting Amplifier

Vo = (1 + Rf / R1) (Vin)
CONCLUSION:
Thus we have studied the working of operational amplifier in inverting andnon-
32
inverting mode
33
Experiment No: 7
TITLE: Study of Digital circuits
AIM
A. To identify pins of digital logic gate ICs such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, Ex-OR
B. Implement half and full adder circuit with basic logic gate ICs
C. Test and Verify Truth Table of J-K Flip Flop
Equipment:
Digital Trainer kit, Connecting wires.
Required IC’s:
7408 AND Gate
7432 OR Gate
7400 NAND Gate
7404 INV Gate
7402 NOR Gate
7486 XOR Gate
7476 JK FF
THEORY
A) To identify pins of digital logic gate ICs such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR,
Ex-OR.
1) ANDGate.
This gate performs logical multiplication commonly known as the AND function. The output
is high when both the inputs are high.The output is low level when any one of the inputs is
low.
34
2) ORGate
The gate performs a logical addition commonly known as the OR function. The output is
high when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low level when both the inputs are low
3) NAND Gate.
A NAND gate (Negated AND or NOT AND) is a logic gate which produces an output that
is false only if all its inputs are true. A LOW (0) output results only if both the inputs to the
gate are HIGH (1); if one or both inputs are LOW (0), a HIGH (1) output results.
35
4) NOTor INVGate.
This is also known as the Inverter. The output is high when both inputs are low. The output is
low when one or both inputs are high.
5) NOR Gate.
The NOR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical NOR. It behaves according to
the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if both the inputs to the gate are LOW
(0); if one or both input is HIGH (1), a LOW output (0) results. NOR is the result of
the negation of the OR operator.
36
6) Ex OR Gate.
The Ex OR gate (sometimes EOR gate, or EXOR gate) is a digital logic gate that
implements an exclusive or; that is, a true output (1) results if one, and only one, of the inputs
to the gate is true (1). If both inputs are false (0) or both are true (1), a false output (0) results.
B) Implement half and full adder circuit with basic logic gate ICs
1) Half adder
A half adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on two one-bit binary
numbers often written as A and B. The half adder output is a sum of the two inputs usually
represented with the signals Cout and S where. Following is the logic table for a half adder:
37
2) Full adder
A full adder is a logical circuit that performs an addition operation on three one-bit binary
numbers often written as A, B, and Cin. The full adder produces a two-bit output sum
typically represented with the signals Cout and S where. The full adder's truth table is:
PROCEDURE
A) Analysis of Basic Logic Gates
Setup the circuits shown above to analyze the operation of the various basic logic gates. For
each gate:
1. Apply all possible combinations of inputs and observe the output.
2. Construct the truth table for each gate and compare these truth tables to the actual truth
tables provided above.
3. Draw the internal architecture for each IC using the conventional symbols for each gate.
B) Implement half adder and full adder and verify the operation with the help of
truth table
38
1. Connect the logic gates in the digital trainer kit. Make the connections as per the logic
diagram for half adder using the logic gates AND & EX-OR.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Verify the truth table for half adder by changing the inputs A&B and observing the
outputs Sum & Carry.
4. Connect the logic gates in the digital trainer kit. Make the connections as per the logic
diagram for full adder using the logic gates AND, OR & EX-OR.
5. Switch on the power supply.
6. Verify the truth table for full adder by changing the inputs A, B, Cin and observing
the outputs Sum & Carry
C) Test and Verify Truth Table of J-K Flip Flop
Sequential Circuits: The logic circuits whose outputs at any instant of time depend not
only on the present input but also on the past outputs are called sequential circuits.The
simplest kind of sequential circuit which is capable of storing one bit of information is
called latch.The operation of basic latch can be modified, by providing an additional
control input that determines, when the state of the circuit is to be changed.
The latch with additional control input is called the Flip-Flop.The additional control input
is either the clock or enable input.
Different types of Flip-Flop: There are four basic types, namely, S-R, J-K, D and T Flip-
Flops.
J-K Flip Flop
The JK Flip Flop is the most widely used flip flop. It is considered to be a universal
flip-flop circuit. The sequential operation of the JK Flip Flop is same as for the RS flip-
flop with the same SET and RESET input. The difference is that the JK Flip Flop does
not show invalid input states of the RS Latch (when S and R are both 1).The JK Flip
Flop name has been kept on the inventor name of the circuit known as Jack Kilby.
39
Figure 1: J-K Flip-Flop using S-R Flip-Flop
Figure 2: NAND based J-K Flip-Flop
Figure 4: J-K Flip-Flop characteristic Table
74LS76 Dual JK Flip-Flop with Set and Clear
40
Features
Two Individual Flip-Flops with J,K Clock, Set and Clear Inputs
Input Data is Transferred to the Outputs on HIGH-LOW Clock Transition
Fast Switching Speed
Operating Temperature up to 70°C
Standard TTL Switching Voltages
Pin Layout
CONCLUSION
41
FAQ
1. Implement AND, OR, NOT, EX-OR, EX-NOR using universal gates NAND & NOR.
2. Implement FULL Adder using 2 Half Adder.
3. Explain Standard Negative & Positive Logic Levels
42
Experiment No. 8
Aim:
Study of transducers
Equipment:
Sensors
LM 35
Many times in industrial applications and in domestic applications we need to measure

temperature for different purposes. There are many temperature sensors which can be used.
Selection of a sensor mainly depend on the application on which we are working. One of the
most commonly used sensor for measurement of temperature in industrial as well as domestic
application is IC LM 35.
Following is the technical details of the sensor
LM35 is a temperature measuring device having an analog output voltage proportional to the
temperature.
It provides output voltage in Centigrade (Celsius). It does not require any external calibration
circuitry.
43
The sensitivity of LM35 is 10 mV/degree Celsius. As temperature increases, output voltage
also increases.
E. g. 250 mV means 25°C.
It is a 3-terminal sensor used to measure surrounding temperature ranging from -55 °C to

150 °C.
LM35 gives temperature output which is more precise than thermistor output.
Pin Description
VCC: Supply Voltage (4V – 30V)
Out: It gives analog output voltage which is proportional to the temperature (in degree
Celsius).
GND: Ground
Calibrated Directly in Celsius (Centigrade)

Linear + 10-mV/°C Scale Factor
0.5°C Ensured Accuracy (at 25°C)
Rated for Full −55°C to 150°C Range
Suitable for Remote Applications
Low-Cost Due to Wafer-Level Trimming
Operates From 4 V to 30 V
Less Than 60-μA Current Drain
Low Self-Heating, 0.08°C in Still Air
Non-Linearity Only ±¼°C Typical
Low-Impedance Output, 0.1 Ω for 1-mA Load
44
Ultrasonic Module HC-SR04

Introduction
In many application we need to check the level of oil or fluid or alike material in industrial
application, for that matter we use ultrsonic sensor because it helps us to measure level
without making any contact with the material under measurement.
The ultrasonic sensor works on the principle of SONAR and RADAR system which is used to
determine the distance to an object.
An ultrasonic sensor generates the high-frequency sound (ultrasound) waves. When this
ultrasound hits the object, it reflects as echo which is sensed by the receiver as shown in
below figure.
By measuring the time required for the echo to reach to the receiver, we can calculate the
distance. This is the basic working principle of Ultrasonic module to measure distance.
45
HC-SR-04 has an ultrasonic transmitter, receiver and control circuit.
In ultrasonic module HCSR04, we have to give trigger pulse, so that it will generate
ultrasound of frequency 40 kHz. After generating ultrasound i.e. 8 pulses of 40 kHz, it makes
echo pin high. Echo pin remains high until it does not get the echo sound back. So the width
of echo pin will be the time for sound to travel to the object and return back. Once we get the
time we can calculate distance, as we know the speed of sound.
HC-SR04 can measure up to range from 2 cm - 400 cm.
VCC - +5 V supply
TRIG – Trigger input of sensor. Microcontroller applies 10 us trigger pulse to the HC-SR04
ultrasonic module.
ECHO–Echo output of sensor. Microcontroller reads/monitors this pin to detect the obstacle
or to find the distance.
GND – Ground
46
Now how to calculate distance?
We know that,
Distance = speed * time
The speed of sound waves is 343 m/s.
So
Total distance =(343* time of high pulse)/2
47
LDR
(Light Dependent Resistor)
This sensor is used for detection presence of light. Most of the times it is used in
application where we need to turn on or off something if light is present of absent.
As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of
exposed semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical
resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms when
light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs in the material.
The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in resistance for
an increase in illumination. Also, photo-resistive cells have a long response time
requiring many seconds to respond to a change in the light intensity.
Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS), lead
selenide (PbSe), indium antimonide (InSb) which detect light in the infra-red range
with the most commonly used of all photo-resistive light sensors being Cadmium
Sulphide (Cds).
Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photo-conductive cells because its
spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be
controlled using a simple torch as a light source. Typically then, it has a peak
sensitivity wavelength (λp) of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral range.
The most commonly used photo-resistive light sensor is the ORP12 Cadmium
Sulphide photo-conductive cell. This light dependent resistor has a spectral response
of about 610nm in the yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell
when unilluminated (dark resistance) is very high at about 10MΩ’s which falls to
about 100Ω’s when fully illuminated (lit resistance).
To increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive
path forms a zigzag pattern across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very
low cost device often used in auto dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning
the street lights “ON” and “OFF”, and for photographic exposure meter type
applications.
48
LDR Features
 Can be used to sense Light
 Easy to use on Breadboard
 Easy to use with Microcontrollers or even with normal Digital/Analog IC
 Small, cheap and easily available
 Available in PG5 ,PG5-MP, PG12, PG12-MP, PG20 and PG20-MP series
Applications
 Automatic Street Light
 Detect Day or Night
 Automatic Head Light Dimmer
 Position sensor
 Used along with LED as obstacle detector
 Automatic bedroom Lights
 Automatic Rear view mirror
Conclusion:
Thus we have studied senors for measurement of temperature, distance and light
intensity.
49
Experiment No. 9
TITLE
Implementation of Basic Logic Gates using Universal gate - NAND.
AIM
To Implement Basic Logic Gates AND, OR, NOT using Universal gate - NAND.
APPARATUS
Digital Trainer kit, Connecting wires.
Required ICs:
7400 NAND Gate
THEORY
NAND and NOR gates are called as universal logic gates as all other logic gates can be
implemented using only NAND or only NOR gates.
NOT using NAND
OR using NAND
50
AND using NAND
CONCLUSION: Thus we have implemented basic gates using universal gates
51
Experiment No. 10
Aim: Case Study of any one electronics appliances with block diagram, specification
(Case: Electronic weighing machine)
In our daily life we go to grocer stall for buying goods related to daily needs. All
grocers use an electronic weighing machine. Here is the details about internal
electronic components used in electronic weighing machine.
A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It converts
force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can
then be measured. When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and
strain are the result. Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain
is defined as the displacement and deformation that occur.
The strain gauge is one of the most important sensor of the electrical measurement
technique applied to the measurement of mechanical quantities. As their name
indicates, they are used for the measurement of strain. As a technical term "strain"
consists of tensile and compressive strain, distinguished by a positive or negative sign.
Thus, strain gauges can be used to pick up expansion as well as contraction.
The strain of a body is always caused by an external influence or an internal effect.

Strain might be caused by forces, pressures, moments, heat, structural changes of the
material and the like. I
For measurement of change in resistance we use Wheatstone bridge as shown below.
Output voltage is a direct indication of force applied.
52
Following is the block diagram of electronic weighing machine.
53
General Specification of a strain gauge:
Specification Value Unit and Note
Gage Length 0.3mm to 60mm standard

ithin ±0.3％ of the nominal
Gage Resistance 120Ω to 1000Ω
sistance
Foil Material A : Cu-Ni Alloy
Base Material Polyester
Gage Factor 2.00 (Nominal) 1.90 to 2.10
Up to 10% with yielding
Measurable Strain 2 to 4％ maximum
strain
Temperature Range －30℃ to ＋80℃
Gage Factor Change
±0.015％/℃
with Temperature
Conclusion: Thus we have studied the electronic weighing machine and now we are
aware of how an electronic weighing machine works
54

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Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s College of Engineering, Karvenagar, Pune - 52

Year Engineering Semester II Basic Electronics Engineering

Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s

Department of Electronics Engineering

104010-BASIC ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

1 Study of Active and Passive components

2 Measurements using various measuring equipment

3 V-I characteristics of P-N Junction Diode Study

5 Frequency response of MOSFET:

6 Linear applications of Op-amp: Build inverting and

7 Test and verify the truth tables of:

8 Study of transducers : (Any 3) LDR, Ultra-sonic,

9 Build and test any circuit using

10 Case Study of any one electronics appliances with

Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s

BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Faculty In-charge Head of Dept. Principal

⚫ Mold young talent for higher endeavors.

⚫ Meet the challenges of globalization.

⚫ Commit for socially progress with values and ethics.

⚫ Orient faculty and students for research and development.

Department of Engineering Sciences

Mission: To provide broad theoretical and practical knowledge of Basic Science

Electronics has become an inseparable part of life.

● Please follow instructions given by Lab Assistant and teacher.

● Follow electrical safety rules .

● Return devices after use.

● Do not alter settings of the instrument without permission of the teacher.

PROGRAMS OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

104010.2 The functioning of transistors like BJT, MOSFETs and OPAMP.

104010.4 Working and functions of various electronic instruments.

104010.6 Basic principles of communication systems.

Expt No. Program outcomes

TITLE: Study of different electronic components

Fig.1.1: The symbolic representation of resistors

Carbon Film Resistor

A common type of axial resistor today is referred to as a metal-film resistor. Metal

Wire wound resistors:

Fig.1.8. Capacitor construction and symbol

E +/- 0.5% F +/- 1%

J +/- 5% K +/- 10%

M +/- 20% N +/- 30%

P +100% ,-0% Z +80%, -20%

Some typical polyester capacitor applications include:

Trimmer capacitors Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. A small screwdriver

Fig.1.13: Various types of inductors Fig.1.14: inductor color coding

1) Core Type Transformer 2) Shell Type Transformer

Fig 16: Types of transformer

Resistor Colors Resistor Value Tolerance

Capacitor Type Capacitor color code Capacitor Value

Inductor Type Inductor Color Code Inductor Value

EQUIPMENTS:- DMM, function generator, DC power supply, diode and transistor

Fig 2.1: Digital Multimeter

3. Diode and transistor testing:-

Fig 2.4: Front view of CRO

1) Electron Gun: It produces a sharply focused beam of electrons accelerated to a

Fig.2.5: Voltage, Time & Frequency Measurement waveform.