Filosofia Theoretica: Journal of African Philosophy, Culture and Religions

Igbo Eschatology and Environmentalism

https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ft.v10i2.6
Submission: October 13, 2020 Acceptance: September 5, 2021

Anthony Uzochukwu UFEAROH

Department of Philosophy, University of Calabar
Nigeria
E-mail: au.ufearoh@unizik.edu.ng; tonito2006@yahoo.co.uk
ORCID: 0000-0003-2617-6808

Abstract
The present work sets out to examine the intersection between Igbo eschatology
and environmentalism. It seeks to determine how the tenets of Igbo eschatology
impact on environmental conservation. The approach is conversational. Given that
the work centers on a particular cultural area, an ethnic nationality in West Africa
with unique cultural symbols, the paper also employs the tool of hermeneutics. It
is discovered that the Igbo eschatology is characteristically this-worldly, cyclic
and perceives human existence as continuous given the possibility of
reincarnation. Accordingly, it impacts a sense of permanence or semi-immortality
on the evanescent earthly existence thus rendering the optimism or motivation
which environmentalism, a futuristic endeavor, demands. This is unlike an
otherworldly, linear and terminal eschatology which forecloses the possibility of
continuous existence and demotivates for the care of the environment. Secondly,
given the animistic and this-worldly orientation, the symbolic presence of the
eschata (new realities) such as the ancestors and spirits in the mundane world
elevates the status and compels respect and care for nature or the environment.
The paper therefore submits that the Igbo eschatology is pro-environmentalism.

Key Words: Igbo eschatology, this-worldly, cyclic, ancestorship, respect for

nature and pro-environmentalism.

Introduction
The world has been recently hit by a global Covid-19 Pandemic leaving in its trail
despair, desolation and deaths. The preponderance of deaths in this situation
contemporaneously evokes sublime reflection on the human ultimate destiny and
that of the environment in which we live. For some authors like Kevin Behrens,
as threatening as the phenomenon of diseases like Ebola, influenza or Covid-19
might appear, “these are yet as serious and worrying and pale into insignificance
in comparison to one single threat to humanity and our world, the threat of
ecological disaster” (2017, 191). How does eschatology, which concerns life after
death impact on the human effort to conserve the environment? “Amidst the
global search for A new sustainability paradigm that would challenge both the
viability and desirability of conventional values, (RASKIN 2002, x), the present
work dialogically explores, from Igbo-African prism, the above two prevalent
issues of death cum life-after-death (eschatology) and environmentalism in search
of positive intersections that could enhance human-nature relationship

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Notwithstanding Africa’s rich flora and fauna, and the claim to be “incurably
religious” (GYEKYE 2013, 222 – 223); (Parrinder 1962, 9), much remains to be
done in the areas of African religious/spiritual environmentalism, eco-philosophy
and eco-theology. Is Igbo-African belief about life-after-death/eschatology
motivational enough to effectively fecundate positive dispositions and care for the
environment? The role of spirituality in the quest for sustainable environment can
never be over-emphasized. Paul Raskin, for instance, outlines four agents of
sustainability paradigm and tips the spiritual communities as the most critical:

Four major agents of change, acting synergistically, could drive a new

sustainability paradigm. Three are global actors—intergovernmental
organizations, transnational corporations and civil society acting through
non-governmental organizations and spiritual communities. The fourth is
less tangible, but is the critical underlying element. (2002, x)

The above citation underscores the justification for the present paper which
explores the traditional Igbo-African belief in life-after-death in view of
determining how it could serve to enhance environmentalism. This, in a way, is an
effort to articulate religious environmentalism as perceived ‘through African
eyes,’ nay environmentalism that is congruent to Igbo-African worldview.
The conversational approach is a relatively nascent but bourgeoning
method in African philosophy and African studies in general. ‘Nascent’ in this
context must be understood from the point of view of axiomatization of the
method. This is because the spirit of dialogue that approximates conversationalism
had always undergirded traditional African approach to issues from the ancient
time. The present work is a conversational engagement on the two realities of Igbo
eschatology and environmentalism; it engages extant texts on the issues. The
primary source incorporates some West African literature (novels), which
showcases life in Igbo traditional social setting and thus provides substrates for
philosophical gurgitation. The work examines how the Igbo eschatological
symbols and values impact on human-nature relationship.
In the first section, I will discuss the concept of Igbo eschatology as
shaped by Igbo cosmology and ontology. The second section x-rays the key
eschata which include death, ancestorship and reincarnation. A bird’s eye view of
Igbo concept of time and history is presented in section three, as eschatology
concerns the ultimate end of time and history. The third section discusses the
concept of environmentalism and critically explores the intersections between Igbo
eschatology and environmentalism. The work concludes by arguing that Igbo
eschatology is pro-environmentalism.

Igbo Eschatology
The present section is a discourse on Igbo eschatology and is partly hermeneutic
in approach. The term hermeneutics comes from the Greek word hermeneuein
meaning to interpret. In a general sense, hermeneutics is the art of interpretation.
It is here deployed to explain some of the concepts in the paper. The present paper,
for two major reasons, avoids delving into an elaborate exposition on the
beginnings or evolution of hermeneutics in the ancient Greek philosophy to
Friedrich Schleiermacher, the father of hermeneutics who, not only shifted the

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focus of hermeneutics from the content or object to the interpreting mind but also
widened the scope of hermeneutics to incorporate not just religious but also social,
historical and psychological interpretation. First, is on account of want of space.
Secondly, and on a more serious note, is that this paper leans heavily on
conversationalism which anchors on conversation rather than interpretation
(CHIMAKONAM 2021, 42). Their points of divergence and convergence have
been well elaborated by Chimakonam (2021).
The term ‘eschatology’ refers to the beliefs about the ultimate future or
life after death. It encompasses events surrounding the end of the world (death,
catastrophe, heaven, hell, et cetera). Richard Landes (2016, NP), proffers a
definition that is wider in scope. According to him, “In the history of religion, the
term eschatology refers to conceptions of the last things: immortality of the soul,
rebirth,resurrection, migration of the soul, and the end of time. Judith Wolfe (2013
, 7) defines it as the study of the eschata or last/new things: death, judgment, heave
n, and hell.” An enumeration of the key eschata from Igbo-African perspective
will include not only death but also ancestorship and reincarnation which are core
issues in Igbo eschatology. The word ‘eschatology’ is a combination of two Greek
words ‘eschaton’ (meaning end or final, new) and ‘logos’ (meaning word,
discourse, issues). Literally, eschatology means ‘discourse concerning the end of
the world’ or about things that will happen in the future life. This is to say that
eschatology entails future life or life after-death. It is a spiritual phenomenon that
transcends the present existence, yet linked to same. A materialist understanding
of the human person as solely or exclusive composition of matter and neurons that
yield to destruction and decomposition at death simply forecloses the discourse on
eschatology. This position however, may not be sustainable as it amounts to
absolute reductionism. Almost every religion has something to say about death
and life-after-death but the particularities may differ.
Our discourse on eschatology here revolves around the human person and
the created order or nature/cosmos and its conservation. According to Judith
Wolfe, eschatology “is not so much a system of beliefs as an attitude to the
future” ( 2013, 7).With the promise of reward or punishment in life-after-death,
eschatological belief, not only influence the moral choices in the present life but
also motivates or demotivates the adherents to actions especially those affecting
the environment. It also creates the disposition that would either make or mar
human relationship with the non-human entities.
The Igbo, one of the three major ethnic nationalities in Nigeria,
predominantly occupy the five South Eastern states. Theirs is a neo-traditional
society with a religious culture that presently comprises of novum et vetera (new
and old elements). The novel aspect refers to the foreign imperial Christianity that
has succeeded in gaining what one may call superficial dominance within the
region whereas the old refers to the resilient indigenous and animistic Igbo
traditional religion which continues to exert powerful influence over the people.
Geofffery Parrinder remarks that, “not only do the majority of Africans still hold
to the traditional religion of their fathers, but also behind the veneer of the new
beliefs of most educated people lie older ideas that will not disappear for a long
time yet” (1962,10). This resilience is observed in the Igbo traditional belief and
attitude towards death and life after death.

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Accordingly, the belief in life-after-death forms part and parcel of Igbo-

African traditional religion. Theirs is this-worldly, communal, cyclic and
optimistic eschatology. The Igbo eschatology is better appreciated from the
background of Igbo cosmology and ontology. Cosmology here refers to an
individual’s or group’s perception of the origin, structure, mechanisms of the
cosmos or the world. This shapes or informs the logic that undergirds a person’s
or group’s general attitudes to life; their ways of being-in-the-world. The Igbo-
African cosmology broadly divides the world into two interdependent visible and
invisible, material and spiritual realms that shade into each other thus constituting
a single unity. There are tripartite membership of Igbo cosmology which consists
of the living, the dead (the living-dead in John Mbiti’s language (1971, 30) and the
yet-unborn. The spiritual realm is the realm of the gods, ancestors, the living-dead,
the unborn and other spiritual entities not visible to human naked eyes (though
visible to those whose eyes have been spiritually reinforced) whereas the visible
realm is that of the human and all other existing empirical entities. These two
realms overlap. Jawanze E. Clark describes the African cosmology (of which Igbo
cosmology is a subset) in these words:

Indigenous African thought systems convey the perspective that the

world consists of two essential realities constituting a single unity: the
visible and the invisible worlds. These realities are not metaphysically or
ontologically distinct but only represent a distinction in perception and
the perceivability of the particular observer. The spiritual or invisible
reality comprises entities that are imperceptible to the naked eye but exist
within the same temporal/spatial realm as visible human beings. (2012,
75)
The Igbo worldview abhors the dualistic dichotomy or binary opposition that
polarizes realities into sacred/profane, material/spiritual etc. This opinion finds an
echo in Swami Vivekananda (1989, 519) who writes that, “In reality, the
metaphysical and the physical universe are one.” For Clark (2012, 77), “In many
traditional African societies, however, this value-laden, stark dichotomy between
the spiritual and material does not exist. The two cosmological realities, the visible
and invisible, exist within the same spatiotemporal realm.” Meanwhile, the
dichotomy between the spiritual and material, reason and emotion, mind and body
in Western tradition, has unfortunately, served to provide a footing for the
denigration of nature or nonhuman entities. This is a topic for another day.
Conversely, the immanence of the supernatural in the natural; the fluidity
and seamless interpenetration or interplay between the spiritual and the physical,
the sacred and the profane in Igbo tradition partly account for the respect accorded
to the natural environment. Clark (2012,77) affirms that, “generally speaking,
West African religions share belief in an African worldview that does not
denigrate, and render inferior, the body, as in mainline expressions of the Western
Christian tradition, but the body is often the vehicle, or the instrument, through

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which spiritual entities make their presence felt in the visible world.” The above
cosmology as we shall see, informs the characteristic eco-based nature of Igbo
eschatology. This also synchronizes with Landes’ opinion that, “Authentic
eschatology is neither world-denying pessimism nor unbridled faith in progress”
(2016, N.P). Igbo eschatology, though a spiritual phenomenon, has material
trappings.
The Igbo ontology is aptly captured with the concept of vital force which
underlies every reality in the Igbo world. The forces are hierarchically structured
but mutually interpenetrating and interdependent. Both human and nonhuman
entities share in the common or the fundamental Urstuff. “Considerable closeness
exists between humans, the natural world and transcendent Reality” (GOSLING
2001, 32). This is unlike Christian ontology that arrogates to man ‘special breath’
from the God and the unique status of being created in ‘image of God,’ to the
abysmal exclusion of nonhuman entities.
The Igbo eschatology is believed to unfold within the ambient of the
immediate/present spatio-temporal milieu and not au delá (over there). The living-
dead are believed to share the world with humans. The eschata (singular: eschaton:
future/new realities) comprise the quotidian existential realities around us. In other
words, there is no radically new heaven or earth as obtainable in some religions.
There is no impending cataclysm that would debut the eschatological interruption
of time and history and finally result to ultimate destruction of the present world
and usher in a new world. The concept of a radical new earth is lacking in Igbo
eschatology. The dead are joyfully ushered into the spiritual realm of the ancestors
with music and dancing in the hope of possible reincarnation. This implies that
Igbo eschatology promises the stability and permanence which can motivate one to
conserve the environment or natural world. The eschatological issues of death,
ancestorship and reincarnation, including the concepts of history and time are vital
in the discourse on Igbo eschatology.

Death, Ancestorship and Reincarnation

For the Igbo people, life is a continuum. “The dead are not dead” (CLARK 2012,
127). Does this proposition not contravene the basic principle of excluded middle,
P ∨ ¬P, one may ask? Mbiti describes the dead as the ‘living dead,’ “for they are
dead in the in body, but alive in spirit and in the memories of their surviving
relatives” (1971, 30). In the first place, the Igbo understand death as a transition to
“the metaphysical ancestral (spiritual) home [which] is the dream of every living
traditional African person, death is perceived as a catalyst for the realization of life
hereafter” (IGBAFEN 2017, 246). Martin Heidegger, whom Judith Wolfe
(2013, 7-8), refers to as “indispensable for any further serious work on the relation
between eschatology and ordinary existence,” opines that death is one of the key
existential characteristics of the Dasein: “But as something of the character of
Dasein, death is only in an existential Being towards death [Sein zum Tode]”
(1962, 277). This is in consonance with the Igbo understanding about death. The
Igbo thanatology however parts way with Heidegger and most Western
existentialists who hold the opinion that death confronts man with his finitude.

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Heidegger (1962, 282), for instance concludes that, “The deceased has abandoned
our world and left it behind.” On the contrary, the Igbo believe that the dead have
not abandoned our world. It is believed that the dead are actively involved in the
affairs of the living. Clark (2013,10) confirms that, the “idea of the ancestor, the
completely fulfilled human being, a disembodied spiritual existence in which one
is granted increased power and authority over the daily affairs of the living, visible
community.” This underscores the significant status of the dead in the Igbo-
African culture.
The ultimate dream and hope of every Igbo traditional religionist is to
join the league of ancestors at death. This is achieved by living a virtuous life in
harmonious relationship with the gods, and every other existing entity, human and
non-human alike as the measure of good life and moral personhood also extends to
human relationship with the non-human entities. Indeed, joining the league of
ancestors paves way for higher role among the living, as already noted above.
“The ancestors can, and often do affect reality in our spatial/temporal order in very
practical and pragmatic ways. They can heal the body of diseases and improve
bodily functions, or they can cause injury or bodily harm if moral obligations are
breached” (CLARK 2013, 76). This clearly shows that the dead is actively
involved in the affairs of the living.
This-worldly character of Igbo eschatology is partly portrayed by
symbolic presence of the ancestors in the mundane world. For Clark, “The
ancestors do not reside in a place of static perfection. On the contrary, they live in
our world and impact our physical realities” (2013, 77). The ancestors are
symbolically represented in the Igbo masquerades. These are regarded as
‘ancestors-come-alive.’ Chinua Achebe (1959, 29) captures it well as he describes
the masquerade saying, “The spirits of the ancestors, just emerged from the earth.”
In his novel Arrow of God, Achebe (1964, 21) wrote that, “Ezeulu’s first son,
Edogo, had left home early that day to finish the mask he was carving for a new
ancestral spirit.” The logical and ecological consequence of the symbolic presence
of the holy ancestors and manifestation of same in the material world is the
attendant respect and reverence for nature or the material world. Clark succinctly
articulates this point:

Additionally, the indigenous African has a different relationship with

nature than that which is typical of Western Christians. Nature, in African
cosmology, is not the object of humans and thus should not be, and is not,
subject to his/her domination and control. Nature is also the home of
invisible/spiritual entities. The lesser deities, as well as the ancestors
themselves, are, from time to time, said to reside in certain aspects of
nature: trees, rocks, rivers, brushes, and streams. Nature, then, is to be
respected and honored, for it is the residence of spiritual agents that have
more power and often exhibit more authority than human beings. Kwesi
Dickson, Ghanaian theologian, reminds us, “Generally speaking, the
environment has a special meaning for the African; he loves the
environment. (2013, 77)
From the above citation, it becomes apparent that this-worldly character and the
presence of eschatological realities (eschata) command respect for the mundane
material world and makes for improved human-nature relationship.

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The hope of continued existence after death which equally invigorates

optimism in conserving the environment is all the more reinforced by the Igbo
belief in reincarnation which is also premised on virtuous life. Arinze (2008, 31)
avers that, “there is a belief in reincarnation. Two forms are known: igbanje
(repeat) for children and ino uwa (return to the world) for older people…with
regard [to] ino uwa, only the good progenitors are believed to reincarnate.” The
belief in reincarnation is expressed in such personal names like “Nnenna” ( Iyabo
in Yoruba) which simply means that “my father’s mother), Okumabia (my
treasure, that is, the one I cherish has come once more) etc. “The spirits of good
children are said to inhabit the silk cotton and other sacred trees and places waiting
to be born” (Achebe 1957,15). Though the phenomenon of reincarnation raises a
lot of metaphysical questions, it guarantees hope of immortality and sense of
permanence of the material world for the believers. This motivates for the care of
the environment knowing full well that the effort will not be in vain. Avner de-
Shalit (1995) devoted his book, Why Posterity Matters, to justify the reason for
factoring in the future generation in matters that affect the environment. Such
justification is simply superfluous in the Igbo setting. The unborn or future
generation share in the membership of Igbo communal family. Secondly, the fact
of reincarnation potentially places one among the category of future generation.
Care for the environment thus becomes care for one’s future home. The Igbo also
believe that one can gain semi-immortality not only through reincarnation but also
through one’s offspring. This belief establishes inextricable ecological link
between the present and future generation. The semi-immortality is premised on
the concept of time that is understood to be a continuum as there is no radical
‘eschatological interruption’ of time or ultimate end of time.

Igbo Concept of Time and History

The Igbo concept of time and history are vital in the discourse on Igbo
eschatology. The importance of the metaphysics of time and history lies in the fact
that it attempts to speculatively give meaning to human existence here and human
destiny hereafter. In the present discourse history is referenced in view of its
significance in eschatology and to human-nature relationship. ‘Time’ remains one
of the most elusive concepts in philosophy. The great medieval African thinker,
Augustine, in his Confessions, interjects: “What then is time? Provided that no one
asks me, I know. If I want to explain it to an inquirer, I do not know. But I
confidently affirm myself to know that if nothing passes away, there is no past
time, and if nothing arrives, there is no future time, and if nothing existed there
would be no present time” (1991, NP). This is a popular citation from Augustine’s
Confessions highlighting the ambiguity that trails the concept of time.
Mbiti, in his work entitled, New Testament Eschatology in an African
Background (1971, 30), proffered what one may call the most controversial
concept of time. He was of the opinion that the African concept of time lacks
future dimension. This submission has attracted many rebuttals from some

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prominent African philosophers and theologians. Byang Kato (1975), accused

Mbiti of over-generalization. Kwame Gyekye (1987,176), not only criticized Mbiti
but went further to raise the vital point about divination in traditional Africa
culture as a pointer to the African sense of future just as Masolo (1994 ,111)
appealed to African conception of God as an infinite being. Gyekye (1987, 176)
states categorically that, “divination is essentially or primarily about the future,
and that whether this future is an immediate or a distant one depends on the nature
of the event or act.’ Meanwhile, divination is a prevalent phenomenon in Igbo
culture. Chinua Achebe (1995, 5) wrote about “the famous Oracle called Agbala,
which people came from far and near to consult to discover what the future held
for them or to consult the spirits of their departed fathers.” This portrays sense of
future. Accordingly, the Igbo believe, visualize, and plan for better tomorrow.
They are progressive minded and not always contented with the given, they probe
further. A popular maxim in the Igbo society says: “Nke echi ka,” (tomorrow is
greater). The above disposition propels the people to work hard to better any given
condition including that of the environment.
The social and cyclic nature of time deserves attention. Oliver Onwubiko
(1991, 25) is of the opinion that, “in the African culture, time is polychromous in
the sense that a person can do three or more things within a given period but
simultaneously.” In the traditional African setting, time was highly socialized.
Could this have been due to absence of highly calibrated measures or instruments?
Then, time and seasons were reckoned with social activities and natural events.
Such natural rhythms include: rising and setting of the sun, elongation and
diminution of the shadow, cock crow, flight or sighting of certain birds, sprouting
and flowering of certain grasses, plants, etc. This opinion finds an echo in Mbiti
who wrote that, time is “reckoned according to the major events: rising up,
milking cattle, herding, working in the fields, driving cattle to the watering places,
returning home for the night … and going to sleep (1971, 29). The traditional
Igbo lunar calendar has twenty eight days per month and four days per week. The
four days in questions equally constitutes the market days: Eke, Orie, Afo, and
Nkwo.
The circular sequence and rotation of the market days exemplifies the
Igbo circular notion of time and history. Borrowing from the sequence of cosmic
events such as sun rise and sun set, dry and rainy seasons and some human
physiological and biological sequence such as female menstrual cycle which
occurs after 28/29 days as if synchronizing with lunar cycles, cycles of birth and
death, etc., the traditional Igbo society, like most primeval societies, share a
circular concept of time and history. “That is why it is easy for some to think that a
cyclical conception of history is exclusively "African," or as existing only in
"primal"cultures,” concludes Emma Eze (2008, 30). Mbiti equally emphasized the
cyclic rhythm in human life, which knows neither end nor radical alteration (197,
29). Richard Landes (2016, web) affirms that, “In religions outside the biblical
tradition, there is no “end” but rather a cyclic pattern of cosmic destruction and
rebirth.” This aptly captures the traditional Igbo concept of time.

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The Igbo metaphysics of history is rooted in the Igbo conception of

reality. Generally, the Igbo, and indeed Africans have dynamic understanding of
reality or ontology as contrasted with western static ontology. For the African,
“being is force and force (energy) is being.” Tempels (1959, 30) categorically
states: “All
beings in the universe possess vital force of their own: human, animal, vegetable,
or inanimate.” Innocent Asouzu’s concept of “missing link” could be interpreted
to mean that one historical event in one way or the other, links to another (2004).
Drawing from the above ontology, historical development revolves around the
dynamic principle of strengthening and diminution of vital force which is the basic
constituent of reality or all that exists. This seems to be in consonance with the
common observation whereby history rises and falls. For the African, according
to Francis Ogunmodede, “history is not static or cyclical but a linear, living and
dynamic reality…African history is the expression of all the achievements and
failures of the African as experienced by him down the ages” (2001, 9). Opinions
may vary as to whether history is linear or cyclic. It is however clear that history is
here understood as a continuum whose cosmic end and resurgence is ritually
celebrated. The Igbo annual ritual of Ichu afo (an annual ritual which bids the
outgoing year farewell and welcomes the New Year) commemorates this cosmic
rebirth.
The above traditional Igbo concept of time and history “with cosmic
worldview that suggests a yearly renewal of the earth” (JAMIESON 2001, 293),
might seem mythic and so undeserving of rigorous academic attention as Mbiti
would want us to believe. Secondly, it presents time as having independent
existence and lasting ad infinitum. A basic principle of metaphysics states that:
quidquid initium habet, finem habet (whatever has a beginning has an end). If
“time comes into being at the instant of the world’s creation, because it pertains
only to transient things that change and die”
(Conybeare 2016, 124), as Augustine’s philosophy of history is
wont us to believe, how then can time run independently and endlessly? Thirdly, la
cking rigorous analytic luster, the metaphysics of history, according to Karl Poppe
r, could impede the application of the piecemeal methods of science to the
problems of social reform and development” (2013, xliii). The above demerits
notwithstanding, the Igbo concept of time and history upon which the Igbo
eschatology builds, pragmatically arrests the evanescent of time and instills some
measure of stability in the world. It shows that time and history are not heading
toward a terminus. This guarantees the optimism needed for environmental
sustainability as it creates a sense of permanence or what one may call semi-
immortality amidst evanescent time.
The Igbo cyclic eschatology sharply contrasts with Christian eschatology
especially that of New Testament which is linear in its progression and builds on
somewhat Platonic-Augustinian cosmology that polarizes into two unequal parts
of true, perfect and unchanging celestial world of Forms and false, imperfect and
changing terrestrial world. The realities of the world of Forms (the celestial world)

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are static, eternal and reliable whereas the realities of the present terrestrial world
are illusive, temporal and unreliable as they are subject to corruption and
annihilation. Augustine in the medieval era presents a polarized cosmology in his
De Civitate Dei and De Civitate Terrena (The City of God and the Earthly City).
The relegation of the earthly city in the above cosmology tells negatively on the
terrestrial realm which is the ecosystem. The temporal and illusive nature of the
terrestrial world does not motivate towards sustainable environment. In the
biblical account of creation too, man was created in the image and likeness of
God, but such was not said of other nonhuman entities. This account equally
derogates the natural world.
Furthermore, the New Testament presents a cataclysmic eschatology,
which debuts with destruction of the present cosmic order and promises entirely
new eschata, nay a radically new world which, “ eye has not seen, nor ear heard,
neither human mind conceived” (1 Corinthians 2:9). The New Testament is replete
with statements that emphasize this cataclysmic eschatology: “If our earthly
habitation is destroyed, we have a building from God, an eternal house in heaven,
not built by human hands (2 Corinthians 5:1). “For when they shall say, peace and
safety; then sudden destruction cometh upon them, as travail upon a woman with
child; and they shall not escape” (I Thessalonians 5:3). Even the sun which is the
major source of energy to the ecosystem is not spared as it will be turned into
darkness (Acts 2:20) and the moon will not give its light, and the stars will fall
from the sky, and the powers of the heavens will be shaken (24:29). Then comes
the most pessimistic aspect of the New Testament eschatology: the total
annihilation of the present cosmos and arrival of a radically different new world:
Then I saw “a new heaven and a new earth,” for the first heaven and the first earth
had passed away, and there was no longer any sea” (Revelation 21:2). The above
picture creates “eschatological unrest” as it projects an end that is inimical to the
continued authentic existence of the world,” (WOLFE 2013, 2). It simply
demotivates the effort towards sustainable environment.

What is Environmentalism?
The present section focuses on the meaning of environmentalism in view of
exploring the complementarity between environmentalism and Igbo eschatology
via the deployment of the tool of conversational method. Environmentalism in its
various incarnations (intellectual/conceptual, process, aesthetic, political,
ideological, religious, etc.), is fundamentally concerned with maintaining healthy
and sustainable relationship among the entities in an ecosystem. The human-nature
relationship is the focus here. It seeks the conservation of non-human entities and
calls for respect and care for same. “Concern about the human impact upon the
natural world is the focus of different expressions of environmentalism,”
(TOMALIN 2009, 91). Remarkably, environmentalism is future oriented and in a
way teleological. Hence, the famous Heideggerian maxim “letting being be” rings
a bell in the ear of purveyors of environmentalism (1977, 104). Stable and
continuous flow of time gives hope that the effort spent on conserving the
environment would not amount to wasted effort. Such hope is guaranteed even
beyond the grave by the Igbo eschatology. On the contrary, any form of
eschatology that advocates imminent end of the world or cataclysmic interruption
of time and history becomes inimical to the ideals of environmentalism.

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Religious belief is one of the major tools employed in safeguarding the

natural environment in traditional African society. Francis Diawuo and Abdul
Karim Issifu acknowledges that, “Before the advent of modern natural resource
conservation, traditional societies operated a complex religious and cultural belief
systems via norms, myths, taboos, totems and closed seasons to preserve, conserve
and manage certain natural resources” (2018, 209). African philosophers and
theologians are yet to sufficiently explore the significant role the traditional
religion plays in the conservation of the environment. The present work is an
attempt to examine the implications of Igbo eschatology for environmentalism.

Igbo Eschatology and Environmentalism: A Conversational Engagement

A dialogical examination of the intersections between Igbo eschatology and enviro
nmentalism presents one with points of complementarity that could serve to
fecundate sustainable environmentalism. Meanwhile, prima facie, it may seem that
the concept of eschatology, belief in the future life that comes after death and a
spiritual phenomenon that falls within the ambience of faith and speculation, is far
removed from our quotidian and mundane affairs. The phenomenon of
eschatology thus seem to poses big challenge for the human mind because it
somewhat defies empirical analysis. Immanuel Kant (2013, 186) doubts the
capacity of the human faculty of cognition to meddle with such issues that are “not
an object of our sensuous intuition.” He argues that our knowledge of such
supersensible realities may be limited given that, “it is absolutely impossible for
the categories to possess any application beyond the limits of experience” (Kant
2013, 187). The above impediment notwithstanding, it is undeniable that the
human mind is sometimes impelled to delve into supersensible things such as the
existence of God, death, eschatology, immortality etc. The imperative of
investigating eschatological phenomena lies in the fact that humans are not only
bordered about their earthly existence but also concerned about their death and
ultimate destiny. Pope John Paul II, in his encyclical Fides et Ratio (no. 27), states
that,

The first absolutely certain truth of our life, beyond the fact that we exist,
is the inevitability of our death. Given this unsettling fact, the search for a
full answer is inescapable. Each of us has both the desire and the duty to
know the truth of our own destiny. We want to know if death will be the
definitive end of our life or if there is something beyond—if it is possible
to hope for an after-life or not. It is not insignificant that the death of
Socrates gave philosophy one of its decisive orientations, no less decisive
now than it was more than two thousand years ago. It is not by chance,
then, that faced with the fact of death philosophers have again and again
posed this question, together with the question of the meaning of life and
immortality.
Similar to the above reason is the imperative of exploring the possibility of
employing religion as an ideological tool in enhancing human-nature relationship.
Douglas J. Moo (2006, 450) argues that, “A significant number of contemporary
environmentalists are convinced that some form of religion is needed to provide
motivational power for the transformation of human attitudes toward the natural
world.” Ecological crisis is also a behvioural problem.

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From the expositions already done, one can easily deduce that
eschatology and environmentalism are future oriented. This is their first point of
convergence or complementarity. While eschatology is concerned with life-after-
death, environmentalism is about the future or sustainability of the biotic and
abiotic environment. As already stated, the future is inextricably linked with the
present. The future undergirds the activities of the present whereas the present, to a
great extent determines the future. Hence it is said that eschatology, in a way, is
more concerned about attitude than corpus of beliefs. The phenomena of
eschatology and environmentalism are therefore futuristic and teleological. The
eschatological hope about the future impacts positively on environmentalism.
Furthermore, relation to the environment, some eschatologies are pro-
environmentalism whereas others are anti-environmentalism. The characteristic
this-worldliness, cyclic and optimistic nature of the Igbo eschatology makes it eco-
centric. The focus on the worldly existential realities and conditions compels the
attention of the human and the living-dead to the present world. This is unlike
some eschatologies that are otherworldly which compel the believers to focus on
the world to come or “to lay their treasures in heaven;” all to the abysmal neglect
of the present world. What Hannah Arendt wrote concerning the world’s
phenomenal nature aptly captures the worldliness of the Igbo eschatology: “The
world men are born into contains many things, natural and artificial, living and
dead, transient and sempiternal…living beings, men and animals are not just in the
world, they are of the world (1978, 19-20). The cyclic nature of the Igbo
eschatology equally guarantees the permanence or semi-immortality of the present
world and optimism about the one and only world where one exists and returns via
reincarnation. This optimistic approach can effectively ignite care for the
environment.
As already stated above, this paper leans on conversational method which
mostly debuts as meaning-making venture and rather than acquiescence to
canonized theory of meaning, it struggles creatively to bring out what is from what
is not, “presence from the metaphysics of absence ” (Chimakonam 2021, 1). Of
serious note is the fact that the dynamics of conversationalism is inherently
dialogical and complementary. This serves as a great point of attraction and
synchronizes with the disposition of Igbo traditional religion which thrives on
binary complementarity. This approach thus creates a panacea to the pricking
dualism or polarity which is the root cause of environmental neglect and
degradation. Such binary polarity as the sacred versus the profane, spiritual versus
empirical tend to affirm one side and negate the other. The spirit of
conversationalism harmonizes such polarity. This is remarkably evidenced in the
animistic tendency of Igbo traditional religion whereby the spiritual abides in the
empirical; the eschatological shades into the temporal and elevates the status thus
compelling respect and reverence for both human and nonhuman entities. On the
strength of the above premises, the present paper infers that the Igbo eschatology
is not only mutually inclusive with environmentalism but also effectively
engenders care for the environment. This is therefore eco-friendly eschatology.

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Filosofia Theoretica: Journal of African Philosophy, Culture and Religions

Contrary to the above, the Christian (New Testament) otherworldly and pessimisti
c eschatology tends to demoralize or discourage care for the environment. John F.
Haught (2017, 117) avers that, “Christianity, generally speaking, is so
otherworldly in its preoccupations that it cannot provide a secure foundation for an
ecologically moral lifestyle in the here and now. Australian philosopher John
Passmore, for example, has claimed that Christianity is too preoccupied with the
afterlife to inspire Christians to care for the natural world.” The purported
destruction or annihilation of the present world makes the New Testament
eschatology mutually exclusive with environmentalism. It ultimately poses a big
challenge to continuous existence and sustainability of the environment. To
redeem the New Testament and indeed Christianity in general of its anti-
environmental proclivities would call for rigorous exegetical and interpretative
works with careful extraction of ecologically significant aspects of the scripture.
Toward the Ecology of Transfiguration edited by John Chryssavgis and Bruce V.
Foltz (2013) and Laudato Si’ by Pope Francis (2015), are among the innumerable
works that have greatly explored the aspects of Christian corpus that are
ecologically relevant. In fact, the Laudato Si’ has been described as a vade mecum
for environmentalists.

Conclusion
The present work has examined the intersections between the Igbo eschatology
and environmentalism. The eschatology builds on the present and anticipates the
future. A conversational engagement on Igbo eschatology and environmentalism
brings out their points of complementarity. Though eschatology has to do with
spiritual and religious belief, it has both ideological and attitudinal impetus. Igbo
eschatology is this-worldly and cyclic. It perceives the present world as in
continuous existence. This renders the permanence and stability which
environmentalism, a futuristic endeavour demands. The constituent eschata,
especially the phenomena of ancestorship and reincarnation guarantee life-after-
death. The symbolic presence of the eschata elevates the ontological status of
mundane material entities thus compelling respect for the mundane entities, human
and nonhuman alike. The eschatology predisposes for optimistic rather than
pessimistic approach and can effectively engender care and sustainability of the
environment. This is further enhanced by the animistic tendency of the Igbo
culture, a quintessence of binary complementarity, which compels respect for
mundane entities. In a résumé, the Igbo eschatology is pro-environmentalism. No
doubt, the Igbo eschatology and its trappings of environmentalism can make
meaning only to the believers in Igbo traditional religion and those who share
similar belief. This impedes a wider or universal application of the framework of
Igbo eschatological environmentalism. Despite the great onslaught of the
imperialistic Christianity, with its otherworldly, pessimistic and anti-
environmental eschatology, the resilient indigenous Igbo religion and its
eschatological tenets still thrive and could be harnessed for better human-nature
relationship.

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