Unit 3 Turbines, Governors and Drive System

Unit 3
Turbines, drive system and

governors (9 hours)
Turbines, Drive System and Governors 1

Turbines, drive system and governors
1. Turbine types for micro hydro, their constructional features and operational
characteristics, Effect on efficiency during part flow conditions, Nomogram
and turbine selection, Comparison of costs of the turbines
2. Introduction to drive system, Various drive arrangements and their features,
Drive problem, Design parameters for a drive system
3. Purpose of speed governing, Various governing mechanisms, Electrical load
controller as a governor in micro hydro, Ballast load, water cooled and air
cooled ballasts, Effect of ballast on generator sizing, Ballast sizing.

1. Turbine
• Turbine types for micro hydro
• Constructional features and operational characteristics
• Effect on efficiency during part flow conditions
• Nomogram and turbine selection
• Comparison of costs of the turbines

Specific energy
• The specific energy of a hydro power plant is the quantity of
potential and kinetic energy which 1 kilogram of the water
delivers when passing through the plant from an upper to a
lower reservoir.
• The expression of the specific energy is Nm/kg or J/kg and is
designated as m2/s2.

Gross Head
H gr  z res  z tw
Hgr
zres
ztw
Reference line

Gross Specific Hydraulic Energy
• In a hydro power plant, the difference between the level of the
upper reservoir zres and the level of the tail water ztw is defined
as the gross head:
Hgr = zres - ztw (meters)
• The corresponding gross specific hydraulic energy:
E gr  g  H gr [ J kg ]

Gross Power
Pgr  Q    E gr  Q    g  H gr
Where:
𝑃𝑔𝑟 is the gross power of the plant [W]
 is the density of the water [kg/m3]
Q is the discharge [m3/s]

Definition of heads
• Gross head (Hg):
• The difference between the head race level and tail race level when no
water is flowing.
• Net head:
• also called effective head
• the head at the inlet of the turbine
• When water is flowing from head race to the turbine, a loss of
head due to friction between the water and penstocks occurs as
a major losses.
Hn  H g  hf

Introduction

Introduction
Falling Rotating
turbine
water shaft

Classification of the turbines
Turbine
Basis of
Classification
Direction of the flow According to specific According to speed

Energy available at Head at inlet of turbine number
the inlet of the runner through the runner speed
e.g. tangential flow, e.g. High head, e.g. low sp. speed, e.g. low speed no.,
e.g. impulse and medium head and low medium speed no. &
reaction turbine radial flow, axial flow & medium sp. speed &
mixed flow head high sp. speed high speed no.

Turbine selection
• Based on site characteristics ⇒ head availability and power required.
• Also based on speed required to run generator or other device

loading the turbines.
• Also designed based on requirement to produce power under part

flow condition.

Turbine types for MHP

Turbine types for MHP

Impulse turbines
(Partial turbines)
• The hydraulic energy of the impulse turbines are completely
converted to kinetic energy before transformation in the runner.

Pelton

Turgo

Crossflow

Reaction turbines
(Full turbines)
• In the reaction turbines two effects cause the energy transfer from
the flow to mechanical energy on the turbine shaft.
• Firstly it follows from a drop in pressure from inlet to outlet of the

runner. This is denoted the reaction part of the energy conversion.
• Secondly changes in the directions of the velocity vectors of the flow

through the canals between the runner blades transfer impulse
forces. This is denoted the impulse part of the energy conversion.

Francis

Francis

Kaplan

Kaplan
Propeller

Pump as turbine

Pump as turbine
• Pumps are highly developed
rotational fluid machines. If
operated in reverse they operate as
turbines - known as Francis
turbine principle.
• Advantages of PAT application:
• cheaper compared to conventional
turbines
• design features: simple, sturdy and
approved components
• spare parts are easily available;
refer to pump service and
availability
• easy operation and maintenance
• manufacturer service and
representation available

Pump as turbine
Disadvantages:
• Pumps can only be controlled over a small range by valves, unless
multiple units are used
• Design has to be adjusted to "firm flow" (minimum flow of the year),
unless day storage is provided for balance .

Pump as turbine
The conversion factor "BEP pump" (BEP = best efficiency point) to
"BEP turbine" depends on the specific speed. The conversion
factor ranges from 1.2–1.4 for pumps of average head 10–80 m.

Pump as turbine

Impulse turbine
• Flow through impulse turbine experience no pressure change,
runner operated open.
• The runner operates above the tail water level.
• Needs a casing only to control splashing and prevent accidents.
• Impulse turbines, such as Pelton and Turgo, are used in high and
medium head plants, whereas the crossflow turbine covers the
ranges of low and medium heads.
• Pelton turbine Runner operate in air and water remains at atmospheric
pressure before and after contacting the runner blades.
• Pressure energy is first converted into kinetic energy in nozzle in form of
high speed jet of water.
• High speed jet of water runs runner blade by deflection of water.

Pelton Turbine

Pelton Turbine

Reaction Turbines
• Consists of
• Fixed guide vanes called stay vanes,
• Adjustable guide vanes called
wicket gates,
• and rotating blades called runner
blades
Working Mechanism
Flow enters tangentially at high pressure, is turned toward the runner
by the stay vanes as it moves along the spiral casing or volute, and
then passes through the wicket gates with a large tangential velocity
component. Momentum is exchanged between the fluid and the
runner as the runner rotates, and there is a large pressure drop.

Reaction Turbines
• Runner or rotating part fully
immersed in water.
• Runner enclosed in pressure
casing.
• Runner blades profiled so
that pressure difference
across them impose lift force
which cause runner to rotate.

Impulse versus Reaction turbines
Aspects Impulse turbines Reaction turbines
Conversion The available fluid energy is Only a portion of the fluid energy is
of fluid converted in to K.E. by a transformed into K.E. energy before
energy nozzle the fluid enter the turbine runner
Change in The pressure remains After entering the runner with an
pressure & same (atm.) throughout the excess pr., water undergoes changes
velocity action of water on the both in velocity and pr. while passing
runner through the runner
Admittance Water may be allowed to Water is admitted over the
of water over enter a part or whole of the circumference of the wheel
the wheel wheel circumference
Role of No hydraulic function to Pr. at inlet to the turbine is much
casing perform; it only serves to higher than the pr. at outlet; unit has to
prevent splashing and to be sealed from atmospheric conditions
guide the water to the tail and therefore , casing is absolutely
race essential

Impulse vs. Reaction turbines
Aspects Impulse turbines Reaction turbines
Relative velocity Either remaining constant or Due to continuous drop in pr.
of water reduces slightly due to during flow through the blade, the
friction relative velocity increase
Installation of unit Always installed above the Units may be installed above or
tail race. No draft tube is bellow the tail race and use of
used draft tube is made
Flow regulation By means of needle valve By means of guide vane
fitted into the nozzle assembly
Action on blades Blades are only in action Blades are in action all the time
when they are in front of the
nozzle
Extent to which Turbine does not run full Water completely fills all the
the water fills the and air has a free access to passages throughout the
turbine the buckets operation of the turbine

Pelton Turbine
• Pelton was invented by Lester Allan
Pelton (1829–1908) in the 1870.
• Pelton wheel is considered for use in
dams where the flow of water is low
and medium to high water head is
present.
• In the Pelton turbine, the
pressurized water is converted into a
high-speed jet by passing it through
a nozzle.
• The jet hits the specially shaped
buckets of the turbine rotor, causing
it to rotate.
• It converts the kinetic energy of a jet
of water into the angular rotation of
the buckets it strikes.
• A pelton turbine has one or more Pelton turbine
nozzles.
Pelton Turbine
Bucket
width
nozzle
Spear valve
Pitch circle diameter

Working of Pelton Turbine
• Converts kinetic energy of water jet into angular
rotation of disc when it strikes.
• Pelton turbine is designed to deflect the jet back through
165℃ which is the maximum angle possible without the
return jet interfering with next bucket.
• Water leaving the runner represents loss of efficiency in
energy conversion as small part of original K.E is
maintained.
• For optimum efficiency speed of jet needs to be twice
the speed of buckets.
• Peak efficiency⇒ bucket speed is approximately equal
to 0.46 × 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑.
• When a high speed water jet injected through a nozzle hits
buckets of Pelton wheel; it induces an impulsive force.
• This force makes the turbine rotate. The rotating shaft runs
a generator and produces electricity.
P = Fimpluse ×V bucket

Pelton Turbine
Main Parts:
• Runner
• Nozzle
• Shut off Valves
• Deflector Plate
• Spear Valve
• Turbine runner

Pelton Turbine
Runner:
• Consists of series of buckets
mounted on the periphery of a
circular disc
• Rotates when high speed water jet
strikes into the bucket.

Pelton Turbine
Nozzle:
• Small piece of pipe tapered at one end and connected to the penstock
manifold at the other end.
• Used to discharge the jet of water at high speed (hence high kinetic
energy) which strikes the bucket to cause rotation.
• Can be dissembled or reassembled to suit for seasonal variation of
discharge when needed.

Pelton Turbine
Shut off valves:
• Usually a gate valve or a butterfly valve in
turbine manifold
• Should be fully open when the turbine
operates
• They should be closed very slowly. If
closed abruptly, surge pressure created by
high head can lead even to bursting of
pipes.
• It should not be used for flow regulation
as the valve can be damaged due to
cavitation effects
Pelton Turbine
Deflector Plate:
• Used to deflect the water jet away from the
buckets when made to rotate into the water
path
• Useful device to stop the turbine without
shutting of the penstock flow
• Also used for emergency shut down
• Allows water to hit buckets when a
circular disc attached to the deflector arm
is fixed magnetically to an electromagnet
and blocks water to hit the runner when
electromagnet is demagnetized.

Pelton Turbine
Spear Valve:
• Consists of spear head arranged to move within the nozzle allowing variation in effective orifice
cross sectional area without introducing energy losses
• Spear can be moved either by turning a thread manually or automatically by a mechanical speed
governor
• Essential when continuous flow regulation is required
• A costly arrangement and also may block the penstock flow in case it is detached accidentally
when turbine is running
• Its use is decreasing due to invention of ELC as speed governor

Pelton Bucket: A single Solid
• Most vital component of Pelton wheel is its bucket.
• Buckets are casted as single solid piece, in order to avoid fatigue
failure.
• Force acting on the turbine bucket is not constant with time. If you
follow one particular bucket, it will have high force for a small time
duration (at the time of jet impingement) after that a larger idle period
where no jet interaction takes place. So the force acting on the bucket
is also not constant.
• It varies with the time but it is having a cyclic nature.
• If bucket were made using pieces by welding attachment such cyclic
fore will easily lead to premature fatigue failure.

Pelton Bucket: A Splitter
• Water jet is split into 2 equal components with help of a splitter.
• Special shape of bucket makes the jet turn almost 180 degree.
• This produces an impulsive force on bucket.
• Force so produced can easily be derived from Newton’s 2nd law of motion.
• Blade outlet angle close to 180 degree is usually used in order to maximize
impulsive force.

Pelton Bucket: A Cut
• A cut is provided on bottom portion of buckets.
• This makes sure that water jet will not get interfered by other
incoming buckets.

Pelton Bucket: A Cut
• Pelton turbine has one or more nozzle discharging jets of water
• Jets of water strike series of buckets mounted on periphery of circular
discs.
• For large hydropower pelton are used for high heads above 150m.
• But for MHPs pelton turbines can be used for much lower heads.
• At high power and low head rotational speed becomes low and runner
is large.

Extracting maximum power from water Jet
• Pelton turbine design is always aimed at extracting
maximum power from water jet, or maximizing
efficiency. Power extracted by the bucket, P is
product of jet impulse force and bucket velocity.
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑒 × 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
• So power extraction is maximum when product of
impulsive force and bucket velocity is maximum.
1.Buckets are held stationary
• If Pelton wheel buckets are held stationary, there
will be a huge impulse force produced. But power
extraction will be zero since buckets are not
moving.
2.Bucket speed same as jest speed
• If buckets are moving with same speed of jet,
water jet won’t be able to hit the bucket. This will
lead to zero impulse force. Again power extraction
will be zero. Turbines, Drive System and Governors 49
• It is clear from the above graph that
optimum power extraction happens in
between.
• It can be shown using Euler’s turbo
machinery equation that maximum power
extraction happens when bucket speed is
half the jet velocity.
• So it is always desirable to operate Pelton
wheel at this condition.
• Pelton turbines can give efficiency as high
as 90 %, at optimum working conditions.


Increasing running speed of Pelton
• For a high running speed and smaller runner
there are two main design options:
1. Increasing the number of jets
2. Twin runners
1. Increasing the number of jets:
• Allows smaller runner for given flow of
water resulting in increased rotational
speed.
• Useful in part flow efficiency
2. Twin runners:
• Two runners placed side by side
• Usually used if the number of jets per
runner is maximized.

Multi Jet Pelton

Sizing a Pelton turbine
• Two approaches
1. Approach A :
A pelton turbine required for a new site and you wish to give required
information to local manufacturer who already has standard bucket sizes.
2. Approach B:
You already have in hand a range pelton runner of specific diameters complete
with buckets. You wish to choose best runner for a particular site.

Approach A
1. Optimize penstock diameter to find net head.
2. Use turbine selection chart Nomogram to see if a Pelton is suitable and
estimate driving gearing requirements.
3. Find the ideal runner diameter from the rpm equation below:

Approach A
4. Draw table calculating nozzle diameter (𝑑𝑗𝑒𝑡 )from given equations.
• Buckets are made to suit a particular runner diameter. Try to find out what
D/𝑑𝑗𝑒𝑡 ratio was originally intended for the bucket.
• A common ratio is 10:1
• Adjust either G(gear ratio) or 𝑑𝑗𝑒𝑡 or 𝐷𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 to get the ratio within acceptable
limits of 9:1 to 14:1

Approach A
5. Check whether notch width is adequate to accommodate the jet ⇒ less than
5mm tolerance between jet and two notch side may not tolerate any
misalignment of jet. Oversizing upto 20mm clearance is possible.
6. Consider part flow requirements and speed regulation to choose number of
jets.

Approach A : Design Step
1. Jet Speed
• The jet speed 𝑣𝑗𝑒𝑡 is fixed by the head H available at the nozzles (i.e.
the gross head less the penstock losses) and is equal to:
Where 𝑐𝑣 is the coefficient of velocity of the nozzle, typically 0.9 - 0.97.

• Assuming the net head is 100 metres, the jet velocity is calculated to
be:

2. Runner diameter
• Runner diameter is given by the following equation:
Where, G is the required gear ratio.

• The runner diameter is often referred to as the pitch circle diameter or
PCD.
• Using net head of 100 metres and shaft speed of 1500 rpm, the
diameter of runner is calculated to be:

3. Nozzle diameter
• If the flow rate is Q, then:
• On Re-arranging,
• Given the flow rate for a site is 0.01m3/s, the nozzle diameter is
calculated to be:

4. Number of Nozzles
• If the flow in worked previous example was 0.1m3/s instead, then the nozzle diameter would need
to be 54mm.
• A jet of this size would require buckets so large that only a few could be fitted around the runner of
diameter 0.25m.
• There is therefore a second constraint on the size of runner, which is that it must carry enough
buckets for efficient operation, too few tending to waste water, too many causing interference. To
match this constraint, a recommended practice is that an acceptable ratio of runner diameter to
nozzle diameter is 10, although Pelton turbines can be successfully made with ratios in the range 6
to 20.
• Rather than increase the runner diameter to meet the jet size, the other option is to spread the flow
by using a number of jets. If the number of nozzles is 𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑡 , then the equation for the nozzle
diameter becomes:

• With flow rate of 0.1m3/s and net head of 100 meters, 2 jets are
planned to be used.
• This is now suitable for the 25cm runner rotating at 1500rpm.

• Consider also the part flow requirement and speed regulation
requirement to choose the number of jets

5. Number and Size of buckets
• The notch width found in the table is compared with the available
bucket size and appropriate bucket is selected.
• The number of buckets required for efficient operation is generally
found using the following equation:
• With 4 jets, runner diameter of 25cm and nozzle diameter of 27mm,

the number of buckets is calculated to be:

Importance of Bucket Number in Design
• One of the most important parameter of Pelton turbine design is
number of buckets on the disk.
• If number of buckets is inadequate, this will result in loss in water jet.
• That means when one bucket departs from the water jet next bucket
may not get engaged with the jet. This will result in loss in water jet
for a small time duration, thus sudden drop in turbine efficiency.
• A large no of bucket may cause interference of jet.

Approach A: Numerical Exercise
• The site under consideration for a Pelton turbine has the following
characteristics:
• Gross head :90 meter
• Turbine flow : from 75-200 l/s during a year
• Alternator speed :1500 rpm
• Efficiency of Pelton Turbine : 80%
• Friction loss in penstock to be 10% of the gross head
• Taking part flow efficiency also into consideration recommend the no.
of jets, runner diameter and the bucket size (notch-width).
APPROACH B: (CHOOSING BEST RUNNER FOR A
GIVEN SITE)
1.Find the turbine speed using rpm Eqn:
2. Calculate the gear ratio G using :

G=Generator rpm/turbine rpm
3. Consider whether the net head can be altered to achieve a desirable turbine speed
4. Consider whether the load can operate at a revised speed.
5. Calculate the flow drawn by the turbine and choose the number of jets which best
gives the desired flow:
6. Consider practical modifications of nozzle size and number of jets in order to

achieve the desired flow.
Approach B: Numerical
• A Pelton with two 13 mm jets and a 15 cm runner is available. A site with net head of 17 m and flow
range of 5-14 l/s is under consideration. Pulleys which give ratios of 1.4 or 1.6 are at hand to drive an
induction generator with speed 1575rpm. Decide whether the available turbine can be used for the
given site condition or not. If not, suggest the necessary modifications to be made in terms of nozzle
size, number of jet etc.
Solution:

Approach B: Numerical
Accommodating available flow:
Flow drawn by two jet Pelton is given by:
Increasing the nozzle aperture to 15 mm instead of 13 mm, we get Q=6.4 l/s

which is not much difference.
Adding 2 more jets and increasing the nozzle aperture to 16 mm will absorb a
flow of 14 l/s.

Cross flow turbine
• Also known as Banki/Mitchell or Ossberger turbine.
• Comprises of drum shaped runner with two parallel discs connected by
series of curved blades.
Head height: H = 4-100 m
Flow Rate: Q = 0.03… 13 m³/s
Capacity: N = 10-3,500 kW

Cross flow turbine
• The water passes through the drum-like radial runner, hitting the
curved runner blades twice.
• A flow-regulating guide vane enables the turbine to cope with the wide
flow range at a fairly good efficiency level.

Cross flow turbine
• The basic design for locally manufactured crossflow turbines was developed
around 1980 in Butwal / Nepal, known as type 205 and by BYS in Kathmandu as
T3 and modified versions (T5, T7. ...). They are now used in many countries. A
construction design integrating the latest developments, is under way (by ENTEC,
Bandung).

Working Principle of Crossflow
• A rectangular nozzle directs the jet to the full length of the runner.
• The water strikes the blades and imparts most of its kinetic energy.
• It then passes through the runner and strikes the blades on exit,
imparting a smaller amount of energy before leaving the turbine.

Components of Cross Flow Turbines

a. Runner:
• It is a drum shaped runner consisting of two parallel discs connected
together near their rims by a series of curved blades.
• Runner shaft horizontal to the ground in all cases.

b. Nozzle:
• It is a rectangular nozzle that directs the water jet to the full length of
the runner.
• Water coming out of the nozzle imparts most of its kinetic energy,
passes through the runner and strikes the blade on exit imparting a
smaller amount of energy before leaving the turbine.

c. Guide Vane:
• It guides the flow of water to the runner.

d. Draft tube (Optional):
• A partial vacuum inside the casing can be
induced by fitting a draft tube below the
runner which remains full of tail water at all
times.
• Any decrease in the water level induces a
greater vacuum to increase the effective head
driving the cross flow.
• The vacuum induction is limited by air bleed
valve in the casing.
• Careful design of the valve and casing is
necessary to avoid conditions where water
might back up and submerge the runner.
• This is a costly affair where availability of
required head is not a problem.
Cross Flow Turbine
The SKAT T12 crossflow turbine made by BYS in Kathmandu, Nepal. The turbine is
designed for minimum vibration. All moving parts can be disassembled from a
permanently installed frame.
Design of Cross Flow Turbines
1. Diameter of the runner
where 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 is the net head

2. Thickness of the water jet
The jet thickness is usually between one tenth and one fifth of the
runner diameter. It is best to consult the manufacturer on this ratio,
which also depends on whether or not a flow control vane is fitted.

Design of Cross Flow Turbines
3. Length of Runner
• The discharge is given by:
• Where, 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 is the cross section area of the nozzle and Lrunner is
the length of the runner.
∴

Example
• A turbine is to be specified for a site with the following characteristics:
• Net head (Hnet) 26m
• Generator speed 1500rpm
• Flow Variation from 0.2m3/s to 0.4m3/s
• Pulley diameter (turbine) 500mm
• Pulley diameter (alternator) 250mm
• Find the dimension of Runner.

Example

Turgo turbines
• Turgo turbine is an impulse machine similar to a
Pelton turbine.
• However, the jet is designed to strike the plane
of the runner at an angle (typically 20°).
• In this turbine, water enters the runner through
one side and exits through the other side.
• A Turgo turbine can have a smaller diameter
runner than a Pelton for an equivalent
power.
• It therefore runs at a higher rpm speed.
• Turgo is efficient over a wide range of speeds
and needs no seals with glands around the shaft.

Turgo turbines

Turgo turbines
Advantages of Turgo
• Covers the boundary between Francis and Pelton
• Limits Over-Pressure Effect over the penstock
• Higher speed = weight and cost reduction
• Maintains efficiency over a wide flow range
• Superior abrasion resistance
• Ease of operation and maintenance
Disadvantages of Turgo
• It is more difficult to fabricate than a Pelton as the buckets (or vanes) are complex
and more fragile.
• Turgo experiences a substantial axial load on its runner which must be met by
providing a suitable bearing on the end of the shaft.

Runner Length Vs Power Output
• Because of symmetry, runner length can be increased without
changing the hydraulic characteristics of the turbine to increase the
power (Doubling the runner length will double the power output at the
same speed)
• The lower the head, the longer the runner becomes and conversely on
high heads, the crossflow runner tends to be compact.
• Too long blades will lead to fatigue at junction of the blades and the
disc.
• Intermediate bracing discs can be placed to avoid fatigue but
efficiency reduces as water interferes with the bracings.

Turbine Efficiency Improvement
• Efficiency is maintained over a wider flow range using partition
device which allows a third or two third of the runner to be closed off.

Effect on Efficiency due to Part Flow Conditions
• When running at part-flow, there can be a reduction in the efficiency of each
MHP component, the turbine, the drive belt and the generator.
• These reduced inefficiencies combine together to give a low overall
efficiency.
• Sometimes, so low that you cannot expect any significant power supply to
consumers.
• This situation is most common in small hydro schemes since generators of
less than 5kW capacity can become inefficient when operated at low power.
• Bigger schemes are also affected depending on the design of the turbine.

• The important thing is to know, or estimate, the part-flow performance
of the turbines you are considering.
• If the manufacturer cannot tell you, then assume the turbine is about
20% less efficient at part-flow than similar machines made by other
manufacturers.

• In the case of electrical generators, either induction or synchronous, it

is necessary to ask the manufacturer for test data at part power.
Sophisticated machines of all sizes will maintain 70 or 80% efficiency
at half power, and reduce to 60 to 75% at quarter power.
• Drive systems often lose a fixed amount of power. That is to say, a
95% efficient drive on a 10kW scheme loses around 0.5kW. If the
same drive is used to transmit 2.5kW(quarter power), it will still lose
0.5kW, and its efficiency is therefore around (2.5 – 0.5)/2.5 = 80%.

• Penstock : efficiency improves as flow reduces

• Lower schemes: cost effective to use standard pipes at efficiency low
than 80 or 70% ⇒ as flow reduces efficiency increases.
• This effect is to provide turbine with more power in form of increased
head at low flow.
• It might result in speed up of turbine ⇒ turbine may operate above
best efficiency point making matter worse.

Example
• Consider a hydro scheme to provide 3kW to a village. Turbine has a full flow efficiency
of 70% and generator is 80% efficient when used between half and full power. Drive
system is 95% efficient. Assume for some of year there is only half power available
because of lack of rainfall and to get some power at this time might be useful. There is
also interest to get some power in driest month when only quarter flow is available.
Calculate:
1. Power input to turbine at full flow conditions.
2. Output power of generator at half flow.
3. And at quarter flow (ignore effect of change in penstock efficiency)
• Solution 1:
Full flow power input to turbine:
• Efficiency=output power/input power
• Input power = output power/efficiency
= 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟_______________
𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝜂 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑥 𝜂 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
= 3/(0.8 × 0.95 × 0.7) = 5.6 𝑘𝑊

Solution2:
• Consider bit worse case than part flow efficiency data for turbine.
• Suppose turbine is 60% efficient at half flow and 25% efficient at
quarter flow.
• Input power to turbine at half flow = 0.5 × 5.6 = 2.8𝑘𝑊
• Efficiency of turbine at half power = η(turb-0.5) = 0.6
• Power lost by drive at full power = loss (drive)
=turbine output x [1- ηdrive]
= (0.7 × 5.6) × (1 − 0.95) = 0.2 𝑘𝑊

• Efficiency of generator at half flow = η (gen-0.5) = 0.8

Solution2:
• Input power to generator at half flow = gen input (0.5)
=Turbine input (0.5) x η (turb—0.5) – loss (drive)
=2.8 x 0.6 - 0.2 = 1.5 kW
• Output power from generator at half flow
= gen input (0.5) x η (gen-0.5)
= 1.5 * 0.8 = 1.2 kW
• Reduction of efficiency from full power to half power
=output power from generator at half flow/ input power to turbine at half flow
= 1.2/2.8 = 42.8%
Solution2:
• Combined efficiency at full flow
• Input power to turbine at full flow = 5.6 kW
• Efficiency of turbine at full power = 0.7
• Power lost by drive = (0.7 × 5.6) × (1 − 0.95) = 0.2 𝑘𝑊
• Efficiency of generator = 80%
• Input power to generator at full flow = (5.6 × 0.7 − 0.2) = 3.72𝑘𝑊
• Output power form generator at full flow = 3.92 × 0.8 = 2.976
• Efficiency = 2.976/5.6 = 53.1%
• Reduction in efficiency from 53% at full flow to 43% at part flow
Solution 3:
• Turbine input at quarter flow = turbine input at quarter flow = 0.25 ×
5.6 = 1.4 𝑘𝑊
• Output power = [turbine input at quarter flow x turbine efficiency at
25% - drive loss ] x generator efficiency at 25%
= (1.4 × 0.25 − 0.2) × 0.6
= 0.1 𝑘𝑊
• Efficiency has reduced to (0.1/1.4) = 7%
• Remarks: It is unwise to promise village of any power during driest
month of year due to high losses.

Turbines Selection
• A turbine converts energy in the form of falling water into shaft power.
• The selection of the best turbine for any particular hydro site depends on the
site characteristics, the dominant factors being the head available and the
power required.
• It also depends on the speed at which it is desired to run the generator.
• Other considerations, such as whether or not the turbine will be expected to
produce power under part-flow conditions, also play an important role in the
selection.
• All turbines have a power-speed characteristic and an efficiency speed
characteristic.
• For a particular head they will tend to run most efficiently at a particular
speed, and require a particular flow rate.

Nomograph
• Nomogram is a chart
used to select turbine for
a suitable site.
• Nomogram allows to
choose shaft speed of
turbine and to calculate
when speed increasing
gear is required.

Nomogram using procedures
• From knowledge of propose site, head available, turbine output power is calculated.
• Turbine output power = η(turbine efficiency) x 10 x H x Q in kW
• η = 65 to 80 percent
• Choose desired turbine running speed (400 is slowest speed advised if alternator is
to be run at 1500 rpm).
• Draw a line from point of running speed which is at right angle to head power
line.
• Choose a turbine shaft speed of 1500 rpm for drive between turbine and generator
(50 Hz 4 pole system).

Nomogram using procedures
• The values of specific speed may be used to select turbines from charts.
• The relationship between head (H), turbine power (𝑃𝑡 ) and actual turbine
speed (𝑁𝑡 ) is expressed by the following equation which applies to all
turbines.
Where:
𝑁𝑠 = specific speed
𝑁𝑡 = actual turbine speed in rpm
𝑃𝑡 = turbine output power in kW
𝐻 = Head in metres
• Specific speed is a constant which describes a particular machine and can be
supplied by the turbine manufacturer

Example
• A scheme is planned with turbine output power as 3kW, head of 40m
and turbine speed of 500rpm. What the specific speed will be?

Nomogram – Speed
• Pelton turbine need not be

used for high head
always.
• For low power,
transmitted, pelton turbine
can run on low heads with
slow rotational speeds.

Nomogram – size of runner
• Can be used in determining size of
runner required for a turbine.
• Smaller the runner-faster rotation-less
gearing-low cost.
• Process:
• Decide the most suitable turbine
• Choose runner diameter
• Large runner generally more expensive
Nomogram for Estimate of approximate runner diameter

Range of specific speed by turbine type

Nomogram – Part flow turbine
• Turbines with methods of altering flow rate input of water.
• For example: multi-jet pelton can be run with some jet off.
• Crossflow and francis with guide vanes to alter water rate flow.
• Single pelton with spear valve which alters nozzle orifice area.
• Pelton could be run in wet season when flows are high with one
nozzle fitted.
• Pelton run in dry season at lower flow with second smaller nozzle.
• Constant head maintained with flow control devices to vary water
flow rate.

Nomogram – Part flow Turbine
These curves assume turbines which
have facilities for varying water flow
rate at constant head (for example,
spear valves or multiple jets on
Peltons, partition devices or flow
control vanes on crossflows).
• Pelton and cross flow retain high

efficiency running on low design.
• Francis drops in efficiency giving
low power output on half normal
flow.
• Propeller turbines very poor
except at 80 to 100% of full flow.
Part-flow efficiency of various turbines

Cost of Turbines
• Excluding alternator and drives
• Formula, Cost per kW in dollar :
$ 3500 − 4500
=
𝑘𝑊 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊)0.3 × (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑚 )0.15

Drive System
• Introduction to drive system
• Various drive arrangements and their features
• Drive problem
• Design parameters for a drive system

Drive system
• Drive system comprises⇒ shaft,
bearings, pulleys, belts, gear
boxes.
• Function: transmit power from
turbine to generator at correct
speed and direction.
• Must carry the required load.
• Must be assembled correctly
and receive maintenance for
smooth and long time operation.
Direct coupled drive system
• Compact, simple; efficiency approaches 100%
• Drive imposes no additional loads on bearings.
• Both turbine and generator may be bolted to
concrete foundation but metal packing is required
to bring both shafts to the same height.
• Alignment of shafts must be correct to prevent
failure of coupling or bearings.
• Flexible in-line coupling is needed because shaft
alignment is never perfect.
• The coupling may be made locally.
• No speed change between turbine and generator is
possible.

Wedge belt drive system (overhung shafts)
• An alternative arrangement could have flat belt
instead of wedge belts. Axes of both turbine and
generator could be vertical for both types of
belts.
• Generator is mounted on slide rails to obtain
belt tension.
• This drive applies loads to generator and turbine
bearings. Check that the bearings are adequate.
• Turbine and generator may run at different
speeds.
• Turbine and generator may be at different
heights, Shafts must be parallel and pulleys in
line but alignment is not as critical.
• Direction of rotation should pull on the lower
part of the belts.

Wedge belt drive system with extra bearings
• Alternative arrangement could have flat belt
instead of Wedge belts.
• Turbine may have an extra shaft and bearings as
shown for the generator.
• The generator extension shaft must be removable
from the bearings to enable belts to be changed.
• Turbine and generator may run at different speeds.
• Flexible in-line coupling required.
• Direction of rotation should pull on the lower part
of the belts.
• Belt tensioning must be achieved with a jockey
pulley or the generator with its extra shaft and
bearings must be mounted on a subframe which
can slide to obtain belt tension.

Quarter turn belt drive
• Alternative arrangement could have
wedge belts in place of flat belt.
• Generator mounted on slide rails to
obtain belt tension. This drive applies
loads to the generator and turbine
bearings. Check that the bearings are
adequate.
• Extra bearings, shafts and couplings
may be used.
• Turbine and generator pulleys must
be aligned with care.
• Not always permissible - consult
manufacturer.

Direct coupled turbine and geared motor used as
alternator
• The use of induction motors as alternators
can be considered.
• Geared motor units are available from
many manufacturers in wide ranges of
powers and speed ratios. Various types of
gears are used. Spur gears, helical gears
and bevel gears are suited to speed
increasing drives. Worms and worm
wheels are not suitable because they will
not run backwards.
• The cost of a geared motor unit is
significantly less than the cost of separate
motor and gearbox.
• The gearbox provides the speed change
between turbine and generator.

Turbine rotor mounted on generator shaft
• The turbine rotor would then
be mounted on the gearbox
shaft
• A very neat, trouble-free
installation results,
providing:
a. the speeds match;
b. the shaft is long enough
to give clearance
c. the bearings can tolerate
the side load of the
turbine.
Information Needed for Designing Drive System
1. Power to be transmitted by drive system
2. Speed ratio (if not in-line drive system be chosen)
3. Economy and reliability
4. Local availability, relative cost, transportation cost etc.
5. Belt width or number of belts for required power
6. Loads on shafts
7. Initial tension to be applied to the belts (Jockey pulley can be used if
necessary)
8. Lubrication of bearings

Procedure for design of a drive system
1. Calculate power transmitted by drive system
2. Calculate speed ratio between turbine shaft and alternator shaft
3. Choose most economic and reliable type of drive system
4. If a belt drive is chosen, decide whether to use a V-belt or flat belt. This will depend on local
condition- local availability, reliability of guarantees, relative cost and so on.
5. Calculate belt width or number of belts
6. Calculate the loads put onto the shafts by the belts when running under load.
7. Calculate whether the generator and turbine shaft bearings are sufficiently large to have an
adequate life. If not, decide whether the bearings can be modified or whether the extra shaft, bearing
and coupling should be used.
8. Calculate initial tension to be applied to the belts.
9. Decide how tension should be applied and monitored throughout the belt life
10. Decide how to keep the belts clean and dry from both oil and moisture while running
11. Decide what regular maintenance is required to ensure trouble free operation, what spare parts
should be kept in stock and how and when bearings
Turbines, should
Drive System be lubricated.
and Governors 118
Example
• An alternator rated at 50 kW output, 1500 rpm and 70% efficiency is
to be driven by a turbine running at 450 rpm. Which drive system
should be preferred?

Example

Example
• The following list indicates which drive arrangements should be considered:
1. Direct-coupled drive system
• unsuitable
2. Wedge belt drive system
• suitable
3. Wedge belt drive system with extra bearings
• suitable
4. Quarter turn belt drive
• suitable, however consult manufacturer.
5. Direct coupled turbine and geared motor used as an alternator
• suitable but expensive
6. Turbine rotor mounted on generator shaft
• unsuitable
• The system could utilise arrangement 2 but also 3 and 4 if necessary.
Example
• Using the information provided in previous example, the belt drive is to be selected.
• Turbine shaft speed =450rpm
• Generator shaft speed =1500rpm
• Therefore,
Speed ratio = 3.33 : 1 increasing
• Generator output =50kW
• Generator efficiency =70%
• Therefore,
Power transmitted = 71kW
Using,
Where P = power in watts and ω is angular speed in rpm

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Unit 3

Turbines, drive system and

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Direction of the flow According to specific According to speed

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• Also based on speed required to run generator or other device

• Also designed based on requirement to produce power under part

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• Firstly it follows from a drop in pressure from inlet to outlet of the

• Secondly changes in the directions of the velocity vectors of the flow

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Where 𝑐𝑣 is the coefficient of velocity of the nozzle, typically 0.9 - 0.97.

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Where, G is the required gear ratio.