Apoyo 1

1160
British Journal of Educational Psychology (2022), 92, 1160–1177

© 2022 The Authors. British Journal of Educational Psychology
published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
on behalf of British Psychological Society
www.wileyonlinelibrary.com
Teachers’ views on the acceptability and

implementation of the Incredible Yearsâ Teacher
Classroom Management programme in English
(UK) primary schools from the STARS trial
Kate Allen1,†* , Lorraine Hansford1,†, Rachel Hayes1,
Bryony Longdon1, Matthew Allwood2, Anna Price1,
Sarah Byford3, Brahm Norwich4 and Tamsin Ford5
1
College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, UK
2
Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, UK
3
King’s Health Economics, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s
College London, UK
4
Graduate School of Education, University of Exeter, UK
5
Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, UK
Background. The Incredible Yearsâ (IY) Teacher Classroom Management (TCM)

programme may reduce disruptive behaviour in the classroom and improve child and
teacher mental health; however, few studies have considered how acceptable TCM is to
teachers or what facilitators and barriers there are to its implementation.
Aims. In this paper we examine the acceptability of the full 6-day TCM programme and
teachers’ perceived barriers and facilitators to implementation in the English (UK)
primary school context.
Sample. Forty-four English (UK) primary school teachers who attended the TCM
programme as part of the STARS trial.
Methods. We completed focus groups and telephone interviews with participating
teachers 2 months after they completed the TCM programme. Thematic analysis was
used to examine the data, and a framework approach was applied to organize and
summarize themes.
Results. Teachers liked the structure of the course, the peer group learning
environment, delivery methods, and the opportunity to reflect outside the classroom
on their practice. They reported that the video clips used lacked cultural relevance and
highlighted the importance of group leadership style. Perceived facilitators to implemen-
tation included an understanding of the theory underpinning TCM and adaptability of the
TCM strategies. Barriers included perceived gaps in the course content in relation to
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
*Correspondence should be addressed to Kate Allen, Room 2.05, South Cloisters, St Luke’s Campus, College Road, Exeter EX1
1TE, UK (e-mail: kate.allen@exeter.ac.uk).
†
Kate Allen and Lorraine Hansford are to be regarded as joint first author since their contributions are deemed equal.
DOI:10.1111/bjep.12493
20448279, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12493 by Cochrane Peru, Wiley Online Library on [12/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Teachers’ views on the acceptability of the IY TCM programme 1161
challenging behaviour, applying strategies with older children and the school context
within which teachers were working.
Conclusion. Our findings suggest high levels of acceptability to TCM overall, but also
highlight the need for a whole school approach to combat potential barriers to
implementation.
Disruptive behaviour was highlighted by The Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted
(2019) as one of the main sources of stress for teachers. It impacts negatively on well-being
(Beltman, Mansfield, & Price, 2011; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Ofsted, 2019),
contributes to poor and worsening teacher retention rates as reported in the UK (see
Industrial Injuries Advisory Education Support Partnership, 2018; The Industrial Injuries
Advisory Council, 2017), and reduces opportunities for children to learn and thrive
(Ofsted, 2019). Despite this, teachers report that they lack adequate support and training
to effectively manage the disruptive behaviour in their classrooms (Ofsted, 2019).
The Incredible Yearsâ (IY) Teacher Classroom Management (TCM) programme
(Webster-Stratton, Reinke, Herman, & Newcomer, 2011) may be one way to support
teachers in reducing disruptive behaviour in the classroom. Designed in Seattle as one
element of a suite of three programmes aiming to reduce disruptive behaviour and
promote socio-emotional development among children, TCM draws on Patterson’s
theories of coercive cycles of interaction between adults and children (Patterson, 1982),
Bandura’s ideas about modelling and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) and Piaget’s develop-
mental interactive learning methods (Piaget & Inhelder, 1962) to enhance teachers’
behaviour management skills. The programme has four specific goals: (1) to enhance
teacher behaviour management skills and improve teacher-pupil relationships; (2) to
assist teachers to develop effective individual and group behaviour plans in order to
enable proactive (instead of reactive) classroom management; (3) to encourage teachers
to adopt and promote social and emotional regulation skills; and (4) to encourage teachers
to strengthen positive teacher-parent relationships (see https://incredibleyears.com/
programs/teacher/classroom-mgt-curriculum/ for more details). The programme is
delivered to teachers through six whole day sessions spread over a period of 6 months
to allow teachers time to experiment with novel strategies and for new behaviours to
become embedded into their practice. The sessions involve reflecting on practice, group
problem solving, modelling and practicing strategies, group discussions, and role play
(Webster-Stratton et al., 2011).
Evaluations of TCM when delivered in isolation from the parent and child focused IY
programmes across the world have demonstrated reduced use of negative teacher
classroom management strategies (e.g. use of warnings, negative physical behaviour,
criticism, unlabelled praise), greater use of positive teacher classroom management
strategies (e.g. use of positive affect, encouragement, labelled praise), and fewer child
conduct problems (Chuang, Reinke, & Herman, 2020; Nye, 2017). More recently, a large
cluster randomized controlled trial evaluating TCM in the UK (STARS) reported a transient
small improvement in all children’s mental health, but a larger effect sustained over
30 months among children with poor mental health at baseline (Ford et al., 2019b).
Although there were no changes in measures of teacher distress, burn out, and self-
efficacy (Hayes et al., 2020), teachers who attended TCM reported a positive impact on
themselves as teachers (feeling calmer, more confident and in control) as well as positive
impacts on their pupils and teacher-parent relationships (Allen et al., 2020).
Although these studies suggest TCM may be beneficial to teachers and children, such
benefits will only occur, and be sustained, if teachers find the TCM approach acceptable
1162 Kate Allen et al.
and implementable; however, few studies have considered this within the UK. In North
Wales and England (UK), Hutchings et al. (2007) and Marlow et al. (2015) conducted
interviews with teachers and reported high levels of satisfaction with content and
delivery. Although these initial findings suggest the TCM approach may be acceptable,
both studies were relatively small, and Hutchings et al. (2007) only considered the
acceptability of the 5-day version of TCM, rather than the full 6-day programme. Thus,
there is still a need for an in-depth consideration of acceptability and implementation of
the TCM programme within the UK.
Both acceptability and an understanding of the factors influencing implementation are
key components to the successful adoption and sustained provision of any novel
intervention (Hagermoser Sanetti & Collier-Meek, 2019). As this may vary across contexts,
it is important to understand whether teachers in the UK consider TCM relevant to their
training needs and whether they are able to implement their learning in the classroom.
Exploring teachers’ experiences may identify key factors for successful implementation,
that if overlooked might contribute to the research-to-practice gap within education
(Hagermoser Sanetti & Collier-Meek, 2019).
The current study examines the acceptability of the full 6-day TCM programme and
perceived barriers/facilitators to implementation in the English (UK) primary/elementary
school context for children aged 4–11 years by reporting on the findings from the process
evaluation of the STARS trial (Hansford et al., 2015).
Materials and methods

STARS was a cluster randomized controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness and cost-
effectiveness of the TCM programme conducted in Devon (UK) compared to teaching as
usual between 2012 and 2017 (Ford et al., 2019b). Eighty primary schools were offered
the opportunity to send one teacher from a reception to year 4 class (teaching 4- to 9-year-
olds) to attend the TCM programme. Teachers from schools randomized to the
intervention (n = 40) attended training in their first year of the trial, those in the control
schools (n = 40) attended in their second year of the trial.
The current study reports on the findings from the process evaluation of the above
trial. Materials and methods relevant to the current study are summarized below and
described in greater detail in an earlier paper (Allen et al., 2020).
The IY TCM programme

The IY TCM programme focuses on building positive relationships with students;
preventing problem behaviour; teacher attention, coaching and praise; motivating children
through incentives; decreasing inappropriate behaviour; and emotional regulation, social
skills, and problem solving (Webster-Stratton et al., 2011). The six sessions ran between
November and April within one academic year and were delivered by trained IY TCM group
leaders (GLs). TCM groups included between 8 and 12 teachers and measures were
undertaken to ensure fidelity to the model (Ford et al., 2019a). Schools were provided with
funding for supply cover to release teachers to attend and were not charged course fees.
Participants and data collection

Teachers were invited via email to take part in a focus group 2 months after the
completion of their TCM training. Teachers were offered a telephone interview if they
were unable to attend this focus group. Both were described as an opportunity to explore
their experiences and views of TCM, both positive and negative, and were conducted by a
trained researcher-facilitator.
Each focus group ran for approximately one and a half hours and a topic guide was
used to facilitate the discussion. The topic guide was developed by the research team as
part of the process evaluation for the STARS trial (Hansford et al., 2015) and included
questions that had arisen due to the ongoing relationships with teachers taking part in the
study. The topic guide focused on teachers’ perceptions of TCM, what factors might
impact the use and implementation of TCM and what impact they felt it had had/not had
(in terms of themselves, children, parents, and wider school environment; reported in
Allen et al., 2020). Telephone interviews were of a similar duration and followed a parallel
topic guide. Focus groups and interviews were audio recorded for transcription and
analysis. All participating teachers received a £10 gift voucher as a thank you for their time.
Data saturation was reached after five focus groups. Of the 47 primary school teachers
who attended one of the first five TCM programmes run as part of the STARS trial, 44 took
part in either a focus group (n = 31) or telephone interview (n = 13). The three teachers
who did not participate in a focus group or interview declined to take part due to
bereavement (n = 1) or maternity leave (n = 2).
Participating teachers were similar for both methods, most were: female (77% both
groups); in their thirties (mean 34.6 years focus groups, 30.3 years interviews); worked
full time (94%, 100%); and the mean length of their teaching career was between 6 and
7 years. Three teachers had leadership roles (all of whom attended focus groups) and two
were newly qualified (one in a focus group and one in an interview). The mean proportion
of children with Special Educational Needs or Disabilities (SEND) in the teachers’ classes
was similar for focus groups (22.0%) compared to interviews (24.7%), but 65% of the focus
group teachers were teaching younger children and 61% had full time classroom support
compared to 31% and 54% of the teachers who were interviewed. Participating teachers
attended a similar number of TCM sessions (mean attendance 5.7 sessions focus groups,
5.4 interviews), with only one teacher (in the interview group) having attended fewer
than half of the six sessions.
Analysis
LH led the qualitative data analysis, supported by KA, AP, and OM. Three of these
researchers (LH, KA, and AP) were working full-time on the STARS trial and one of the
researchers was working on a number of different research projects (OM). LH had
substantial qualitative research experience and ensured the rest of the team were
adequately trained in qualitative analysis, providing ongoing supervision throughout the
process. Data were managed using Nvivo 11 qualitative data analysis software; QSR
International Pty Ltd. Version 11, 2015.
Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was employed to explore the data, and a
coding scheme was jointly devised that was primarily guided by the research questions but
also allowed for a more inductive analysis whereby additional themes extracted by
researchers during the data analysis process could be included. A Framework approach
(Richie & Lewis, 2008) was used to organize the data, within which categories were further
refined and summarized and links and patterns between the resultant themes were explored.
To ensure rigour, the team held regular meetings throughout the data analysis process to
check for data saturation (i.e. where no new themes are being discovered) and to identify,
agree, and refine emerging themes. Any disagreements were discussed as a team and resolved.
Results
Three main themes were identified: (1) acceptability of TCM; (2) facilitators to
implementation; and (3) barriers to implementation (see Table 1).
Acceptability of TCM
Structure
Teachers reported that the structure of the programme, i.e., 1 day per month for
6 months, worked well for them as it allowed time between each session to practise the
suggested TCM strategies. The 6-month duration was also important to teachers as it
allowed the content to ‘evolve’ as the theory became more embedded in their practice,
and helped facilitate the development of supportive relationships within the group,
allowing discussions to deepen:
I think it’s nice having so many sessions, ‘cos when we all first sat down it’s a bit nerve
wracking [. . .]. Then as we got to know each other and it was a really nice group of people so
you just relax a little bit more
Being in a group
Working and learning together with peers was deemed to be one of the most important
aspects of TCM. Attending alongside teachers from a number of schools in diverse socio-
economic areas, varying year groups and with different levels of experience helped enrich
discussions and provided a broader perspective from which teachers could reflect on their
own practice:
Table 1. Themes and sub-themes
Category Theme
Acceptability of TCM Structure

Being in a group
Delivery methods
Group leadership
Materials
Time out of classroom
Facilitators to implementation Theory
Flexibility of strategies
Barriers to implementation TCM programme content
1. Challenging behaviour
2. Appropriateness for older children
3. Timing of programme
School context
1. Lack of consistency
2. Lack of space and time
3. Clash with existing school policies/behaviour
management strategies
4. Lack of support from senior leadership
5. Pressure of being observed
We don’t get enough chances to talk to other schools about what they do [. . .] it’s interesting
to do that because sometimes you’re very much stuck in your own room. And when you hear
about how other people work and what their schools are like [. . .] you do take on some of
their ideas
Teachers reported that discussing strategies that others had adopted, and ways in
which they had adapted them, encouraged them to try new approaches.
Teachers liked the size of the groups (8–12 participants) and felt that if they had been
larger it may have compromised how well they were able to get to know each other and
how ‘safe’ they felt in openly sharing problems, experiences, and ideas. Feeling ‘safe’
within the group helped teachers feel supported and respected and allowed them to share
without fear of judgement and so address issues in a positive and proactive manner:
For me it was like therapy for teachers [. . .] having the time to come away from the classroom
and realise that those little things that really bug you on a day to day basis everyone feels the
same and it’s ok to get, you know, to feel at times frustrated [. . .] just be reminded of the
strategies and ways to deal with it, and that it’s OK, was really powerful for me and I went back
to school each time for that next sort of few weeks feeling really great
This non-judgemental environment was important to teachers who reported that

learning alongside attendees from different schools allowed them to talk freely about any
difficulties they were experiencing within their school context.
Delivery methods
Teachers liked the way in which the course was delivered, enjoying the modelling,
rehearsing, practicing, and reflecting cycle of learning:
Behaviour policies from schools don’t generally talk about all of those little positive things that
you do as a teacher, they go right in with the sanctions [. . .] being able to go into school, put
those things into practice, do a bit of trialling, see what worked, see what didn’t and then
going back and discussing it again was actually really, really beneficial
Teachers believed seeing strategies modelled through video clips and role play helped
to deepen their understanding of different behaviour management techniques and gave
them the confidence to try them back in the classroom.
Role play was however one aspect of the delivery methods that prompted a mixed
response from teachers in terms of acceptability. Some experienced it as uncomfortable
and ‘contrived’, while others thought that, although uncomfortable at first, it helped them
to understand situations from the child’s point of view:
I think they also made you think a lot about the child’s perspective ‘cos we had to do the role
play, which to us felt really awkward, but it did make you really stop and think about how the
child when you are talking to them and are responding to them what they are feeling like
Group leadership
Teachers reported that the GLs’ approach was key in helping to create a positive learning
environment. Most teachers reported the GLs were welcoming, friendly, open, and
supportive, and this was a crucial element of the programme:
There was a lot of humour but also they didn’t ever make you, they didn’t put you in a position
where you felt awkward or uncomfortable, you were invited to share but not forced to and I
think that is quite important
Teachers commented the GLs recognized them as experienced teachers and actively
encouraged them to value and support each other, creating a relaxed space where they
did not feel judged or patronized. Teachers appreciated the GLs’ flexibility to the needs of
the group while still delivering the course content.
Most teachers liked the pace of the GLs’ delivery and the balance between leaders’
input and group discussion. However, a few teachers experienced the GLs’ style of
delivery as patronizing, too fixed, and unresponsive, lacking the flexibility to respond to
the needs of the group. These teachers thought their GLs were ‘not open to new ideas’ and
commented the course failed to teach them anything new. However, despite this, most
teachers still reported a positive impact from the course. One teacher who initially
thought the course was ‘too basic’ reflected that, in retrospect, they understood the need
for the initial focus on the foundational principles:
The first few sessions I felt were kind of like behaviour management 101 and [I] thought well,
been doing this for many moons and I thought a lot of it was very, very basic [. . .] Looking at it
at the end, overall I can understand why there was an emphasis on that bit because it all sort of
falls into perspective as to what is most important
Materials
Teachers’ views on the TCM materials provided during the programme were mixed. For
instance, while some found the IY TCM textbook ‘daunting’ and difficult to read due to
lack of time, others reported that it was useful to ‘dip in and out of’ and helpful when
discussing strategies with parents and colleagues outside the TCM programme. One
teacher reported it helped them to justify their time out of the classroom:
It was really useful though to show senior leadership team, and say look this the level that this
course is going to be working at
The video clips, used throughout the course to demonstrate various TCM strategies,
also received a mixed response. Teachers commented while they could be useful as a
discussion stimulus, they were extremely outdated, too ‘Americanized’, and depicted
much smaller class sizes than those typical in UK primary schools.
Teachers were much more positive about the handouts and ‘buzz’ documents, which
they received at the end of each TCM session, describing them as useful prompts
summarizing the key points to focus on between sessions.
Teachers thought some IY materials required adaptation for their classroom
environment and this would be easier if they were provided electronically. IY produce
a range of resources (e.g. puppets); however, teachers reported these were often too
expensive and difficult to source.
Time out of classroom

Teachers valued being given time away from the classroom for reflection on and
discussion about their practice:
I think what’s really helped me with the course is having that opportunity to step back [. . .] for
the day and reflect and actually think “oh yes, maybe I am getting a little bit negative with the
behaviour or always maybe looking at the wrong thing” and that day having out of class helps
you to re-evaluate and think about the good things and you come back and you feel all inspired
to try something else
This was a strong, overarching theme, with teachers describing being allowed space to
re-evaluate their practice away from the daily stresses and demands of the classroom as
pivotal in changing their practice.
Facilitators to implementation
Theory
Understanding the theory underpinning the TCM strategies motivated teachers to
implement them. Teachers reported that the theory provided them with a more informed
and structured approach to behaviour management in which they reflected on what they
were doing, what the child was doing, and why”.
really understanding where those strategies come from as opposed to just going ’Oh yeah
we’ll give stickers because that’s nice. . .It’s really going through why you’re saying what
you’re saying and what effect that that’s having so it’s much more thought through
Teachers also really valued the IY pyramid (see Figure 1), which complements the
underlying theories behind TCM, describing it as a useful way to explain TCM principles:
so it does just make you stop and think about the ways that you can organise your class and the
ways that you can respond to the children before you reach that, that top of the pyramid
Flexibility of TCM strategies

Teachers reported the flexible nature of the TCM strategies was key to enabling
implementation. Teachers valued the recognition that all teachers, teaching styles,
children, classrooms, and schools are different and ‘no one strategy will work for everyone
or forever’. Being able to tweak and adapt strategies to suit needs was deemed important.
Barriers to implementation
TCM programme content
Challenging behaviour. Some teachers reported TCM did not address some of the more
challenging behaviour they see in their classroom and they needed more in-depth advice
to help them manage the behaviour of these children and those with specific behavioural
needs:
I’m just not convinced that [the course] has worked for my main offenders if you like, the ones
who have ODD and ADHD and all of that kind of thing. I don’t think it’s really worked for them
[. . .] but for general classroom management it definitely has worked
Appropriateness for older children. One teacher felt TCM was more applicable to
younger children (Key Stage (KS) 1, 4–6 year olds) and the strategies were less
Figure 1. IY-TCM Teaching Pyramidâ (property of The Incredible Yearsâ, Inc. and Dr. Carolyn
Webster-Stratton and reproduced with their permission).
appropriate for the older children they teach in KS2 (7–11 year olds), which limited their
implementation:
I had one of the older classes on the course so I have a year four, and a lot of the other people
kind of had a year two or year one, foundation, and I understand that obviously a lot of it needs
to be geared towards them, but there was little I could take away and use in an upper key stage
two classroom
Others specifically thought two particular TCM strategies, the use of commentary and
social coaching, did not work well with older children:
The only thing I haven’t really used is the like the commentary. . . I think as they’re a little bit
older it’s not, I don’t feel it was as effective [. . .] I don’t think it quite worked as well as it would
if they were younger children
Timing of programme. Teachers reported the timing of TCM (i.e. running from
November–April) was not ideal as it meant they were unable to put strategies into place at
the beginning of the academic year:
I had to redo my rules after like in January when actually we should be setting the rules in
September but it was just a different way of doing it
School context
Lack of consistency. A lack of consistency, at both classroom- and school-level, was
highlighted as one of the key barriers to implementing the TCM strategies, with teachers
reporting that a ‘whole-school’ approach was necessary to ensure proper implementa-
tion:
You need everybody on board really don’t you because if you’re going to be consistent with
your behavioural management you need not just you to be doing, you need the other adults
that you work with to be doing the same thing
Some teachers reported teaching assistants and other colleagues were too focused on
‘negatives’, finding it difficult to acknowledge positive behaviour in the classroom and
adopt the new behaviour management techniques they were suggesting. Teachers
identified this was often due to a lack of understanding which was difficult for them to
address. Others reported when trying to use a strategy such as ignoring low level poor
behaviour, there was a real danger that other staff, who did not understand the strategy,
would ‘step in’ and therefore undermine it.
Many teachers suggested that training lunchtime assistants would be important for
effective implementation, as they spend time with pupils and often use the ‘wrong’
methods to manage behaviour (e.g. reacting ‘angrily’). This in turn leads to the children
being in the wrong frame of mind when they return to the classroom:
They don’t understand that they just can’t be like that with particular children because it does
not get the best out of them [. . .] it’s just going to make them more angry and they’re going to
end up doing something else wrong which will get into a spiral of negativity
Lack of space and time. Teachers reported a lack of space and time as a barrier for
implementing the strategies within their classroom. Some teachers felt they were always
‘racing to fit things in’, and others mentioned struggling to find time to share the TCM
strategies and ideas with students, colleagues, and parents. This was deemed important
not just for effectiveness but also to save ‘time and energy’ in the long term.
Clash with existing school policies/behaviour management strategies. The TCM

approach and/or specific strategies clashing with existing school policies or systems
were also identified as a barrier to implementation. Teachers understandably felt a
pressure to follow existing school policies:
The only thing I haven’t really done is probably the timeout side of the programme and that’s
more because we don’t use timeout at our school at all. Because we have a whole school
behaviour policy I couldn’t really implement that just in my class
In contrast, some teachers had been encouraged by their senior leadership team (SLT)
to develop new whole school behaviour plans after attending TCM, allowing them to
implement strategies easily. In other cases, teachers had adapted TCM strategies so that
they still worked within the school system. For example, one teacher reported using a lot
more strategies before reaching the warning stage in the school’s behaviour policy:
I’m still following my behaviour policy but I’ve put so much more in place that I don’t hit the
first step of it yet [. . .] so for instance our (school policy) is name on the board, three dots,
headteacher [. . .] but I’m getting to the point now where I’m putting in so much in before that
I’m not needing to put a name on the board [. . .] because that’s personally something I don’t
agree with
Lack of support from senior leadership. Some teachers reported a lack of support from
their SLT for adopting new approaches, hindering their ability to implement and
disseminate the TCM strategies. Others mentioned they had specifically shared strategies
with the SLT in order to gain approval to change behaviour management techniques.
Some teachers suggested feeding back information about TCM to their staff teams
would be a good way to disseminate their learning and make implementation more
effective and should be a mandatory part of the programme.
Pressure of being observed. During observations of their practice back in the classroom,
teachers felt a pressure to conform to their school’s existing behaviour management
strategies or be prepared to justify the alternative strategies they were using. This pressure
to explicitly justify their use of strategies felt particularly strong when being observed by
an OFSTED inspector:
If you’re being observed in-house, actually you have more of a chance to argue why that’s the
right strategy [. . .] but with OFSTED you have to be seen to be doing things [. . .] it’s just
making sure that those strategies are very clear
Ignoring unwanted behaviour was a particular example of a strategy which teachers

felt could be misconstrued as poor practice rather than understood to be part of a
proactive behaviour management strategy.
Discussion
On the whole, teachers who attended TCM experienced it as acceptable within their
teaching context. They reported satisfaction with the programme structure, group
learning environment, delivery methods, group leadership, and valued the opportunity to
reflect on their practice outside the classroom environment. However, they were less
satisfied with the video clips used throughout the programme, which they considered
lacked cultural relevance, and reported that GLs’s style of delivery impacted their
experiences of TCM. In relation to implementation, teachers highlighted understanding
the theory behind TCM and the flexibility of the strategies as key facilitators. There were
also several barriers to implementation, which included structural barriers such as
conflicts with existing school-behaviour policies and some dissatisfaction with elements
of the TCM content, specifically strategies for dealing with the most challenging
behaviour, and strategies appropriate to older children.
Teachers’ views on the acceptability of TCM mirror findings from previous, smaller,
qualitative studies conducted both within the UK and other countries (Nye, 2017).
Teachers liked the structure of TCM, allowing for time between sessions to implement the
strategies in the classroom, the group element of the course and the seeing, practicing,
and doing cycle of learning. Dissatisfaction with the video clips used during the
programme, however, warrants some attention. Teachers thought the video clips were
too ‘Americanized’, failing to reflect the behaviour in, and the size of, English classrooms.
This is important as the video clips are used as a learning tool to encourage the adoption of
specific teacher behaviours/strategies (Webster-Stratton et al., 2011); however, such a
tool is less likely to be effective if teachers are unable to relate to the setting or person
modelling the behaviour/strategy. Our feasibility work (Marlow et al., 2015) and other
qualitative studies (Baker-Henningham & Walker, 2009) also highlighted that the video
clips lack cultural relevance, with Nye (2017) arguing that this may partially explain why
some teachers in Jamaica misinterpreted TCM strategies or had difficulty applying them
(see Baker-Henningham & Walker, 2009). Although teachers in the study questioned the
acceptability of the video clips, this did not seem to impact on their ability to implement
the strategies (Ford et al., 2019a), as GLs encouraged the teachers to see the value in the
videos as discussion tools. More culturally relevant video clips may make this process
easier though, requiring teachers to think less about how they might adapt the strategies
to their classroom environment. Future research should consider whether this might be of
benefit to teachers within English primary schools as well as other school contexts that
might vary more substantially from the U.S. (where TCM was developed) in terms of class
size and composition.
Teachers’ perceptions of TCM were influenced by how teachers experienced their
GLs’ delivery style. Although most teachers found the GLs supportive, some perceived the
leadership style as too rigid and unresponsive. In the U.S., researchers have similarly
highlighted that GL ability to tailor TCM to meet teachers’ needs is a key facilitator for
teacher uptake (Webster-Stratton & McCoy, 2015; Webster-Stratton et al., 2011). This may
be more of a challenge for GL delivering TCM in school contexts outside of the U.S. The
STARS trial ran over 5 years, with nine different TCM programmes delivered by different
combinations of GLs (Ford et al., 2019a). Different groups inevitably have different
dynamics, and the STARS trial worked hard to ensure GLs were sufficiently qualified,
experienced, and adequately supervised (Ford et al., 2019a). These mixed comments
highlight the need for supervision and support for GLs to allow them to reflect and
respond to particular groups in particular contexts. This is important not only to ensure
TCM is delivered with fidelity (Webster-Stratton, 2004) but to deal with the inevitable
tension between fidelity to the model and adaptation to the needs of particular groups.
While some teachers were dissatisfied with the GLs approach, the fact that most teachers
experienced TCM GLs as supportive suggests that this balance was mostly achieved.
The findings also shed light on the key facilitators to the implementation of TCM within
English classrooms, which are likely to be applicable to other school contexts. Teachers
described how understanding the theory behind the TCM strategies and the flexible
nature of the strategies enabled them to implement TCM within the classroom. Teachers
reported numerous ways they had adapted strategies to make them suitable for their
classroom (Ford et al., 2019a). The relevance of underpinning theory and the flexibility of
strategies is therefore something that should be recognized and highlighted by GLs
delivering the programme, and also within initial teacher training. Providing additional
support in adapting strategies to fit specific classroom environments through ongoing
CPD has proven a useful way of harnessing these facilitators in Ireland (Davey & Egan,
2021), a strategy which could usefully be applied elsewhere.
Teachers did, however, perceive the programme as: (1) failing to help teachers deal
with the behaviour of children who have SEND; (2) less useful for older children; and (3)
starting too late in the academic year. In relation to children with SEND, this is an
interesting finding given that Special Educational Needs Coordinators (SENCos) within
participating STARS schools reported the TCM strategies were useful for supporting
children with SEND (Nye et al., 2016). Furthermore, others have found TCM effective
in reducing behaviour problems in children with more challenging behaviour (Nye,
2017). Some children have such severe difficulties they require additional support
and adequate and timely specialist support for SEND is essential and sadly often lacking
(Parker, Marlow, et al., 2016; Parker, Paget, Ford, & Gwernan-Jones, 2016; Parker et al.,
2018).
The second issue, that TCM was reported to be less useful for older children, has also
been alluded to in other studies conducted in England (Nye, 2017) and is a common
perception held in relation to the IY parenting programmes, although there is little
empirical evidence to support this (Leijten et al., 2018). TCM was initially conceptualized
as most appropriate for children aged 3–8 years old, but since then many primary schools
adopting a whole-school approach have successfully used TCM with teachers of 9-12 year
old children (Webster-Stratton, 2013). No studies have suggested there is any difference in
the impact of TCM on different age groups, suggesting TCM can indeed be useful for older
children too. It is perhaps a question of emphasis and maybe reflects the composition of
TCM groups in the study. Future work should test more homogenous groups of teachers in
terms of the age group taught to see if this reduces the concern about how to work with
older primary school children.
Teachers expressed a concern that the training started too late in the academic year
and would have liked to be able to work consistently with their pupils from the outset.
Given the experiential nature of TCM, ensuring teachers were fully trained by the
beginning of the academic year would be difficult to achieve, as teachers need to be in the
classroom during the training. However, these teachers’ comments provide an argument
for including this type of programme in initial teacher training. Unfortunately, like many
other countries teacher training in England does not involve any in-depth modules on
behaviour management, an issue that needs addressing (Carter, 2015; Perry, Booth,
Owen, & Bower, 2019). Giving teachers these tools early on would enable them to be
ready to deal with any class they subsequently have within their teaching career. Australia
is good example of where this is already happening, with classroom management being a
key component of initial teacher training (Perry et al., 2019).
The remaining barriers to implementation were all related to the school context;
inconsistent behaviour management approaches among colleagues; a lack of time to
implement and disseminate strategies; conflict with existing school policies; lack of
support from SLT; and the fear that observers would misunderstand the behaviour
management strategies applied. Sebastian, Herman, and Reinke (2019) have studied the
part that contextual factors, such as school leadership, may play in moderating the impact
of TCM on children. As others have already suggested, a whole school approach to TCM
may overcome these barriers (Hutchings & Williams, 2017). Training all staff (teaching
and non-teaching) in TCM could: ensure consistency in behaviour management
approaches; alleviate pressure on teachers to disseminate and explain their strategies to
colleagues; and lead to school policies and systems that are consistent with and support
the TCM approach. Studies report that whole school approaches may be useful when
implemented effectively (De Noble, London, & El Baba, 2015); however, with a recent
report suggesting they can add little to individual classroom management (Moore et al.,
2019), such a programme should be rolled out within the context of careful evaluation.
Important issues to be considered include the significant time commitment and costs of
training. For this reason, TCM was trialled in its most basic form, with no additional
coaching from GLs (Ford et al., 2019a). Additional coaching could become the remit of
education support staff around children posing particular behaviour management
challenges if TCM were more widely implemented. External coaching could be
supplemented by school-based peer support meetings to reflect on and develop practice.
Any evaluation should include an economic component and careful assessment of pupil
and teacher outcomes.
Our study adds to limited literature on teachers’ perceptions of the acceptability of the
TCM programme and provides an in-depth account of the facilitators and barriers to
implementation as perceived by teachers within the English school context. Although
some of these barriers and facilitators are likely to be specific to English schools, we
believe others are likely to be applicable to other school contexts. Firstly, development of
culturally appropriate video clips, and highlighting the adaptability of strategies for
specific classroom contexts through flexible GL delivery or provision of additional
coaching, is likely to be important in other countries outside of the U.S. (where TCM was
developed) given international variations in classroom size and composition. Despite the
similarities between the English and U.S. school context, teachers in our study highlighted
these factors as important. Secondly, school-level barriers to implementation are likely to
be applicable to other contexts where TCM has only been delivered to individual teachers
or classrooms rather than whole age groups or schools. Several countries have now
trialled or implemented TCM across whole schools such as the U.S., Norway, Wales, and
Jamacia (Aasheim, Reedtz, Handeg ard, Martinussen, & Mørch, 2019; Baker-Henningham,
Walker, Powell, & Gardner, 2009; Hutchings & Williams, 2017; Carolyn Webster-Stratton
& McCoy, 2015). Valuable lessons can be learned from these studies in terms of how this
can be achieved and measures needed to sustain impacts, such as additional coaching
(Aasheim, Fossum, Reedtz, Handeg ard, & Martinussen, 2020).
Although one of the larger studies of its kind, our study only provides the views of
teachers within a specific geographical area (Devon, UK). Future research into TCM
should include teachers from other areas, particularly those teaching in schools with
catchment areas of high population density and ethnic diversity as well as gaining views of
TCM from other key stakeholders, such as SLT, education support services, and parents.
Future studies should explore whether training more teachers per school, or even all staff,
would increase the impact of TCM on children and teachers.
Conclusion
Most teachers participating in this study reported that the TCM programme was
acceptable; however, some materials could be adapted to make the course more relevant
to the UK context. Teachers reported that the theory and flexibility of the strategies
enabled them to implement strategies within the classroom, but they also reported a
number of barriers to implementation which, when taken into consideration, would
improve scalability in the UK. We suggest that a ‘whole school’ approach to
implementation may be one of the best ways to overcome these barriers.
Acknowledgements
We are extremely grateful to the teachers, parents, and children who participated in the STARS
trial. We would like to give our thanks to Carolyn Webster-Stratton and the Incredible Yearsâ
for their input and support in providing the initial training and subsequent supervision of our
group leaders. We would also like to thank Bill Wright, Kate Beard, Kristin Cain and Linda
Lardner, Malcolm Fletcher and Will Pritchard who delivered the TCM course, and Oana
Mitrofan and Siobhan Sharkey for their help in the initial design and analysis.
Conflicts of interest
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author contributions
Sarah Byford (Conceptualization; Methodology; Supervision; Validation; Writing –
review & editing) Anna Price (Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing –
review & editing) Tamsin Ford (Conceptualization; Funding acquisition; Methodology;
Supervision; Validation; Writing – review & editing) Brahm Norwich (Conceptualiza-
tion; Methodology; Supervision; Validation; Writing – review & editing) Matthew
Allwood (Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing – review & editing)
Lorraine Hansford (Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation;
Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing) Kate Allen (Data curation; Formal
analysis; Investigation; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing) Bryony
Longdon (Investigation; Project administration; Writing – review & editing) Rachel
Hayes (Formal analysis; Investigation; Supervision; Validation; Writing – review &
editing).
Funding information
This work was supported by the National Institute for Health Research Public Health
Research Programme (project number 10/3006/07) and the National Institute for Health
Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South
West Peninsula. These funders had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis,
interpretation of data, or writing of the paper. The views and opinions expressed therein
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the NIHR Public Health
Research Programme, NIHR, NHS, or the Department of Health and Social Care.
Data availability statement

Ethical approval for the current study did not grant the sharing of data and, therefore, research
data are not shared.
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Received 10 September 2021; revised version received 12 January 2022

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British Journal of Educational Psychology (2022), 92, 1160–1177

Teachers’ views on the acceptability and

Background. The Incredible Yearsâ (IY) Teacher Classroom Management (TCM)

Materials and methods

The IY TCM programme

Participants and data collection

Table 1. Themes and sub-themes

Acceptability of TCM Structure

This non-judgemental environment was important to teachers who reported that

Time out of classroom

Flexibility of TCM strategies

Clash with existing school policies/behaviour management strategies. The TCM

Ignoring unwanted behaviour was a particular example of a strategy which teachers

Data availability statement

Received 10 September 2021; revised version received 12 January 2022

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