FABRICATION AND ERECTION 2.

21

FIGURE 2.8 Tower crane on crawler-crane base.

On occasion, floorbeams located between the base of the derrick and guy anchorages must
be temporarily laterally supported to resist imposed compressive forces. Considerable tem-
porary bracing is required in a multistory structure when a climbing crane is used. This type
of crane imposes horizontal and vertical loads on the structure or its foundation. Loads are
also imposed on the structure when the crane is jumped to the next level. Usually, these
cranes jump about 6 floors at a time.
The sequence of placing the members of a multistory structure is, in general, columns,
girders, bracing, and beams. The exact order depends on the erection equipment and type
of framing. Planning must ensure that all members can be erected and that placement of one
member does not prohibit erection of another.
Structural steel is erected by ‘‘ironworkers’’ who perform a multitude of tasks. The ground
crew selects the proper members to hook onto the crane and directs crane movements in
delivering the piece to the ‘‘connectors.’’ The connectors direct the piece into its final lo-
cation, place sufficient temporary bolts for stability, and unhitch the crane. Regulations gen-
erally require a minimum of two bolts per connection or equivalent, but more should be
used if required to support heavy pieces or loads that may accumulate before the permanent
connection is made.
A ‘‘plumbing-up’’ (fitting-up crew), following the connectors, aligns the beams, plumbs
the columns, and installs whatever temporary wire-rope bracing is necessary to maintain
alignment. Following this crew are the gangs who make the permanent connection. This
work, which usually follows several stories behind member erection, may include tightening
high-strength bolts or welding connections. An additional operation usually present is placing
and welding metal deck to furnish a working floor surface for subsequent operations. Safety
codes require planking surfaces 25 to 30 ft (usually two floors) below the erection work
2.22 SECTION TWO

FIGURE 2.9 Variations of the tower crane: (a) kangaroo; (b) hammerhead; (c) climbing crane.
 FABRICATION AND ERECTION 2.23

FIGURE 2.9 (Continued )

above. For this reason, deck is often spread on alternate floors, stepping back to spread the
skipped floor after the higher floor is spread, thus allowing the raising gang to move up to
the next tier. This is one reason why normal columns are two floors high.
In field-welded multistory buildings with continuous beam-to-column connections, the
procedure is slightly different from that for bolted work. The difference is that the welded
structure is not in its final alignment until beam-to-column connections are welded because
of shrinkage caused by the welds. To accommodate the shrinkage, the joints must be opened
up or the beams must be detailed long so that, after the welds are made, the columns are
pulled into plumb. It is necessary, therefore, to erect from the more restrained portion of the
framing to the less restrained. If a structure has a braced center core, that area will be erected
first to serve as a reference point, and steel will be erected toward the perimeter of the
structure. If the structure is totally unbraced, an area in the center will be plumbed and
temporarily braced for reference. Welding of column splices and beams is done after the
structure is plumbed. The deck is attached for safety as it is installed, but final welding of
deck and installation of studs and closures is completed after the tier is plumbed.

2.15 ERECTION PROCEDURE FOR BRIDGES

Bridges are erected by a variety of methods. The choice of method in a particular case is
influenced by type of structure, length of span, site conditions, manner in which material is
delivered to the site, and equipment available. Bridges over navigable waterways are some-
times limited to erection procedures that will not inhibit traffic flow; for example, falsework
may be prohibited.
Regardless of erection procedure selected, there are two considerations that override all
others. The first is the security and stability of the structure under all conditions of partial
construction, construction loading, and wind loading that will be encountered during erection.
The second consideration is that the bridge must be erected in such a manner that it will
perform as intended. For example, in continuous structures, this can mean that jacks must
2.24 SECTION TWO

be used on the structure to effect the proper stress distribution. These considerations will be
elaborated upon later as they relate to erection of particular types of bridges.
Simple-beam bridges are often erected with a crawler or truck crane. Bridges of this
type generally require a minimal amount of engineering and are put up routinely by an
experienced erector. One problem that does occur with beam spans, however, and especially
composite beam spans, arises from lateral instability of the top flange during lifting or before
placement of permanent bracing. Beams or girders that are too limber to lift unbraced require
temporary compression-flange support, often in the form of a stiffening truss. Lateral support
also may be provided by assembling two adjacent members on the ground with their bracing
or cross members and erecting the assembly in one piece. Beams that can be lifted unbraced
but are too limber to span alone also can be handled in pairs. Or it may be necessary to
hold them with the crane until bracing connections can be made.
Continuous-beam bridges are erected in much the same way as simple-beam bridges.
One or more field splices, however, will be present in the stringers of continuous beams.
With bolted field splices, the holes in the members and connection material have been reamed
in the shop to insure proper alignment of the member. With a welded field splice, it is
generally necessary to provide temporary connection material to support the member and
permit adjustment for alignment and proper positioning for welding. For economy, field
splices should be located at points of relatively low bending moment. It is also economical
to allow the erector some option regarding splice location, which may materially affect
erection cost. The arrangement of splices in Fig. 2.10a, for example, will require, if falsework
is to be avoided, that both end spans be erected first, then the center spans. The splice
arrangement shown in Fig. 2.10b will allow erection to proceed from one end to the other.
While both arrangements are used, one may have advantages over the other in a particular
situation.
Horizontally curved girder bridges are similar to straight-girder bridges except for tor-
sional effects. If use of falsework is to be avoided, it is necessary to resist the torques by
assembling two adjacent girders with their diaphragms and temporary or permanent lateral
bracing and erect the assembly as a stable unit. Diaphragms and their connections must be
capable of withstanding end moments induced by girder torques.
Truss bridges require a vast amount of investigation to determine the practicability of a
desired erection scheme or the limitations of a necessary erection scheme. The design of
truss bridges, whether simple or continuous, generally assumes that the structure is complete
and stable before it is loaded. The erector, however, has to impose dead loads, and often

FIGURE 2.10 Field splices in girder bridges.

 FABRICATION AND ERECTION 2.25

live loads, on the steel while the structure is partly erected. The structure must be erected
safely and economically in a manner that does not overstress any member or connection.
Erection stresses may be of opposite sign and of greater magnitude than the design
stresses. When designed as tension members but subjected to substantial compressive erec-
tion stresses, the members may be braced temporarily to reduce their effective length. If
bracing is impractical, they may be made heavier. Members designed as compression mem-
bers but subjected to tensile forces during erection are investigated for adequacy of area of
net section where holes are provided for connections. If the net section is inadequate, the
member must be made heavier.
Once an erection scheme has been developed, the erection engineer analyzes the structure
under erection loads in each erection stage and compares the erection stresses with the design
stresses. At this point, the engineer plans for reinforcing or bracing members, if required.
The erection loads include the weights of all members in the structure in the particular
erection stage and loads from whatever erection equipment may be on the structure. Wind
loads are added to these loads.
In addition to determining member stresses, the erection engineer usually calculates re-
actions for each erection stage, whether they be reactions on abutments or piers or on false-
work. Reactions on falsework are needed for design of the falsework. Reactions on abutments
and piers may reveal a temporary uplift that must be provided for, by counterweighting or
use of tie-downs. Often, the engineer also computes deflections, both vertical and horizontal,
at critical locations for each erection stage to determine size and capacity of jacks that may
be required on falsework or on the structure.
When all erection stresses have been calculated, the engineer prepares detailed drawings
showing falsework, if needed, necessary erection bracing with its connections, alterations
required for any permanent member or joint, installation of jacks and temporary jacking
brackets, and bearing devices for temporary reactions on falsework. In addition, drawings
are made showing the precise order in which individual members are to be erected.
Figure 2.11 shows the erection sequence for a through-truss cantilever bridge over a
navigable river. For illustrative purpose, the scheme assumes that falsework is not permitted
in the main channel between piers and that a barge-mounted crane will be used for steel
erection. Because of the limitation on use of falsework, the erector adopts the cantilever
method of erection. The plan is to erect the structure from both ends toward the center.
Note that top chord U13-U14, which is unstressed in the completed structure, is used as
a principal member during erection. Note also that in the suspended span all erection stresses
are opposite in sign to the design stresses.
As erection progresses toward the center, a negative reaction may develop at the abutments
(panel point LO). The uplift may be counteracted by tie-downs to the abutment.
Hydraulic jacks, which are removed after erection has been completed, are built into the
chords at panel points U13, L13, and U13⬘. The jacks provide the necessary adjustment to
allow closing of the span. The two jacks at U13 and L13 provide a means of both horizontal
and vertical movement at the closing panel point, and the jack at U13⬘ provides for vertical
movement of the closing panel point only.

2.16 FIELD TOLERANCES

Permissible variations from theoretical dimensions of an erected structure are specified in

the AISC ‘‘Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges.’’ It states that vari-
ations are within the limits of good practice or erected tolerance when they do not exceed
the cumulative effect of permissible rolling and fabricating and erection tolerances. These
tolerances are restricted in certain instances to total cumulative maximums.
The AISC ‘‘Code of Standard Practice’’ has a descriptive commentary that fully outlines
and explains the application of the mill, fabrication, and erection tolerances for a building