Bachelor’s in Electrical Engineering

Transmission and Distribution Design

For Bachelor’s Students- Fourth Year/ First Part

By: Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 1

 Chapter-4
Conductor and Support Selections [10 hours]

Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

Institute of Engineering,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
 Conductor and Support Selections [10 hours]

• Electrical, mechanical and economical requirements

• Conductor material and preliminary size selection
• Meeting electrical requirements; voltage regulation, efficiency, corona etc.
• Conductor choices, wire types and size, bundled conductors
• Economical size determination
• Route selection for transmission lines
• Surveying requirements for transmission line design and construction
• Mechanical aspects; tensioning and sagging, stringing chart, supports at unequal level
• Tower design: span selection, ground clearance, moments acting on tower and tower
strength computation

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 Electrical, mechanical and economical requirements
• Requirements of conductor:
– To transmit power over required distance economically, efficiently
– Have enough capacity to maintain continuous supply without failure.
– Low cost of installation and maintenance
– High life span
• Mechanical Requirements
– Have high tensile strength
• To span between towers as long as possible
• Sag as small as possible
• Avoiding/ reducing number and height of towers and insulation.
– Withstand weather conditions of locality in which they are laid (wind pressure, temperature variation,
mechanical loading etc.)
• Electrical Requirements
– Current carrying capacity (High conductivity)
– Suitable Line parameters
• Efficiency > 94%
• Voltage regulation < 12%
– High Corona Inception Voltage
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 Conductor material and preliminary size selection

• Reason for choosing Al over Cu for overhead conductors:

1. Low cost
• Because of its relative abundance
2. Conductance of Al per weight > Conductance of Cu per weight
3. Larger diameter than copper for same resistance so same voltage leads to
• Lower voltage gradient at conductor surface
• Reduce ionization level of air and corona loss
4. Tensile Strength of Al could be greater than tensile Strength of Cu
• 1% of Cd in Al increases tensile strength of Al to almost same as that of Cu without sacrificing its conductivity
remarkably.
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 Conductor material
• Copper is preferred where space is limited and aluminum is preferred where cost is the
constraint.
• For small size transformer, Aluminum winding is used
• For large size transformer, Copper winding is used
• Application of copper:
– High tension string
– Less skin effect
– Space limitation
– High wind
– Need of low thermal expansion (suitable where temperature is high)
– Transformer
– Motor
– Generator
– Large size underground cables

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 Conductor material (stranded form)
• AAC (All Aluminum Conductor) conductor are superior to the AAAC (All Aluminum Alloyed Conductor)
in terms of electrical conductivity
– AAC used at distribution level for lesser spans
– Aluminum provides necessary conductivity and alloy provides necessary mechanical strength.

• AAAC is superior in terms of tensile strength, low sag, can be operated at higher temperature.

• AAAC (All Aluminum Alloyed Conductor) is preferred choice than ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel
Reinforced) for transmission line because of its high tensile strength.
• ACSR has problem of corrosion so AAAC is preferred in areas of pollution and moisture, coastal areas
• However, ACSR is preferred than AAAC because it is cheaper

AAAC (All Aluminum Alloyed Conductor)

AAC (All Aluminum Conductor)
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 Conductor material

• High Temperature Low Sag Conductors (HTLS) & Aluminum

Conductor Fiber Reinforced (ACFR)
– Efficiency is poor
– Coefficient of expansion 10% lesser than ACSR

• ABC (Aerial Bundled Conductor)

– Overhead power lines using several insulated phase conductors bundled
tightly together, usually with a bare neutral conductor.
• Contrasts with the traditional practice of using uninsulated conductors separated by air
gaps.
– variation of overhead power lines utilizes the same principles as bundled
conductors, except that they are closer together to the point of touching but
each conductor is surrounded by an insulating layer (except for the neutral
line)

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 Merits of ABC
• Relative immunity to short circuits caused by external forces (wind, fallen branches), unless they abrade the
insulation.
• Can stand in close proximity to trees/buildings and will not generate sparks if touched.
• Little to no tree trimming necessary, Can be installed in a narrower right-of-way.
• Simpler installation, as crossbars and insulators are not required.
• Ease of erection and stringing, less labor intensive, less construction resources needed.
• More aesthetically appealing, Significantly improved safety for linespersons, particularly when working on live
conductors.
• At junction poles, insulating bridging wires are needed to connect non-insulated wires at either side. ABC can
dispense with one of these splices.
• Less risk of a neutral-only break from tree or vehicle damage, increasing safety with TNC-s systems.
• Electricity theft is made harder, and more obvious to detect.
• Less required maintenance and lesser necessity of line inspections.
• Improved reliability in comparison with both bare conductor overhead systems and underground systems.

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 Demerits of ABC
• Additional cost for the cable itself.
• Insulation degrades due to sun exposure, though the critical insulation between the wires is somewhat shielded
from the sun.
• Shorter spans and more poles due to increased weight.
• Can lead to much longer repair times for installations in hilly areas due to much higher line weights requiring
bigger and more specialized equipment to repair.
• Older installations are known to cause fires in areas where falling large trees or branches regularly cause breaks
in lines and or in insulation leading to short circuits which can then lead to burning insulation dripping to
ground and starting ground fires.
• Failure modes through punctures, electrical tracking, and erosion.

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 Stranded Conductors

• Stranded conductor:
– One or more layers wrapped helically over
central wire.

• Advantages:
– Increased flexibility
– Increased mechanical strength
– Skin effect decreases

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 Bundled Conductors
• The expression for the number of strands in a stranded conductor is given by
N = 3n (n +1) + 1,
– where n is the number of layers.
– The diameter of stranded conductor is (D) = (2n + 1)d,
– where d is the diameter of each strand

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 Bundled Conductors

• For a single conductor of radius r

• For two- conductor bundle with distance d between the conductors

• For three- conductor bundle with distance d

• For four- conductor bundle with distance d

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bundled Conductors
• Bundled conductors per phase increases the effective radius, reduces the voltage gradient in the vicinity of the
line thereby reducing the possibility of the corona discharge.
– Improvement in the transmission efficiency as loss due to corona effect is countered/ reduced.
• Bundled conductor lines will have higher capacitance to neutral in comparison with single lines. Thus they will
have higher charging currents which helps in improving the power factor.
• Bundled conductor lines will have higher capacitance and lower inductance than ordinary lines they will have
𝑳𝟏/𝟐
lower Surge Impedance Z= , which means higher Surge Impedance Loading (SIL).
𝑪
– Higher Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) will have higher maximum power transfer ability.
• With increase in self GMD or GMR inductance per phase will be reduced compared to single conductor line. This
results in lesser reactance per phase compared to ordinary single line. Hence lesser loss due to reactance drop.

• Increased ice & wind loading.

• Inspection more complicated, spacers required.
• Increased clearance requirements at structures.
• Increased charging kVA which may be a disadvantage at light loads.

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 Electrical Characteristics Mechanical Characteristics
Calculate
Calculat
d
ed Calculated
R at 20 °c
Approx. Current Approxi Approx
Calculated when Dia of Approx weight of Approx
carrying No. of Diameter mate Coefficient
Nominal Equivalent corrected Conduc Conductor Ultimate Standa
capacity Wires of Wires Modulus of No. of
Code Copper Area to tor Kg/Km Tensile rd
(I) of Linear Lengths in
Word area Sq. of Standard Strength Length
Elasticit expansion one Reel
mm. Aluminum Wt. (UTS) Metres
y
Sq.mm. Ohms/km Kg
At 40°C Kg
At 45°C Alum Stee Per °C X
amb. Al. St. Al. St. mm Total /𝒄𝒎𝟐 X
amb. Temp. inium l 𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟔
Temp. 𝟏𝟎

Goat 185 316.5 0.08989 680 630 30 7 3.7 3.71 25.97 1492 896 596 13780 0.787 18.99 773 1

Shee
p
225 366.1 0.07771 745 690 30 7 4 3.99 27.93 1726 1036 690 15190 0.787 " 667 1

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 Corona
• Corona Discharge
– An electrical discharge
– Brought on by the ionization of air surrounding a conductor developing a
voltage gradient exceeding a certain critical value.
– Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in high- voltage systems
unless care is taken to limit the electric field strength

• It is often seen as a bluish (or other color) glow in the air adjacent to
pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages, and emits light by
the same property as a gas discharge lamp.

• A corona will occur when the strength of the electric field (potential
gradient) around a conductor is high enough to form a conductive
region, but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or arcing
to nearby objects

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 Corona
The total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is

𝑞
By Gauss's law, this must be , where 𝑞 is the net charge
𝜖0
enclosed by the Gaussian surface. so that

Electric Field Strength

Therefore,
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 Corona

Since,

Where, Dielectric Strength of air is

30 kV/cm (peak) & 21.21kV/cm (rms)

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 Voltage level that causes Corona
Hence, the minimum voltage gradient required for corona discharge is;

Where, Dielectric Strength of air is

30 kV/cm (peak) & 21.21kV/cm (rms)

Peak voltage value

rms voltage value

1. For DC system: Note: “r” in cm

𝑮𝑴𝑫
Or, 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 > 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝒓 × 𝒍𝒏 𝒌𝑽
𝒓
→ voltage required to ionize the air particles, required for the occurrence of corona
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 19
 Voltage level that causes Corona
2. For AC system:
• The breakdown strength of air is dependent on atmospheric pressure and temperature i.e. 30 kV/ cm is for 760
mm of Hg and 25°C.
• For other temperature and pressure, this value should be corrected and the factor of correction is known as air
density correction factor (𝜹).

𝑷 𝟐𝟕𝟑+𝟐𝟓°𝑪
𝜹= ×
𝟐𝟕𝟑+𝒕 𝟕𝟔𝟎
𝑷
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟏 ×
𝟐𝟕𝟑+𝒕

• Also, the corona discharge is dependent on conductor surface i.e. roughness factor (m)
m = 1 for smooth surface
= 0.93 - 0.98 for rough solid conductor
= 0.8 to 0.87 for stranded conductor
𝑮𝑴𝑫
Or, 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 > 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝒓 × 𝒍𝒏 𝒌𝑽 × 𝒎 × 𝜹
𝒓

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 Corona Inception Voltage

The line quantity of the rms value of voltage is;

• Corona Inception Voltage is a voltage level beyond which corona starts to occur.
𝑮𝑴𝑫
i.e. 𝑉𝑐𝑖 = 𝟑 × 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝒓 × 𝒎 × 𝜹 × 𝒍𝒏 𝒌𝑽
𝒓
The corona occurs if 𝑽system(max) > 𝑽𝒄𝒊 at any instant.
• To avoid corona, “r” should be increased so that 𝑉𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) decreases sufficiently below 𝑉𝑐𝑖 .
• Effective “r” is more in bundled conductor, hence corona is lower in bundled conductors.

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 Conductor choices, wire types and size
• Current carrying capacity of a cable:
– Amperage a conductor can carry before melting of
either conductor or insulation.

• Factors affecting current carrying capacity of cable:

1. Ambient temperature
2. Conductor temperature
3. Material
4. Conductor size
5. Conductor Number
6. spacing

• With 1% decrease in ambient temperature there

is 1% increase in current carrying capacity

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 Choosing conductor according to electrical requirements:
• Step -1: Calculate Line Current per phase

• Step -2: See Table A-2.2 Determine nearest current carrying capacity conductor
higher than given line current at 40⁰C

• Step -3: Check Efficiency criteria > 94%

– Note from table, resistance per unit length of the conductor at 20⁰C
– Determine total resistance at 20⁰C
– Determine total resistance at 65⁰C
– Determine power loss per conductor at 65⁰C
– Determine efficiency
• If < 94% repeat step 3 for next higher current capacity conductor

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 Choosing conductor according to electrical requirements
• Step - 4: Check voltage regulation criteria (V. R. < 10%):
– Note from table: Conductor diameter mm
– Compute 𝐺𝑀𝑅𝐿
– Compute 𝐺𝑀𝑅C
– Compute GMD
– Compute line parameters
– Compute ABCD parameters
– Compute V.R.
• If V. R. > 10% repeat step 4 for next higher current capacity conductor

• Step - 5: Compare Corona Inception voltage with Max system voltage

– 𝐼𝑓 𝑉𝑐𝑖 > max 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• Select the conductor

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 Efficiency

Computation of Resistance
Computing the resistance per unit length at maximum possible ambient temperature. If
R is given at ambient temperature i.e. 20 0C.

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝜃0 [1 + 𝛼𝜃0 (𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜃0 )]

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜂 > 94%

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 Voltage Regulation

The change in the terminal voltage when the load is changed from
no load to full load expressed in terms of full load voltage. i.e.
because of R & X of the line.

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 Voltage Regulation

Voltage Regulation < 10%

−𝟕
𝑮𝑴𝑫
𝑳 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐧 𝑯/𝒎
𝑮𝑴𝑹

𝟐𝝅𝝐𝟎
𝑪= 𝑮𝑴𝑫 μF/km
𝒍𝒏
𝑮𝑴𝑹

We can use ABCD parameters for voltage Regulation

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 GMD Calculation in 3 phase double circuit lines

GMD = (Dab . Dab' . Dbc . Dbc' . Dca . Dca' .

Da'b . Da'b' . Db'c . Db'c' . Dc'a . Dc'a')1/12

By rearranging terms, GMD becomes:

GMD = (DAB . DBC . DCA.)1/3

Where,
DAB = (Dab . Dab' . Da'b . Da'b')1/4

similarly DBC and DCA.

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 GMR/ phase Calculation for Inductance (L)

GMRa = √(Daa' . r')

GMRb = √(Dbb' . r')

GMRc = √(Dcc' . r')

Daa' is the distance between

conductors a & a'.
Similarly for Dbb' and Dcc'
Depending on number of strands, equivalent radius r' =0.7788r.

As the phases are transposed, GMRL = (GMRa . GMRb . GMRc)1/3

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 GMR/ phase Calculation for Capacitance (C)
For capacitance calculation the radius of conductor is used
in GMRC formula whether it is one circular conductor or ACSR conductor,

GMRa = √(Daa' . r)

GMRb = √(Dbb' . r)

GMRc = √(Dcc' . r)

GMRC = (GMRa . GMRb . GMRc)1/3

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 Calculation of Inductance (L) & Capacitance (C)

Putting the values of GMD and GMRL, inductance per meter per phase is obtained;

L = 2 * 10 -7 ln ( GMD/GMRL )

Putting the value of GMRC, capacitance per meter per phase is obtained;

Cn = 2p𝝐 / ln (GMD/ GMRc)

Note: Daa' Dbb' and Dcc' are not used in GMD calculation but used in GMRLcalculation.

• In above calculation for GMRL, the conductor is circular of radius r.

• But in actual practice ACSR conductors are mostly used,
• so for inductance calculation r' is replaced by Ds as supplied by the manufacturer of ACSR
conductor.

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 Conductor Choice: Example
For a 3-phase 50Hz transmission line to deliver 100MW of power over 80km, 132kV single circuit line with
following air clearances of phase conductors has been decided to design.
Suggest the best suitable conductor which meets the following technical criterion:
i. Satisfy the thermal limits
ii. Efficiency of line not be less than 94%
iii. No corona in fair weather condition

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 Conductor Choice: Example
1. Satisfy the thermal limits

From conductor Table: Conductor LYNX is nearest one to satisfy thermal limit/
continuous current carrying capacity.

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 Conductor Choice: Example
2. Efficiency of line should not be less than 94%

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 Conductor Choice: Example
2. Efficiency of line not be less than 94%

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 Conductor Choice: Example
2. Efficiency of line not be less than 94%

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 Conductor Choice: Example
3. No corona in fair weather condition

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 Conductor Choice: Example
3. No corona in fair weather condition

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 Conductor Choice: Example
3. No corona in fair weather condition

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 Conductor Choice: Example
4. Voltage Regulation Calculation < 12%

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1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 43
 𝑮𝑴𝑫
𝑳=𝟐× 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐥𝐧 𝑯/𝒎
𝑮𝑴𝑹

𝟐𝝅𝝐𝟎
𝑪= 𝑮𝑴𝑫 μF/km
𝒍𝒏 𝑮𝑴𝑹

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 44

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1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 47
 (132*1.1) kV = 145.2 kV

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 Economical size determination
According to Kelvin, the most economical size of conductor is that for which annual
energy loss cost is equal to the annual conductor size dependent cost.
• Kelvin’s Law of most economical conductor size.
– If the cross-sectional area of the conductor is decreased,
• the total capital cost of the conductor decreases
• but the line losses increase (resistance increases with the decrease in the conductor size, hence, 𝑰𝟐 R loss increases)
– Whereas, if the cross-sectional area of the conductor is increased,
• the line losses decrease
• but the total capital cost increases.

• Therefore, it is important to find the most economical size of the conductor. Kelvin's law helps in finding
this
– Annual transmission line cost (𝐶1 ) = (𝑘0 + 𝑘1𝐴)ϑ
– Where , (𝟏+𝒊)𝒏 ×𝒊
𝑘0 = Conductor size independent cost (insulator, tower cost) Annuity Factor (ϑ) =
[ 𝟏+𝒊 𝒏 −𝟏]
𝑘1 = Conductor size dependent cost
𝜗 = Annuity factor n = 20 to 25 years

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 Economical size determination
• Annual Energy loss cost(𝐶2) = 𝑘2/ A

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 Economical size determination

• Total annual cost (C) = Annual transmission line cost + Annual energy loss cost

• For minimum cost :

• The most economical size of conductor is that for which

annual energy loss cost = annual conductor size dependent cost.

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 Economical size determination

Total annual cost (C)

= Annual transmission line cost
+ Annual energy loss cost

Where , 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
𝑘0 = Conductor size independent cost
𝑘1 = Conductor size dependent cost
𝜗 = Annuity factor 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
𝒌𝟏 𝒌 𝟐

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 Limitation of Kelvin’s Law
• Only applicable to distribution line not for transmission line
– Up to 33kV, Pole height is fixed; Span length is fixed
– Up to 33kV, varying the size of conductor mainly vary the cost of conductor but not the size of the tower
i.e 𝑘0 is fixed and Kelvin’s Law is applicable here.

• For transmission lines, increasing the size of conductor varies the size of tower, Kelvin’s law
doesn’t apply but the fundamental principle Annual transmission line cost (𝐶1 ) = (𝑘0 + 𝑘1𝐴)𝜗
still applies.
• Above 132kV → Pole height ↑ If Span length fixed

Cndtr =Conductor
TLC = Transmission line cost
𝜗𝑇𝐿𝐶 = Annual transmission line cost

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1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 54
 Conductor D E F G
Goat 2144 251.834 230.4 482.234
Sheep 2386 280.260 194.4 474.66
Zebra 2559 300.580 172.8 473.38
Deer 2527 308.567 172.8 481.367
Elk 2815 330.650 151.2 481.85

Zebra is the most

economical size
conductor as
total cost/km is
lowest

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 Use following data :
Energy rate = Rs. 7.2 per unit
Interest rate = 15%
Project life = 15 years

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 A B C D E F G

890 1254 32 2144 244.4404 230.4 474.8404

936 1450 27 2386 272.0311 194.4 466.4311

974 1585 24 2559 291.7551 172.8 464.5551

964 1663 24 2627 299.5079 172.8 472.3079

968 1847 21 2815 320.942 151.2 472.142

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 Route selection for transmission lines
• Design Considerations:
– Select the shortest possible route, Follow the highways and roads as much as possible.
– Vegetation management. Can trees be cut, trimmed, or avoided.
– Avoid going over hills, ridges, swamps, and bottom lands.
– Avoid disrupting the environment
– Route in the direction of possible future loads.
– Impact of length, terrain, angles, obstacles, and special crossings on the cost and strength of the line.
– Ease and cost of maintenance, including maintenance of tree trimming.
– Impact of existing overhead and underground utilities paralleling or crossing the route. This refers to electric,
telecommunications, gas, oil, water, sewer system, drainage, and irrigation.
– Availability, restrictions, or limitations on the use of public rights of way.
– Impact of line on land use, environment, and on historical, archaeological, or biologically sensitive sites or
areas.

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 5 stages outline to select the most suitable route for transmission lines

1. Determine a Route Planning Area

– We choose the start and end points and develop a broad route-
planning area based on opportunities and constraints on the
landscape.

2. Plan alternative routes

– We draw segments connecting the start and end points within the
route-planning area. These segments form alternative routes that
we present during the engagement process.
– Project specialists who represent different perspectives including
agriculture, heritage, and engineering also provide feedback.

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 5 stages outline to select the most suitable route for transmission lines

3. Develop mitigative segments

– We add or modify route segments based on feedback during the
engagement process and from project specialists. A mitigative
segment is an addition that is made to part of the route based on
feedback.

4. Determine a preferred route

– A comparative evaluation of alternative routes is done to choose a
preferred route that is presented during the engagement process.
– Project specialists focus their evaluations on this area to better
understand potential effects of the preferred route on people and
the environment.

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 5 stages outline to select the most suitable route for transmission
lines

5. Finalize the preferred route and submit an

environmental assessment report
– After the preferred route presentation, we consider potential
changes based on feedback from the engagement process
and project specialists. We submit the detail report to
government to get EIA License and process.

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 Walk over survey:
Routes Identification

After the walk-over survey of the

transmission line, the inception report is
submitted to the client for approval of route
alignment to conduct a DGPS survey and a
detailed survey of the route alignment.

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 Tutorial
1. Determine the most economical cross-section of a conductor for a three-phase, 8 km long line to supply a load at a
constant voltage of 33 kV. During a 24-hour period, the load is 2500 kW for 8 hour, 1500 kW for 10 hours, and
1000 kW for 6 hours at u.p.f. The capital cost per km of the line is Rs. (16,250 + 5000a) where a is in cm . Interest
and depreciation charges are 8% and cost of energy is 5 paise per unit. The resistance per km of a conductor of 1
cm cross-section is 0.176 Ω.
2. A two-conductor cable, one km in length, is required to supply a constant load of 200 A throughout the year. The
cost of the cable is Rs. (50a + 25)/m where, a is the area of the conductor in cm . Determine the most economical
cross-section of the conductor if the cost of energy is 5 paise/kWh and interest and depreciation charges amount to
10%. Specific resistivity of the conductor is 1.85 μΩ-cm. [a =1.1386 cm2 ]
3. The daily load cycle of a three-phase transmission line, 20 km long, is equivalent to a current of 100 A for 8 hours,
75 A for 7 hours, and 20 A for 9 hours. The capital cost per kilometre of line per conductor is Rs. (9500 + 24000a)
where a is the cross-section in cm of the conductor. Find the most economical size for the conductor, assuming
interest and depreciation of 10% per annum and energy cost to be 5 paise per kWh. Resistance per km of a
conductor of 1 cm cross-section is 0.19 Ω. [a = 0.73 cm]

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 71

 Mechanical Design of Transmission Line

• The design of a transmission line has to satisfy electrical as well as mechanical

considerations.
• An overhead line comprises mainly of conductors, line supports, insulators, and
pole fittings.
• These should have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand the worst probable
weather conditions and other external interferences.
• This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety in order to ensure the
continuity of operation in the line.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 72

 Factors affecting Mechanical Design
1. Selection of Line Route
– depends upon the distance, geographical conditions, transportation facility, etc.
2. Types of Towers/ Poles
– depends upon the line span.
– conductor weight,
– line operating voltage and cost,
– local conditions and soil conditions
3. Ground and Conductor Clearance
– working voltage,
– mechanical factors such as length of the span, weight of conductors, prevalent wind direction, ice
loading on the conductors, etc

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 73

 Factors affecting Mechanical Design
4. Tower Spacing and Span Length
– weight of the conductors,
– prevalent wind direction and ice loading on the conductors,
– soil conditions, local conditions,
– load bearing capacity of the tower, etc.
5. Mechanical Loading
– depends on span length,
– type of conductor materials,
– area of cross-section of conductors,
– sag level difference between adjacent towers, etc.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 74

 Line Support
• The support for an overhead line must be capable of carrying the load due to the conductors and
insulators together with the ice load and wind load on the support itself.

• The main requirements of the line supports are:

– High Mechanical Strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind load.
– Lighter in Weight without the loss of mechanical strength
– Cheaper in Cost
– Low maintenance Cost
– Longer Life
– Good Looking
– Easy accessibility for erection of line conductor.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 75

 Line Support

• The various types of line support are Wooden Poles, Tubular Steel Poles, RCC
Poles and latticed steel towers.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 76

 Line Support
Line Span Voltage Level Advantages Disadvantages Remarks
Support

Wooden Up to LV Distribution Easy to install and cheap Tendency to rot at Used at places with ample
Poles 60m System the ground level supplies of good quality of wood
available. Life is 25-30 years.

Tubular From 50 Up to 33kV light weight, long life, and Costlier than All steel supports should be well-
Steel Poles to 80 m greater strength than wooden and RCC galvanized & should have a life
wooden poles. poles. of at least 30 yrs.

Concrete From 80 Up to 33kV stronger and more durable, Bulky & Heavy, Rectangular in shape at the
Poles to 200 m low maintenance Difficult to bottom and square at the top.
transport Have Long Life.

Latticed 300m and 66 kV and Robust Construction, Costly They are mechanically very
steel above above Withstand Severe weather, strong and have a long life.
towers Suitable for double circuit

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 77

 Sag
• When a flexible wire of uniform cross-sectional area is suspended between two supports at the
same level, it experiences a tensile stress which is due to the weight of the conductor acting
vertically downwards.
• Due to this, the conductor forms a catenary curve between the towers.
• The difference in level between the points of support and the lowest point on the
conductor (which is catenary in shape) is known as sag.

• In case of more sag more conductor material required, more

weight on the support, tower height increases, chance of
greater swing-amplitude due to wind load.

• In case of less sag , more tension in the conductor, possibility of

conductor breakage when more stress added such as vibration
of line or due to fall in temperature.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 78

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 79
 Factors Affecting Sag
• Weight of the conductor:
– The sag is directly proportional to the weight of the conductor.
• Sag increases with an increase in the weight of the conductor.
– Where there is ice formation and wind pressure upon the conductor, the weight of the conductor increases,
which leads to increased sag.
– It is generally measured in kilogram/metre (kg/m).

• Length of the span:

– Sag is directly proportional to the square of span length.
– With increased span length, the weight of the conductor
between the supports increases.
– Therefore, higher the value of the span length, higher is the sag.
– It is measured in metre (m).

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 80

 Factors Affecting Sag

• Working tensile strength:

– Sag is inversely proportional to the working tensile strength of the conductor at constant temperature.
– It is measured in kilogram (kg).
𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
– 𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 ×
𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒚

• Temperature:
– If there is a change in temperature, there is a change in the length of the conductor.
– Therefore, the length of the conductor increases with the rising temperature between the fixed supports.
– The sag too will, therefore, increase with an increase in temperature.
– It is measured in (°C).

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 81

 Calculation of Sag at equal Support level

Suppose, AOB is the conductor, A and B are points of

supports, Point O is the lowest point and the midpoint.

Let,
L = length of the span, i.e. AB,
W is the weight per unit length of the conductor,
T is the tension in the conductor.
We have chosen any point on conductor, say point P.
The distance of point P from Lowest point O is x.
y is the height from point O to point P.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 83

 Calculation of Sag at equal Support level
• Number of forces acting on Portion OP are:
– Tension T acting at Point ‘O’
– Weight of Conductor OP of length x i.e. Wx
• The Weight Wx is acting vertically downward at the
CG of conductor OP i.e. at distance x/2 from point O.

Equating two moments of two forces about point P,

We get,

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 84

 Calculation of Sag at Unequal Support level

Suppose AOB is the conductor that has point O as the lowest point.

L is the Span of the conductor.

h is the difference in height level between two supports.
X1 is the distance of support at the lower level point A from O.
X2 is the distance of support at the upper level point B from O.
T is the tension of the conductor.
w is the weight per unit length of the conductor.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 85

 Calculation of Sag at Unequal Support level

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 86

 Calculating Total Length of Conductor
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑜, = 2𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥

ds' dy x 𝒔𝒐, 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐,

′ 2
dx 𝑑𝑠
= 1 + 4a2 x 2
𝑑𝑥
Consider a right angled triangle on the parabola 1
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 𝑑𝑠 ′ = 1 + 4a2 x 2 2 dx
From fig, at right angled triangle
𝑑𝑠 ′2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔,

𝑑𝑠 ′ 2
𝑑𝑦
2
𝑑𝑠 ′ = (1 + 2𝑎2 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
=1+
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 87

 Calculating Total Length of Conductor

𝑑𝑠 ′ = (1 + 2a2 𝑥 2 )dx

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 ds' dy x

2 3
′
2a 𝑥 dx
𝑆 =x+ +𝐾
3
𝑙
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑆 ′ = 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑆
2
∴𝐾=0
𝑆𝑜, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2
𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾 = 0, 𝑊𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
4𝑆
2 3 𝑊𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡, 𝑎 = 2 … . . (2)
′
2a 𝑥 𝑙
𝑆 =x+ … … . (1)
3

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 88

 Calculating Total Length of Conductor

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑍 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑜,

2 2
𝑙 𝑊𝑐 𝑙
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = , 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2) 8
2 8𝑇
𝑍=𝑙+
2 3
3𝑙
4𝑆 𝑙
𝑍 𝑙 𝑙2 2
= +2×
2 2 3 𝑊𝑐2 𝑙2
𝑍 =𝑙 1+
24T 2
8S2
𝑍=𝑙+ … … (3)
3𝑙
𝑊𝑐 𝑙2
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 , 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑆 =
8𝑇

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 89

 Tensioning, Sagging and Stringing
• Tensioning, Stringing and Sagging:
– Tension in conductor during operation varies for a given conductor at a given span.
– 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ (UTS / FS) is limiting factor & 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Sag is the limiting factor
• 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (Tensioning)
– Minimum temperature 𝜃1, Maximum wind, Ice loading maximum
• 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
– Ambient temperature 𝜃2, No wind, No ice
• 𝑇3 = 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
– Maximum allowable temperature, No wind, No ice

Weight of conductor per

Condition Tension Sag Temperature Ice Wind
unit
Toughest condition(T1) Maximum Minimum W1 Minimum(0°c) Yes Yes
Stringing condition​​/ Normal Normal W2=Wc 25°c No No
Normal condition(T2)
Easiest condition(T3) Minimum Maximum W3=Wc Maximum(65°c) NO No

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 90

 Tensioning, Sagging and Stringing
𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (Tensioning)
𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑇3 = 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
W1 = weight of conductor at maximum wind
W2 = weight of conductor at No wind
Θ1 = Minimum temperature
Θ2 = Ambient temperature
L = span length; 𝑙𝑐 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 91

 Tensioning, Sagging and Stringing
length of conductor during stringing condition = length of conductor during tensioning condition
+ increment due to thermal expansion
– decrement due to reduced stress

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 92

 Tensioning, Sagging and Stringing
Length of conductor during
stringing condition is 𝒍𝒄𝟐

Let,

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 93

 Tensioning, Sagging and Stringing
Then,

Let,
Then,

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 94

 Tensioning, Sagging and Stringing
Then,

Stringing chart:

Graph for tension vs temperature and sag vs

temperature for fixed span

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 95

 Stringing Chart

• The stringing chart is very useful

– To find the tension and the sag at any temperature
– To find the loading conditions when these values at any other
temperature and the loading conditions are known to us.

• In some cases instead of tension T, the stress f is plotted

against the temperature as an independent variable.

• Knowing the area of cross-section 'a', the tension T can

be obtained knowing the value of 'f from the stringing
chart.

Stress (f) =

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 96

 Effect of wind and ice on sag

• The weight per unit length of the conductor is changed when wind blows at a certain force on the
conductor and ice accumulate around the conductor.
• Wind force acts on the conductor to change the conductor self weight per unit length
horizontally in the direction of the air flow.
• Ice loading acts on the conductor to change the conductor self weight per unit length vertically
downward.
• Considering wind force and ice loading both at a time, the conductor will have a resultant
weight per unit length.
• The resultant weight will create an angle with the ice loading in downward direction.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 97

 Effect of wind and ice on sag
Due to Ice Loading
Let us assume, W is the weight of the conductor per unit length.
• Wi is the weight of ice per unit length
Wi = density of ice × volume of ice per unit length

Due to Wind Loading

• Ww is the force of wind per unit length
Ww = wind pressure per unit area × projected area per unit length

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 98

 Effect of wind and ice on sag

Combined Effect Due to Ice and Wind

Total Weight of Conductor per unit length,

Sag in the conductor is,

Vertical Sag in the conductor is,

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 99

 Factor of Safety

It is defined as the ratio of the ultimate strength to the working stress.

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑦 = =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

• Span length ↑
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
– Advantages → No. of tower ↓
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 – Disadvantages → Maximum sag ↑
= 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × • Height of conductor above ground ↑
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑦
• Height of tower ↑
• Required tower strength ↑
• Cost of tower ↑

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 100

 Comparison for the most economical span

• 𝑙𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 101

• Four different conductors below conductor GOAT in ACSR conductor table is chosen. Hence tension calculation
will be done for conductor “Goat, Sheep, Deer, Kundah, Zebra” with span length of 250m, 275m, 300m, 325m
and 350m. Tension for toughest, stringing and easiest condition cases are evaluated and tabulated below.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 102

 13780 kg

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 103

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 104
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 105
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 106
 Tower Design: Span Selection

• The distance between adjacent supporting towers is called the

span.
• Disadvantages of Loose Span
– length of the conductor required for a given length of line is more, the
sag is more too.
– More sag means possibility that conductors might clash during windy
days and hence, produce short circuits.
– conductors swing irregularly and vibrate thus are subjected to strain at
the point of their fixing causing them to break.
– To allow for the minimum clearance from the live conductor to earth
under statutory rules, the heights of the structures have to be
increased thus, leading to increased costs.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 107

 Design Span
• The optimum spacing of towers and their height becomes a
financial exercise.

• With short spans and low towers, the total number of towers and
associated fittings will be large to cover a tower will be necessary.

• If long spans are used, then the conductor sag between tower points
becomes greater and fewer stronger, higher towers and fittings, but
with correspondingly more steel, are necessary to ensure correct
clearances.

• The extent of labor associated with a variable number of towers for

a given route length will also be important.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 108

 Design Span

• Basic Span
– The basic span is the horizontal distance between centers of adjacent supports on level ground.
– Most Economical Span
– Line is designed over level ground.

• Average Span
– Mean span length between dead ends
– It is assumed that the conductor is freely suspended such that each individual span reacts to
change in tension as a single average span.

𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 𝐿4 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛
∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑛

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 109

 Design Span
• Equivalent/Ruling Span
• a fictitious single span in which tension variations due to load or temperature changes are nearly the same as in
the actual spans in a section.
• Tower Spotting on the profile is done by means of sag template, which is based on ruling span.

𝐿31 + 𝐿32 + 𝐿33 + 𝐿34

∴ 𝐿𝑒 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 𝐿4

• If all spans in a section of line are of the same length then the tension on individual span will be equal.
• Keeping the span lengths the same is possible on lines constructed on open terrains. However, for construction along highways and residential areas, the span
lengths can never be equal. Ruling Span is defined as the assumed uniform span that most closely resembles the variety of spans that are in any particular section of the line.
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 110
 Conductor Spacing

• The spacing of conductors is decided not only by the electrical consideration of the working voltage, but also by
mechanical factors such as length of span, weight of conductors, prevalent wind direction, etc.

• With the increase of sag, the magnitude of the swing also increases and proper care is to be taken to maintain
clearance under unfavorable condition.

• For HT or EHV lines, with a voltage level of 66 kV or above the conductor spacing depends upon the
configuration of the conductors.

S = Sag

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 111

 Conductor Spacing

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 112

 Ground Clearance
• Minimum permissible Ground clearance: (𝐻𝑔 )

𝑽𝒌𝑽 𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝟑𝟑
𝑯𝒈 = + 17 ft (1 m = 3.28 ft)
𝟑𝟑

• Maximum sag: (𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) y

𝒘𝒍𝟐
𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Dmax
𝟖𝑻

hg H1 H2 H3 Ht

𝒍 = span length
T = tension in conductor
w = weight per unit length of conductor

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 113

For 132kV system

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 114

 Moments/ Forces acting on tower and tower strength computation

• Force acting on tower: For calculating

– Tension unbalance at angled tower on conductor weight of tower
– Due to tension unbalance at angled tower on Earth Wire.
– Due to wind force on conductor.
– Due to wind force on earth wire
T – T cos ∝

T sin ∝
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 115
 Moments/ Forces acting on tower and tower strength computation

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 116

 Moments/ Forces acting on tower and tower strength computation

Moment because of
turning of conductor

Moment because of
wind force on conductor

3.

4.
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 117
 Moments acting on tower and tower strength computation

Assumption:
80% of tower is class A .
15% of tower is class B.
5% of tower is class C.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 118

 Total Bending Moment and Weight of Tower

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 119

 Total Bending Moment and Weight of Tower

Moment due to
Moment due to wind
turning of conductor
force on conductor

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 120

 Total Annual Cost Calculation

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 121

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 122
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 123
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 124
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 125
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 126
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 127
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 128
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 129
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 130
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 131
1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 132
 Numerical- HW
The design data for a double circuit transmission line with a double earth wire are as follows:

Where 𝒉𝟏, 𝒉𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝟑 heights of lower, middle and top are power conductor from ground and 𝑯𝒕
is the total height of the tower. The power conductor has maximum working tension of 6000kg and
diameter of 4cm. The earth wire has maximum working tension of 2000kg and diameter of 2 cm.
Assume maximum conductor deviation of 5⁰ is permissible for all towers and wind force is
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐 . Compute most economical span.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 142

 Tutorial
• An overhead transmission line has a span of 220 m, the conductor weighing 804 kg/km. Calculate
the maximum sag if the ultimate tensile strength of the conductor is 5,758 kg. Assume a safety
factor of 2.

• A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level supports. The line conductor has a cross-
sectional area of 1.25 cm and it weighs 120 kg per 100 m. If the breaking stress of the copper
conductor is 4220 kg/cm . Calculate the maximum sag for a safety factor of 4. Assume a maximum
wind pressure of 90 kg/m of projected surface.

• An overhead line has a span of 160 m of copper conductor between level supports. The conductor
diameter is 1.2 cm and has a breaking stress of 35 kg/mm . Calculate (a) the deflecting sag (b) the
vertical sag. The line is subject to a wind pressure of 40 kg/m of projected area and radial ice
coating of 9.53 mm thickness. The weight of ice is 913.5 kg/m . Allow a factor of safety of 2 and
take the density of copper as 8.9 g/cm .

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 147

 Tutorial

• An overhead conductor consists of seven strands of silicon-bronze having a

cross-sectional area of 2.0 cm and ultimate strength of 10000 kg/cm . When
connected between supports 650 m apart with a 20 m difference in level,
determine the vertical sag, which must be allowed such that the factor of
safety shall be 5. Assume the wire weight to be 2 kg/m, ice loading to be 1
kg/m and wind loading to be 1.75 kg/m.

• An overhead line of cross-section 2.5 cm is supported at a river crossing

from two towers at heights of 50 m and 100 m above the water level. The
horizontal distance between the towers is 400 m. If the maximum stress in
the line does not exceed 1/5th of UTS of 4000 kg/cm and weight of the
conductor is 0.9 kg/m, find the clearance between the conductor and water at
a point mid-way between the towers.

1/8/2023 MK/ TnD 148