Aircraft Structures

Prof. Adrian Orifici

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RMIT University ©2024 AERO2359 1

 Overview
• Loads
• Aircraft Stiffened Structures
• Structural Idealisation
• Limitations of Theory
• Tabular Analysis
• Margin of Safety
• Design calculations

Goal: Apply structural analysis to aircraft structures

2
 Introduction
• Structural analysis and sizing a significant effort over a/c life
– analysis, design, experiment, testing, certification, repair
• Design process starts with aircraft loads and progresses until
detailed component design
• Many failure modes, design criteria, design philosophies

External Structural Internal Detailed stress

forces analysis forces analysis

Detail Structural Modes of

Optimisation
design sizes failure

3
 Loads
• Where do aircraft loads come from?
Make a list
– consider different conditions and events
and discuss!
• How can these be estimated or known?

Megson, 4th edn, p382, Fig 12.6

4
 V-n Diagram (Flight Envelope)
• Operating strength limits represented in a graph of V vs n
• Limits of safe operation are set in regulations (vary with type)
• The V-n diagram is specific to an altitude (CLmax, max speeds)
• Gust loads can be overlaid to give overall flight envelope

Structural failure
n = ultimate load=1.5 n1 OA, OF set by stall
Load factor n

Structural damage
+HAA +LAA Vs1 = design stall speed (n = 1)
A C D
Limit VA = design manoeuvre speed
n1
Level flight n =1
VC = design cruising speed
O VD = design diving speed
VS1 VA VC VD
F E
Equivalent air
-HAA -LAA speed, EAS

5
 Aircraft Structures
• The analysis techniques covered so far can be
applied to a range of structures
• Idealisation and simplifying assumptions key to
considering suitability of techniques
• Large complex structures need care with regards
to analysis and design

6
 Stiffened Structures
• Stiffened-skin structures consist of two structural elements,
which can be assumed to perform separate functions
• Simple analysis techniques used to gain insight into
structural behaviour and for preliminary design

Megson, 4th edn, p382, Fig 12.6

7
 Stiffened Structures
• Stiffeners (booms, flanges, concentrated areas, frames):
– carry axial loads (direct stresses) from normal forces and bending moments
– support and distribute the loads on the structure

• Skins (webs, shear webs, panels, covers, spars, ribs):

– carry shear loads (stresses) from shear forces and torsion moments
– resist shear and transfer loads to the stiffeners via shear

8
 Stiffened Structures
2
t
• Stiffeners also used to prevent buckling in skins   KE  b 
 
• Skins also carry tension loads from pressurisation

• Skins can resist loads – known as “stressed skin” design

– can add area to booms for analysis purposes

l h
l
h

pr
h   2 l
t

9
 Stiffened Structures
• Choose one structure, and describe its response to
bending, shear and torsion, with diagrams

• Send to me for feedback!

10
Stiffened Structures

11
 What are the functions of the structural components shown?

skin

Two-spar wing configuration for a typical transport aircraft

Niu, M.C.Y, Airframe Structural Design: Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft Structures. 2nd edn, 1999, Hong Kong Conmilit Press Ltd: p247, Fig. 8.1.1

12
 Wing Spar
• Wing spars are generally tapered, and provide
side walls for the torque box
• Key means of supporting wing bending loads
• Analysis techniques for tapered beams, most
commonly open section beams

13
 Wing Box Beams
• Wing box beams are the central load-carrying structure of
the wing, carrying bending, shear and torsion loads
• Generally tapered in both directions, and can involve
other aspects such as multiple cells, bays, sweep, kinks
• Loads primarily from aerodynamic lift, but also fuel,
engines, etc.

14
 Wing Ribs
• Stiffened shear webs, typically with flanged lightening holes for
access and weight
• Placed at locations of concentrated load, with stiffening members
aligned with direction of load
• Transfer loads to the wing skin and provide elastic restraint for skin
• Wing rib loading can be found by considering adjacent sections
– Rib stations represent change between two bays

15
 Fuselage

skin

Niu, 2nd edn, p376, Fig. 11.1.1

16
 Fuselage • Which component carries
bending?
• Which component carries
skin shear loads?
• Which component carries
torsional loads?
• Which component carries
loads from pressurisation?
• What do the frames do?
(write down 3 things)

Niu, 2nd edn, p376, Fig. 11.1.1

17
 Fuselage Beams
• Fuselage generally a stiffened skin of
approximately circular configuration
• Closely spaced stiffeners, so that variation in
shear flow across a shear panel is small, and
idealisation is suitable
• Carries bending moments, shear forces and
torsional loads
• Pressure loads and large concentrated forces
(attachments) are a feature, as are curved panels

18
 Fuselage Beams
• Cross-section analysed as single cell closed
section with concentrated areas
• Sections analysed as stiffened panels

C x

Megson, 4th edn, p791, Fig. A.13

19
 Fuselage Frames
• Ring stiffeners around circumference of fuselage
• Open or closed sections, large radius of curvature
• Transfer loads to the fuselage skin and provide
elastic restraint for skin
• Typically symmetric about fuselage vertical axis

frame

Megson, 4th edn, p791, Fig. A.13

20
 Stiffened Beams
• Stiffeners are required to take axial loads
– These are located wherever loads exist in the beam, to react
against all components of the external loads
– Stiffeners take axial and bending loads and transmit to support

• Webs react shear component, and transfer bending and

axial loads into the stiffeners
– Webs only designed for in-plane (membrane) loads
– No in-plane or out-of-plane bending resistance

21
 Free Body Diagrams
• FBDs are a core aspect of structural analysis
– graphical illustration of loads in static equilibrium
– can create in any way that is convenient (system, part)

• Part of FBD usually includes idealisations

– geometry, 2D vs 3D, load paths, etc.
– also functions of structural components

q
P1 P2
q s
s

RB,x  z
A B z z  z
z

RA,y RB,y q

22
 Cross-section Static Equivalence
• The internal loads carried by the structure at any point can always be
found from considering the action of the external forces and moments
– shear force diagram (SFD)
– bending moment diagram (BMD)
– torsion moment diagram (TMD)

SFD

TMD

BMD
M V T

internal force and moment

systems are statically equivalent
to external systems

23
 Structural Idealisation
• Discuss how to develop suitable models for the following
design/analysis scenarios

Megson, 4th edn, p382, Fig 12.6

24
 Structural Idealisation
• Wing tip deflection in straight and level flight
– what loads? what cross-section? what beam axis? what calc?

Megson, 4th edn, p382, Fig 12.6

25
26
 Structural Idealisation
• Shear stress in a wing rib
– what geometry? which components? what loadcases? what loads?
– how does it relate the previous model? what do you think this rib does?

Megson, 4th edn, p382, Fig 12.6

27
28
 Bending symmetric, single moment asymmetric section
M  M y I x  M x I xy   M x I y  M y I xy 
 y z   x   y
I  I I I 2   I I I 2 
 x y xy   x y xy 

force/moments due to shear flow force/moments due to Batho-Bredt

Shear for constant q
B B
constant shear flow
X O   qdx YO   qdy
B
TO   hqds T
A A A X  ql x Y  ql y T  2qAE  ql  h q
2 AE
continuous symmetric, single load asymmetric
S  S x I x  S y I xy  s  S I  S x I xy  s ‘closing’ shear
qs    tyds qs    txds   y y  tyds
q  qs  q0
I  I I  I 2  0  I I  I 2  0 stress for with
 x y xy   x y xy 
zero twist

concentrated symmetric, single load asymmetric   qb ds  qb s

areas S  S x I x  S y I xy   S I  S x I xy  qc , 0  
q  qn  q0
qn  
I
An yn qn  
 I I I 2 
 An xn   y y
 I I I 2  n n
A y  ds s
 x y xy   x y xy 

GJ d
2 2
Torsion 4 AE 4 AE T d 1 q
closed J  q    t ds
section  ds / t s / t  2 AE 2 AE dz dz 2GAE
unrestrained torsion
d T TL d open 1 3 st 3 d tT
  L J   t   max  Gt  d 2nT
dz GJ GJ dz section dz J
  2Gn 
3 3 dz J

29
Structural Idealisation

b b t Db  2 
A1 A1  
 2 
6  1 
tD = t t (tD = 0)
1 1 t Db   
A2   2  1 
2 6  2 
2 A2

Multi-cell Structures constant shear flow

N-cell beam Text   2 AE qb   2 AE ,n qc ,n   qbl  h   2 AE ,n qc ,n

d 1  l  l  l   qb l  
N cells connected   qc ,n 1    qc ,n     qc ,n 1      
consecutively dz 2 AE ,nG  t
  n 1,n t
 n t
  n 1,n  t n 

Tapered Panel
q
2
a a
b q  q a q  q 
b q b

30
 Limitations of Theory
• Elementary Theory involves a large number of assumptions and
limitations needed to apply to aircraft
– general: material, boundary conditions, stiffener/skin functions, thin-wall
– bending, shear, torsion, buckling theories each have their own assumptions
– need to understand how these apply to any given scenario

• Instability: Panel and column buckling disrupts load-carrying capability

– buckling must be checked, once loads are known
– buckling can occur in compression and shear (including torsion)

warping instability (buckling)

31
 Limitations of Theory
• Discuss one instance from either case that
demonstrates a limitation in the underlying theory

wing tip deflection in bending shear stress in wing rib

32
 Tabular Analysis
• Frequently, the analysis of cross-sections
involves a large number of similar items
– booms, panels, etc.

• Repetitive analysis can be made easier by using

a tabular approach
• This also naturally fits in with approaches using
spreadsheet programs (Excel)
– particularly useful as part of design process

33
 • The fuselage of a light passenger aircraft has the circular cross-section
shown below. The cross-sectional area of each stringer is 100 mm2 and
the 16 stringers are evenly spaced around the cross-section.
• The 3 bay section is loaded by forces at the frame locations, which are
assumed to act at an offset of 150 mm from the section centre as shown,
with the shear force and bending moment distributions as shown.
1) Idealise the cross-section considering bending stresses only
2) Determine the maximum bending stresses in each boom
3) Determine shear stress distribution at the centre of bay 3 (STN 3000)
Make your own spreadsheet to replicate the calcs here
2m STN STN STN STN 150 mm
R = 381 mm 2m 2m
0 2000 4000 6000 A = 100
t = 0.8 mm mm2
100 50 16 1 2
S (kN) 50 15 3
14 4
200 13 5
STN M (kN m) 12 6
STN
STN 6000 11 7
STN 4000 -100 -100 10 9 8
2000
0
34
 R = 381 mm
Cross-section is idealised with booms located around radius b
t = 0.8 mm 16 1 2 
15 3
Area of each boom combines stringer and surrounding skin y
14 4
13 5
2R 360
b  150 mm   22.5 12 6
16 16 11 7
10 9 8
y 2  R cos 22.5  352 mm

y3  R cos 45  269 mm All other heights found from symmetry

y4  R sin 22.5  146 mm

t Db  2 
Equation for idealisation A1  
 2 
6  1 

Under bending from only vertical force the stresses in each boom are related only to y

tb1 2    tb    tb  y  tb  y 
e.g. boom 1 A1  Astringer   2  2   16 1  2  16    2  2    2  16 
6  1  6  1  6  y1  6  y1 

0.8  150  352  0.8  150  352 

 100  2   2    217 mm
2

6  381  6  381 
35
From bending moment diagram, maximum bending moment is 200 kN m STN STN STN STN
0 2000 4000 6000
16 1 2 100 50
15 3
I x  Ay 2  2.52  108 mm 4 S (kN) 50
y
14 4
13 5 200
My 200  10 6
12 6 z  y y  0.775 y M (kN m)
11 7 Ix 2.58  10 8
-100
10 9 8 -100

y A z
Boom
(mm) (mm2) (MPa)
1 381 217 303
2, 16 352 217 280
3, 15 269 217 214
4, 14 146 217 116
5, 13 0 217 0
6, 12 -146 217 -116
7, 11 -269 217 -214
8, 10 -352 217 -280
9 -381 217 -303

36
 From shear force diagram, shear force at centre of bay 3 is 100 kN
150
R = 381 y An (1) qb (2) q (3) 
16 1 2 100 kN Panel
t = 0.8 3 (mm) (mm2) (N/mm) (N/mm) (MPa)
15
A = 217 y 14 4 1-2 381 217 0 -32.9 -41.1
13 5 2-3 352 217 -30.3 -63.2 79.0
12 6 3-4 269 217 -53.5 -86.4 -108
11 7
10 9 8 4-5 146 217 -66.1 -98.9 -124
I x  Ay 2  2.52  108 mm 4 5-6 0 217 -66.1 -98.9 -124
“cut” panel 1-2 q1 2,b  0 N/mm 6-7 -146 217 -53.5 -86.4 -108
7-8 -269 217 -30.3 -63.2 -79
S
qb   An yn  q0 (1) 8-9 -352 217 0.0 -32.9 -41.1
I
9-10 -381 217 32.8 0.0 0
R 2
AE n   28502 mm 2
16 10-11 -352 217 63.1 30.3 37.8

moments about centre, CW+ 11-12 -269 217 86.3 53.5 66.8
12-13 -146 217 98.9 66.0 82.5
-𝑆 150 Σ2𝐴 𝑞 2𝑞 𝐴
13-14 0 217 98.9 66.0 82.5
qc  32.9 N/mm 14-15 146 217 86.3 53.5 66.8
q 15-16 269 217 63.1 30.3 37.8
q  qb  qc (2)  (3)
t 16-1 352 217 32.8 0.0 0
37
 Margin of Safety
• Key concept for structural analysis is margin of safety (MoS)
– if MoS > 0, then “safe” by some margin
– measures degree of conservativeness or structural capacity
• This can be applied to any failure mode, based on a design
allowable and a maximum value at design load
– can use any design metric: stress, strain, load, etc.
• Typical industry process would be to prepare a margin of
safety summary (report) for all key failure modes for all load
cases and configurations
 limit
MoS  1
 actual
allowable e.g.
Margin of safety = 1  ultimate
max design MoS  1
 actual  1.5
38
 Example 1
• Considering each possible failure mode independently,
calculate the margins of safety for the following plate,
under the action of compression and shear
– what are the failure modes?

c = 500 psi E = 107 psi

ty = 50 ksi
200 in
t = 0.2 in cy = 40 ksi
y = 30 ksi

 = 400 psi all edges simply

supported

40 in
39
 c = 500 psi E = 107 psi, ty = 50 ksi, cy = 40 ksi, y = 30 ksi

200 in
for compression for shear
t = 0.2 in
  500 psi
 = 400 psi  allow  40000 psi
 allow
40 in MoS   1  79


for compression buckling for shear buckling

a 200
 5  K  3.62
b 40
2
t
 allow   b  KE    905 psi
b
 allow
MoS   1  0.81


critical?

40
 Rectangular Plates in Shear
13 all sides fixed
• For all sides s/s
12
b long sides a fixed – b = a: K = 8.43
11
– b  0: K  4.84
short sides b
10 fixed
a
long side a fixed
9
short side b
fixed
all sides s/s
8
200 in
K 7

in the
5 diagrams:
= fixed

4 blank = s/s

t
2 40 in
3  CR  KE  
2
b b/a=
where b is the smaller
plate dimension
K=
1

b/a
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

41
 Load Condition
• Limit load/stress/condition
– maximum operational load during service
– structure shows no permanent deformation
– no plastic deformation, delamination or disbonding

• Ultimate load/stress/condition
– structure does not “fail” for 3 seconds
– failure: rapture, fracture, loss of load carrying
– typically 1.5 times the limit load
• Margins of Safety can be calculated at limit or
ultimate conditions

42
 Design Calculations
• Analysis methods can be used to design (size) components
– spreadsheets highly valuable for rapid and iterative calculations

• Typically, there are many competing design criteria

– Strength and buckling conditions are common
– Tension, compression, shear, bending, torsion
– Fatigue, damage tolerance, flutter, etc.

• Critical condition corresponds to largest size (thickness, area,

etc.) or lowest margin of safety from all design conditions
• In industry, analytical tools are used in combination with
detailed analysis techniques, experience-based design rules
and numerical methods (FE)

43
 • Q: For the plate example, determine the thickness
so that the minimum margin of safety is zero
E = 107 psi, ty = 50 ksi, cy = 40 ksi, y = 30 ksi
c = 500 psi
200 in Compression buckling found critical
t = 0.2 in a 200
 5  K  3.62
b 40
 = 400 psi t
2

 allow   b  KE    905 psi

b
40 in  allow
MoS   1  0.81


44
 Design Calculations
• In practice it is rarely possible to use optimum
dimensions in real designs
• Dimensions may be constrained by
– Minimum practical size restrictions
– Standard gauge sizes (or ply thicknesses)
– Secondary strength and stiffness requirements
– Practical and efficient design practices
– Machining / manufacturing considerations
– Interior space restrictions

• Design standards and regulatory framework are

critically important to any design process
45
 Beam-Column Design
• Design curves can be used for rapid design studies and
understanding beam-column behaviour
• In practice, design of beam-columns is typically based on
industry-specific standards
– approach varies for material and column (and company)

• Column curves (including inelastic part) can be generated

for worst-case imperfection from manufacturing limits
– e.g. / L limit of 1/1000 or 1/500 on “crookedness”

• Detailed numerical analysis can consider

– real imperfections (or typical imperfection patterns)
– effect of manufacturing (e.g. thermal stresses, welding)
– complex load cases
46
 Key Points
• For idealised stiffened structures, the functions of the
structural elements can be separated
– Stiffeners carry only direct stresses, skins carry only shear stresses

• Idealised structure should be statically equivalent to actual

structure
– Suitable idealisation is dependent on the loading condition

• Range of aircraft structures (wings, fuselages, etc.) can be

analysed using techniques previously developed, once:
– loads and geometry are known
– appropriate idealisations and assumptions made

• Design calcs use analysis approaches to solve for geometry

– wide range of design conditions and real-world factors

47
 Questions
• Why is it possible to separate the functions of
stiffeners and skins?
• When is this not likely to be suitable?
• Why is it possible to create a FBD about any part
or sub-section of the structure?

48
49
 Additional Slides as Reference
• 2 FBD examples
– mostly outside of scope of course, though highly useful as
practice (and preparation for job interviews)
– aspects related to the simplifying assumptions are
relevant to this course

• Slides on safe-life and fail-safe (damage tolerance)

– material covered in advanced structures (4th year)
– useful as background and in preparation for job interviews

• Slide on aeroelasticity
• Solutions for Example 1
• Tutorial Problem
50
 FBD Question 1
• Shear clips are used to transfer shear only
– no transfer of axial loads, bending moments or twist

• Solve for the (in-plane) bolt loads for a force 2P

• Describe how all forces and moments are carried
and what aspects are ignored
z
2P
x y

a
Shear
clips b
51
 FBD Question 2
• Consider an L bracket with two countersunk fasteners,
connected to two plates (all plates are thin)
• The “toe” of the flange imparts a distributed reaction load
that is assumed to be linear with distance to the fastener
• What is the load in the fasteners?
• What aspects are ignored?
P a b

52
 Safe-Life
• Safe-life is a design philosophy or methodology
– component must remain crack free during its entire life

• Design based on strength and fatigue aspects

• Fatigue aspects based on crack initiation
• Demonstrated by analysis supported by extensive
testing
– typically several lifetimes of fatigue loading

• Component is removed at the end of its life

– different components can have different lives

53
 Fail-Safe
• Fail-safe is an alternative design methodology
– structure can support loads with failure or damage
– structure or design is damage tolerant
• Structure is assumed to have sub-critical damage
• Safety is ensured with inspection intervals
• Requires design capable of:
– load redistribution to other parts of the structure
– slow and progressive crack growth
• Fatigue and fracture are maintenance problems
– not safety problems as in safe-life
54
 Fatigue Failure (Safe-Life)
Stress Constant amplitude loading
max Stress Variable amplitude Miner’s rule for
a damage
m 2 3
1 accumulation
min Time ni
 1
Ni
Strength Fatigue life (S-N)

Time
N

Ground-Air-Ground (GAG) cycle Counting cycles (e.g. rainflow)

Stress

m a n
ground flight ground

Time http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainflow-counting_algorithm

55
 Safe Crack Growth (Fail-Safe)
Stress Intensity Factor (SIF, K) K, : theory, computation, experiment, e.g.


K   max /  applied 

a 2a

2a W
K   applied a
  

K    max   min  a =1  = 1.12   1 / cosa / W 

a
Critical flaw size
da
dN Paris law Predicted flaw
da
fracture

 C K  growth
n

dN
assumed
initial flaw
threshold

Time
stable
K
Inspection Life
56
 Aeroelasticity
• The interaction of aerodynamic and elastic forces is
known as aeroelasticity
– aero loads and wing shape are dependent on each other

• Range of static and dynamic problems

– (static) divergence: from lift in front of shear centre
– (static) control effectiveness and reversal
– (dynamic) flutter: unstable vibrations

• Critical relationship to flight speed, structural

stiffness, mass (and mass distribution)

57
 Loads
• Loads analysis comes before structural analysis and sizing
– combination of aerodynamics, structures and weights

• Civil and military specs define loading for each category

Airload Inertia loads Landing Powerplant Other
- manoeuvre - acceleration - vertical load - thrust - towing
- gust - rotation - spin-up - torque - jacking
- control deflection - dynamic - spring-back - gyroscopic - pressurisation
- buffet - vibration - crabbed - vibration - bird strike
- hailstones - flutter - one wheel - duct pressure - actuation
- arrested - hammershock - crash
Takeoff Taxi - braking - blade loss - fuel pressure
- catapult - bumps - seizure
- aborted - turning

58
 Example 1
• Considering each possible failure mode independently,
calculate the margins of safety for the following plate,
under the action of compression and shear
– what are the failure modes?

c = 500 psi E = 107 psi

ty = 50 ksi
200 in
t = 0.2 in cy = 40 ksi
y = 30 ksi

 = 400 psi all edges simply

supported

40 in
59
 c = 500 psi E = 107 psi, ty = 50 ksi, cy = 40 ksi, y = 30 ksi

200 in
for compression for shear
t = 0.2 in
  500 psi   400 psi
 = 400 psi  allow  40000 psi  allow  30000 psi
 allow  allow
40 in MoS   1  79 MoS   1  74
 

for compression buckling for shear buckling

a 200 b 40
 5  K  3.62   0.2  K  4.9
b 40 a 200
2 2
t t
 allow   b  KE    905 psi  allow   b  KE    1225 psi
b b
 allow  allow
MoS   1  0.81 MoS   1  2.06
 

compression buckling mode is the critical failure mode (smallest margin)

60
 • Q: For the plate example, determine the thickness
so that the minimum margin of safety is zero
E = 107 psi, ty = 50 ksi, cy = 40 ksi, y = 30 ksi
c = 500 psi
200 in Compression buckling found critical
t = 0.2 in a 200
 5  K  3.62
b 40
 = 400 psi t
2

 allow   b  KE    905 psi

b
40 in  allow
MoS   1  0.81

2
t
 allow   applied  500  KE  
b

500b 2
t  0.15 in
KE

61
 z
2P
x y

a
Shear
clips b
• The central load 2P will be reacted by two equal forces at the end, PR = P
• These are the forces that go into the cross-beam (reaction of fasteners on cross-beam)
• The shear clip will be acted on by the fasteners (action of fasteners on shear clip)
• Each fastener carried the total reaction force equally (Pv = P/4)
• Fasteners on the other arm of the clip must have equal and opposite vertical loads
• Vertical fastener loads cause a rotation moment of Pb on the other fasteners
• This moment is reacted by horizontal fastener loads, Pb/a (take moments at any fastener)

P Pv Ph
2P Ph
Pv Pv = P/2
Pv Pv
Pv a Ph Ph = Pb/a
P P Ph
Pv
b
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 z
2P
x y

a
Shear
clips b
Describe how all forces and moments are carried and what aspects are ignored
• The force 2P is a shear force in the cross-beam, which also causes a bending moment
• The shear force goes into the shear clip and then transferred into the adjoining beam
• The bending moment gets carried by beam flanges and transferred to connecting flanges
• It is assumed that the shear clip does not bend out of plane.
• Any friction loads from the fastener are ignored.
• It is assumed no torsion moment is transferred to side beams (because of the shear clip)

P Pv Ph
2P Ph
Pv Pv = P/2
Pv Pv
Pv a Ph Ph = Pb/a
P P Ph
Pv
b
63
 FBD Question 2
• Consider an L bracket with two countersunk fasteners,
connected to two plates (all plates are thin)
• The “toe” of the flange imparts a distributed reaction load
that is assumed to be linear with distance to the fastener
• What is the load in the fasteners?
• What aspects are ignored?
P a b

64
• The top fastener sees the applied load P (as a bearing load, shear load or in-plane
transverse load)
• There is a reaction force from the linear “toe” region of the flange (R) that acts at the
centroid of the triangular region  that is, at a distance of 2a/3 from the lower fastener axis
• The force in the lower fastener (F) can then be found from force and moment equilibrium
• Moment around lower fastener axis: Pb = R(2a/3), so R = 3Pb/(2a)
• Forces in y: P – F + R = 0, so F = P + R
• So,
 3b 
F  P 1  
 2a 
• Note: the “heel-toe” or “prying” effect can be seen as an increase a b P
• in P due to the reaction of the “toe”

What aspects are ignored?

• Offset of load between vertical plate edge and plate mid-line R
- treat plates as thin-wall, so b – t/2 = b
• Friction between the plates and L bracket, or in the fastener hole
• Moment from load transfer through plates F
- due to offset of two plate centroids
65
66
 Tutorial Problem
• The fuselage of a light passenger aircraft has the circular cross-section
shown below. The cross-sectional area of each stringer is 100 mm2 and
the 16 stringers are evenly spaced around the cross-section.
• The 3 bay section is loaded by forces at the frame locations, which are
assumed to act at an offset of 150 mm from the section centre as shown,
with the shear force and bending moment distributions as shown.
• Idealisation, bending and shear stress calculations previously shown

2m STN STN STN STN 150 mm

R = 381 mm 2m 2m
0 2000 4000 6000 A = 100
t = 0.8 mm mm2
100 50 16 1 2
S (kN) 50 15 3
14 4
200 13 5
STN M (kN m) 12 6
STN
STN 6000 11 7
STN 4000 -100 -100 10 9 8
2000
0
67
 
Calculate MoS, then reduce weight Panel
(MPa)
(A and t), keeping MoS>0, using: 1-2 -41.1
2-3 79.0
– all MoS>0, and symmetric cross-section
3-4 -108
– max = 250 MPa, max = 100 MPa 4-5 -124
– Area min = 50 mm2, t min = 0.15 mm 5-6 -124
6-7 -108
R = 381 mm 7-8 -79
Boom y (mm) A (mm2) z (MPa)
t = 0.8 mm 1 381 217 303 8-9 -41.1

2, 16 352 217 280 9-10 0

A = 100
3, 15 269 217 214 10-11 37.8
mm2
16 1 2 11-12 66.8
15 3 4, 14 146 217 116
14 4 5, 13 0 217 0 12-13 82.5
13 5 6, 12 -146 217 -116 13-14 82.5
12 6 14-15 66.8
7, 11 -269 217 -214
11 7
10 9 8 8, 10 -352 217 -280 15-16 37.8

9 -381 217 -303 16-1 0

68
Need help? Try step-by-step process for bending part
Calculate Ix (sum Ay2)
Calculate z for each stiffener -> check against slide solutions
Check z > max (try conditional formatting)

Create column of new Areas for design purposes

Calculate Ix, z, MoS for new Areas (limit/z – 1)

Adjust areas to meet design criteria (MoS>1, Amin = 50 mm2)

Calculate new total area, original total area, and A/A0
Adjust area to get A/A0 as small as possible!
- could do manual, goal seek, different strategies/assumptions
69
Need help? Try step-by-step process for shear part
Calculate Ix (sum Ay2) (can take from previous calculation)
“cut” one panel, solve qb of panels -> check qb=0 of cut panel
write torsion equivalence Text = Tint (=Tfrom q) (can take from slide)
solve for qc from torsion equation (need 2AEqb for all panels)
Calculate q = qb + qc for each panel -> check against slide
Check  > allow (try conditional formatting)

Create column of new thicknesses for design purposes

Calculate , MoS for new thicknesses (allow/ – 1)

Adjust thickness to meet design criteria (MoS>1, tmin = 0.15 mm)

Calculate new total cross-section area, original total area, and A/A0
- for each panel, Apanel = s (perimeter) × thickness, A = Apanel
Adjust thickness values to get A/A0 as small as possible!
70
 Consider
• How would the solution process change if the
cross-sections were asymmetric, or had
forces/moments in both x and y?
• How can you reduce the number of design
variables in each case with practical
considerations?

71