Stiffened Beams

Prof. Adrian Orifici

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RMIT University ©2024 AERO2359 1

 Overview
• Equilibrium of Structural Elements
• Static Equivalence
• Stiffened Beams
• Tapered Panels
• Tapered Beams

Goal: analyse equilibrium of skins and stiffeners

2
 Equilibrium of Structural Elements
• One key aspect of analysing stiffened structures is a
consideration of equilibrium of the structural elements
• A free-body diagram of each element demonstrates the
loads that each element applies on others at junction points
– Loads in booms are due to direct stresses: P =   A
– Loads in shear panels: shear flow by edge length P = q  L
• Careful with action-reaction forces
Equilibrium of elements at point 2

1 P
q23 q12
2

4 L
3 L
L L
3
 1 y
4.8 kN 2 x
200 mm
1 z
SC 2
200 mm
3 4
3 4
L=2m
200
mm

Calculate and sketch the shear flow and boom load distribution for the 2 m
long cantilever beam with C-section shown, where the cross-section is
idealised to consist of booms of 300 mm2 each. Assume a shear force of
4.8 kN acts at the shear centre (SC) at the beam free end.

4
 y 4.8 kN 2 1
x
1 200 mm
z
2
SC
200 mm
3 4
L=2m 3 4
200
mm Aboom = 300 mm2

What is the load in one boom at the root? M

 y P  A
How do boom loads vary from tip to root?
I

5
 y
x Previously, we found the shear
1 flow solution for this problem
z 6
2

4 shear flow 12
3 (N/mm)
L=2m
6
M
The boom loads can be found from  y P  A
I
I  4  300  200 2  4.8  10 7 mm 4
M 1, root -9.6 kN m
P1, root  y1, root A1 M
I
12 kN
 4800  2000
 200 300  P
4.8  10 7
4.8 kN
V
 12 kN
6
 6

shear flow 12
(N/mm) 12 kN
P
6
The boom loads and shear flows are in
12 kN
equilibrium for each structural element
q12
Use F = 0 along boom 12 kN q12
q12
q12
e.g. consider boom 2 0 kN
q12
12 𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿 0 0 q23 q12 = 6 N/mm
q23 0 kN
12 12 2 6 2 0 0 q23

so change in axial load is q23 = 12 N/mm

q23
caused by resultant of shear
flows from connecting panels
2m Δ𝑃 𝑞 𝐿
12 12 6 2
7
 Equilibrium of Structural Elements
• Equilibrium used to solve for shear flows or boom loads
• Axial loads in stiffeners always act along axis
• Shear flows in rectangular panels always equal
• F = 0 along boom to relate all loads and shear flows
– e.g. change in axial load is caused by resultant
of shear flows from connecting panels Δ𝑃 𝑞 𝐿

Equilibrium of elements at point 2

1 P
q23 q12
2

4 L
3 L
L L
8
 y 4.8 kN 2 1
x
1 200 mm
z
2
SC
200 mm
3 4
L=2m 3 4
Reaction loads
200
mm Aboom = 300 mm2

What are the reaction loads at the wall?

9
 y 4.8 kN 2 1
x
1 200 mm
z
2
SC
200 mm
3 4
L=2m 3 4
Reaction forces
200
mm Aboom = 300 mm2

What are the reaction forces aligned with the stiffeners and skins (panel 2-3)?

10
 Static Equivalence
• Equivalence of forces and moments can also be used to
solve for unknown beam loads
• Internal and external loads are statically equivalent
– this can be used in several ways, including where external = 0

• Reaction loads can be replaced by a statically equivalent

(and more convenient system)

11
 12 kN Reaction forces

12 kN
boom along P
beam top 0 kN

At any point on the booms,

external = internal forces Along beam, applied
(external) force = 0

Sum of internal
forces = 0
At fixed support,
reaction force =
internal force
At beam tip,
0 kN internal force = 0

12
 Consider boom 4 (L = 2) with a 5 kN external force at A, halfway along L

What are the internal forces at A? show equivalence at A (Fext = Fint)

Show P = q×L show equilibrium along every boom segment (F = 0)
A
12 kN 17 kN
A
5 kN
q12 = 6 N/mm q12
0 kN 0 kN

12 𝐹 𝐹 0 17 𝐹 𝐹 0

13
 Stiffened Beams
• Aircraft fuselage skins and wing ribs are stiffened structures that can
be analysed by idealisation as a stiffened beam
• Analysis approach considers axial loads and shear flows
• Equilibrium of forces and moments used to get external reaction loads
• Equilibrium of booms and shear panels used to solve for axial load
and shear flow distribution throughout beam

A B

A-A B-B
A B
14
 Example 1
• The concentrated flange beam shown has an applied load R = 10 kN
which is reacted locally by vertical and horizontal stiffeners.
• Calculate and sketch the shear flow and axial load distribution
throughout the beam
• State your assumptions

100 mm

30° 10 kN 300 mm

300 mm 300 mm

15
 Stiffened Beams
• Analysis approach
– Assume directions for shear flows and axial loads and
label problem
– Solve sequentially where possible using equilibrium
– Can solve from externally applied loads, or external
reaction loads
– Can “check” answers by solving for shear flows or axial
loads using different approaches
– Indicate whether boom forces are tension or compression
– +ve / -ve or (T) / (C)

16
A B C
G H 100 assume flanges carry only bending loads
and webs carry only shear
30°10 kN 300
D E F
ignore buckling of shear web and stiffeners
300 300

Find axial reaction forces at cantilever end  resolve into forces in

direction of booms / panels

RA
RAD
Sx S x  10000 sin 30  5000 N
Sy
S y  10000 cos 30  8660 N
RD 10 kN

Vertical equilibrium F y 0 RAD  S y  0  R AD  8660 N

17
A B C
G H 100 assume flanges carry only bending loads
and webs carry only shear
30°10 kN 300
D E F
ignore buckling of shear web and stiffeners
300 300

RA
RAD
Sx S x  5000 N
Sy
S y  8660 N
RD 10 kN

Horizontal equilibrium F x 0 RA  RD  S x  0  RA  RD  5000 (1)

Moment equilibrium about D RA 400   S x 300   S y 600   0

M D 0
RA  16740 N

From (1) RD  5000  R A  11740 N

18
 RA
RAD
Sx S x  5000 N RA  16740 N
Sy
S y  8660 N 𝑅 11740 N
RD 10 kN
𝑅 8660 N

What is the force in the stiffeners at A and D? Tension or Compression?

- imagine a “cut” just inside from wall

What is the shear force going into the skin panel A-D?

19
 Stiffened Beams
• To solve, generate a sketch of boom loads and shear flows
– Consider free body diagram of each component
– Equations generated for each component based on equilibrium
– Generate all equations using original assumed directions and
reverse directions on final sketch

• For reaction loads, reverse as needed from beginning

• Helpful to consider beam “cut” just in front of wall

RA RA
Sx Sx
RAD RAD
Sy Sy
RD RD

20
 Stiffened Beams
• Two key solution techniques for these problems
1) External force = internal force at a point (Fext = Fint)
– from static equivalence, must be true at any point (or cross-section)

2) Sum of internal forces (along a beam segment) = 0 (F=0)

– from equilibrium, applied to a body (not a point)

21
 A B C
Sketch FBD system G

D E F

22
 A B C
16740

5000
G
8660 H
8660

11740

D E F
forces in direction of boom axis, assume forces in tension
this way, negative values always correspond to compression
23
 A B C
16740

5000
G
8660 H
8660

11740

D E F
What are the external forces at each point (A-H)?
what does that mean for internal forces?
24
 A B C
16740

5000
G
8660 H
8660

11740

D E F
some boom forces can be set to zero from inspection
where external force is zero, internal boom force must also be zero
25
 A B C
16740

q2
5000
G
8660 H
q1
8660
q3

11740

D E F
assume directions of shear flows in each web
helps to use some intuition (avoids negatives, though not necessary)
26
 A B C
16740

q2
5000
G
8660 H
q1
8660
q3

11740

D E F
reaction shear flows can then be drawn
these are needed to complete free body diagram at each location
27
A B C A B C
100
G H 16740 q2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 q1
300 300 8660
q3
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
A
Consider A (+ve ) 16740
FA 16740  FA  FA  16740 N
D
11740
Consider D (+ve ) FD 11740   FD  FD  11740 N

Consider AD (+ve ) A
q1 8660  q1 400
External force (reaction) = 8660
internal force (from shear flow) D q1  21.7 N/mm
28
 A B C A B C
100
G H 16740 q2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300 q3
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment AB
A B  FA  FB  q1 300   0 , B ,
16740 FB
16740 𝐹 21.7 300 0
21.7
FB  10245 N
Segment BC , ,

B C , ,
FB
q2
solve for q2 29
 A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300 q3
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment DE
21.7  FD  q1 300   FE  0 FE in EF?

-11740 FE   11740   21.7  300   FE  0

D E
FE  5245 N

Segment EF

solve for q3 30
A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300
17.5
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F

Loads in remaining booms found by considering other shear flows

Segment BG
B
34.2 𝐹 𝑞 100 𝑞 100 0
21.7
G FG  1250 N
FG

31
A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300
17.5
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment GE can you check FG = -1250 N using GE?
FG
G
21.7 17.5
E
Segment GH solve for FH. Does it match the external force?

32
 A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300
17.5
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment CH Segment HF
C FH CH  34.2100   0 FH HF
34.2 FH HF  17.5300   0
H
FH CH  3415 N 17.5
FH CH FH HF  5245 N

check equivalence of
internal and external
vertical forces at H

33
16.7 16.7 10.2 10.2

34.2
1.25 5.0 3.42 5

8.66 1.25 5.25

21.7
8.66
17.5

11.7 11.7 5.25 5.25

shear flows in N/mm

clearer to show tension / compression with
axial loads in kN
direction of arrows, instead of +ve / -ve
external loads in kN
34
 Axial loads (kN) +ve tension
-ve compression
16.7 10.2

Shear flows (N/mm)

5.0
34.2
-1.25 3.4
-5.2
21.7 10 kN
17.5

-5.2
-11.7

35
 Tapered Structures
• Tapering is commonly applied in aircraft structures to
tailor the structure to the loading, to increase efficiency
• Wings are reduced in chord and in depth towards tip, and
fuselage sections taper aft of the passenger cabin for
aerodynamic and structural efficiency
• Analysis based on assumptions for a stiffened-skin
– bending stress carried by stiffeners
– skin carries no direct stresses due to bending (shear only)
• The effect of taper on direct stresses from bending is
minimal if the taper is small
• However, shear stress (flow) in webs can be significantly
affected by taper

36
 Tapered Beams
• Consider a tapered panel as part of a stiffened-skin beam

axial load from

axial load
average shear is
distribution is
linear
parabolic
q

2
a a
q  q q  q 
b b

37
 Tapered Beams
• From knowledge of q along one edge, q can be found on
the opposite edge
• q along the sides of the tapered panel can be considered
using the average shear flow q
• Free-body diagrams and equilibrium can be used to
determine the distribution of axial loads in the stiffeners

38
 Example 2
• Compare the panel shear flows and stiffener axial load
distribution for the tapered and untapered stiffened beams
• Assume the shear web carries no direct stress

1500 1500
400 b 400
a b 400 a 200
400 c
c d d
400 400
20 kN 20 kN

distances in mm distances in mm
areas in mm2 areas in mm2
39
 1500
qab
400
400 a b qac qbd
c d
400 qcd
20 kN
solve for the shear flow and axial load

40
 1500
qab
400
400 a b qac qbd
c d
400 qcd
20 kN
20000
from loaded end qbd   50 N/mm
400

from shear panel qbd  qac  qab  qcd  50 N/mm

from stiffeners Fa   Fc   qab lab  501500   75 kN

75

50
-75
shear flows N/mm stiffener loads kN
41
 1500 qab
b 400
400 a 200 qac qbd
c
d 400

20 kN qcd
a
q  q 
 100  b
  tan 1    3.8 𝑙 𝑙 1500 100 1503.33 2
 1500  b a
q  q a
b
solve for the shear flow and axial load
q

42
 1500 qab
b 400
400 a 200 qac qbd
c
d 400

20 kN qcd
 100 
  tan 1    3.8 𝑙 𝑙 1500 100 1503.33
 1500 

20000
from loaded end qbd   100 N/mm
200
2 2
 lbd 
  100
200 
from taper equations qac  qbd    25 N/mm
 lac   400 
𝑙 200
𝑞̄ 𝑞̄ 𝑞 100 50 N/mm
𝑙 400

from stiffeners Fa  qablab  50 1500 2  100 2  75.2 kN

43
 75

50
-75
shear flows N/mm stiffener loads kN

avg = 50 75.2

0
25 100 0

avg = 50 -75.2

shear flows N/mm stiffener loads kN

44
 1500 𝑙 1503.33 kN
75.2
75 400 N/mm
50
400 50 25 100 200
20 50 20
75 400 𝛼 3.8°
75.2
solve for the shear flow and axial load halfway along the beam

45
 750 1500 kN
50.1 75.2
400 N/mm
66.7
50
300 44.4 100 25 100
20 50 20
66.7
400 𝛼 3.8°
50.1 75.2
what happens when you use a cross-section “slice” approach?

46
 Tapered Structures
• For a tapered beam, inclination of booms means
that some shear load is carried in booms
– total load always aligned with boom axis
– bending stress (load) always normal to cross-section

internal external

47
 Key Points
• For idealised stiffened structures, the functions of
the structural elements can be separated
– Stiffeners carry only direct stresses, skins carry only
shear stresses

• Consideration of equilibrium of each element (or at

each junction) is important in solving for boom
loads and shear flows
– in particular for stiffened beams, F = 0 along boom

• Use of static equivalence also important

– in particular for stiffened beams, Fext = Fint at any point

48
 Key Points
• Tapering is commonly applied in aircraft structures to
tailor the structure to the loading, to increase efficiency
• Analysis based on assumptions for a stiffened-skin
– bending stress carried by stiffeners
– skin carries no direct stresses due to bending (shear only)
– instability, warping, shear lag not considered

• The effect of taper is small for bending stresses, but

significant for shear stresses
• Analysis of shear flows in stiffened beams with taper
requires consideration of the average shear flow and
offset of forces along stiffeners

49
 Questions
• To determine static equivalence for bending
moment and torsion, what points on the cross-
section can moments be taken about?
• Why do we use the equilibrium of structural
elements to develop a sketch of shear flow and
axial load distribution, instead of a “cross-section”
analysis at a series of points?

50
 Questions
• Where are tapered stiffened beams likely to be
encountered in aircraft?
• How large do taper angles need to be to affect
bending stresses?
• Once the average shear flow is calculated along
an edge, can this be used to determine the shear
flow at an intermediate location along that edge?
Why/why not?
• Why is the average shear flow along an edge
useful?

51
52
 Additional Slides as Reference
• Solutions to Examples
• Tutorial Problems

53
 Example 1
• The concentrated flange beam shown has an applied load R = 10 kN
which is reacted locally by vertical and horizontal stiffeners.
• Calculate and sketch the shear flow and axial load distribution
throughout the beam
• State your assumptions

100 mm

30° 10 kN 300 mm

300 mm 300 mm

54
A B C
G H 100 assume flanges carry only bending loads
and webs carry only shear
30°10 kN 300
D E F
ignore buckling of shear web and stiffeners
300 300

Find axial reaction forces at cantilever end  resolve into forces in

direction of booms / panels

RA
RAD
Sx S x  10000 sin 30  5000 N
Sy
S y  10000 cos 30  8660 N
RD 10 kN

Vertical equilibrium F y 0 RAD  S y  0  R AD  8660 N

55
A B C
G H 100 assume flanges carry only bending loads
and webs carry only shear
30°10 kN 300
D E F
ignore buckling of shear web and stiffeners
300 300

RA
RAD
Sx S x  5000 N
Sy
S y  8660 N
RD 10 kN

Horizontal equilibrium F x 0 RA  RD  S x  0  RA  RD  5000 (1)

Moment equilibrium about D R A 400   S x 300   S y 600   0

M D 0
RA  16740 N

From (1) RD  5000  R A  11740 N

56
A B C A B C
100
G H 16740 q2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 q1
300 300 8660
q3
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
A
Consider A (+ve ) 16740
FA 16740  FA  FA  16740 N
D
11740
Consider D (+ve ) FD 11740   FD  FD  11740 N

Consider AD (+ve ) A
q1 8660  q1 400
External force (reaction) = 8660
internal force (from shear flow) D q1  21.7 N/mm
57
 A B C A B C
100
G H 16740 q2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300 q3
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment AB
A B  FA  FB  q1 300   0 , B ,
16740 FB
16740 𝐹 21.7 300 0
21.7
FB  10245 N
Segment BC , ,

B C  FB  q2 300   0
FB
q2 q2  34.2 N/mm (positive so direction is correct)
58
 A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300 q3
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment DE
21.7  FD  q1 300   FE  0
-11740 FE   11740   21.7  300   FE  0 , ,
D E
FE  5245 N
E
Segment EF
q3  FE  q3 300   0 , ,
-5245 q3   FE / 300  17.5 N/mm
E F
59
A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300
17.5
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F

Loads in remaining booms found by considering other shear flows

Segment BG
B
34.2 𝐹 𝑞 100 𝑞 100 0
21.7
G FG  1250 N
FG

60
A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300
17.5
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment GE FG  17.5300   21.7300   0
FG
G FG  1250 N (as before)
21.7 17.5
this provides a check on previous calculations
E
Segment GH  34.2300   17.5300   FH GH  0
G 34.2 H FH GH  5000 N
FH GH
17.5 this shows internal loads = external loads at H
61
 A B C A B C
100
G H 16740
34.2
300 H 5000
D E F G
8660 21.7 8660
300 300
17.5
along beam at point
11740
F = 0 Fext = Fint
D E F
Segment CH Segment HF
C FH CH  34.2100   0 FH HF
34.2 FH HF  17.5300   0
H
FH CH  3415 N 17.5
FH CH FH HF  5245 N

check equivalence of 3415

internal and external 8660 3415   5245  8660 
vertical forces at H
-5245
62
16.7 16.7 10.2 10.2

34.2
1.25 5.0 3.42 5

8.66 1.25 5.25

21.7
8.66
17.5

11.7 11.7 5.25 5.25

shear flows in N/mm

clearer to show tension / compression with
axial loads in kN
direction of arrows, instead of +ve / -ve
external loads in kN
63
 Axial loads (kN) +ve tension
-ve compression
16.7 10.2

Shear flows (N/mm)

5.0
34.2
-1.25 3.4
-5.2
21.7 10 kN
17.5

-5.2
-11.7

64
 Example 2
• Compare the panel shear flows and stiffener axial load
distribution for the tapered and untapered stiffened beams
• Assume the shear web carries no direct stress

1500 1500
400 b 400
a b 400 a 200
400 c
c d d
400 400
20 kN 20 kN

distances in mm distances in mm
areas in mm2 areas in mm2
65
 1500
qab
400
400 a b qac qbd
c d
400 qcd
20 kN
20000
from loaded end qbd   50 N/mm
400

from shear panel qbd  qac  qab  qcd  50 N/mm

from stiffeners Fa   Fc   qab lab  501500   75 kN

75

50
-75
shear flows N/mm stiffener loads kN
66
 1500 qab
b 400
400 a 200 qac qbd
c
d 400

20 kN qcd
 100 
  tan 1    3.8 𝑙 𝑙 1500 100 1503.33
 1500 

20000
from loaded end qbd   100 N/mm
200
2 2
 lbd 
  100
200 
from taper equations qac  qbd    25 N/mm
 lac   400 
𝑙 200
𝑞̄ 𝑞̄ 𝑞 100 50 N/mm
𝑙 400

from stiffeners Fa  qablab  50 1500 2  100 2  75.2 kN

67
 1500 𝑙 1503.33 kN
75.2
75 400 N/mm
50
400 50 25 100 200
20 50 20
75 400 𝛼 3.8°
75.2
solve for the shear flow and axial load halfway along the beam

𝐹 . 50 750 37.5 kN need to cut and re-calculate

750 200
𝑞 . 100 00 66.7 N/mm
300

q0.5ab
200
𝑞 . 100 44.4 N/mm
300 q0.5ac 100 300

q0.5ab 𝐹 . 66.7 751.67 50.1 kN

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 750 1500 kN
50.1 75.2
400 N/mm
66.7
50
300 44.4 100 25 100
20 50 20
66.7
400 𝛼 3.8°
50.1 75.2
what happens when you use a cross-section “slice” approach?

cross-section carries a force and moment internal external

seems like q found directly from Sy (e.g. S/h) F
but, 20000/300 = 66.7 not 44.4 as found Sy
q Mx
axial loads in stiffeners are at some angle
so they have a vertical component F

(i.e. they carry some external vertical force)

first solve F from moment, then q
69
 750 1500 kN
50.1 75.2
400 N/mm
66.7
50
300 44.4 100 25 100
20 50 20
66.7
400 𝛼 3.8°
50.1 75.2
what happens when you use a cross-section “slice” approach?

for a simple force couple Fx = M/h internal external

then solve for Fy using taper Fy = Fx tan or Fx (b-a)/(2L) F

q Sy Mx
then solve for q 2Fy + q×h = Sy

Fx = (20000×750)/300 = 50 kN F

Fy = 50000 × (100/1500) = 3.33 kN

2(3333) + q(300) = 20000 q = 44.4 N/mm
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71
 Tutorial Problem 1
• A cantilever beam carries concentrated loads as shown.
Calculate and sketch the distribution of stiffener loads and
the shear flow distribution in the web panels assuming the
latter are effective only in shear.

A B C D

200
mm
J K
4 kN 100
y 60°
mm
x E F G H
5 kN

250 250 250

mm mm mm
72
 Discuss
• Why is it useful to resolve the reaction forces and moments into
forces in the stiffeners and skins?
• Why is it useful to start the calculations at the fixed end? Could the
problem be solved from the free end?
• Why is it useful to break a stiffener into segments for each panel? Is
this necessary?
• How can you tell if the force on the end of a stiffener should be zero
or should be non-zero?
• Look at the shear flows generated. Do they make sense in terms of
how the beam is loaded and considering how each panel will deform
under shear?
• Look at the loads generated. Do the loads along the top and bottom
horizontal stiffeners make sense in terms of how the beam is loaded?
What is happening to the vertical stiffeners? Why is there a jump in
load in the vertical stiffener D-H?

73
 Tutorial Problem 2
• An irregular cantilever beam has a series of applied loads
acting on it, and tapers symmetrically. The loads are
reacted locally by horizontal and vertical stiffeners
attached to the beam shear webs.
• Assuming no buckling occurs and the webs carry shear
only, calculate and sketch the stiffener axial loads and
web shear flows acting throughout the structure.
A
B C
100
800 G H 5 kN
y 300
E F
x 
D 6 kN

500 400 dimensions in mm

74
 Discuss
• Why does the shear panel connected along A-D not carry the full
vertical reaction load of 6 kN?
• Why is the reaction at the fixed end not considered to have a reaction
moment?
• Look at the shear flows generated. Do they make sense in terms of
how the beam is loaded and considering how each panel will deform
under shear? What do you think will happen if the 6 kN force is
removed? What about if the 5 kN force were removed?
• Look at the loads generated. Do the loads along the top and bottom
horizontal stiffeners make sense in terms of how the beam is loaded?
What is happening to the vertical stiffeners? Why is the load at the top
of vertical stiffener B-E non-zero if there is no external load applied
there?
• What would the loads look like if the shear webs were not there, and
the beam were a truss-like structure? What does that tell you about
the role of the shear webs?
• Why do we need to assume that buckling is not happening? How
could it occur? Could it occur in the webs? Could it occur in the
stiffeners? What do you think will happen if it occurs?
75