Bachelor’s in Electrical Engineering

Transmission and Distribution Design

For Bachelor’s Students- Fourth Year/ First Part

By: Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 1
 Chapter-7
Distribution System Design [5 hours]

Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

Institute of Engineering,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
 Distribution System Design [5 hours]

• Load center selection

• Selection of distribution transformer locations, their sizes and primary
voltage level
• Selection of distribution line layout, distribution transformers,
overhead lines and/or cables protection
• Evaluation of capital and operation costs

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 3
 Selection of Distribution Transformer
• Transformers used in distribution system are single phase as well as three phase.
– Primary Distribution System normally uses three phase transformer and the secondary distribution system uses normally single phase transformer as the
majority of loads are single-phase.
• The most important factor for transformer selection is the
– connected load (demand)
– load density (load per unit area)
– loading of transformer (dis/continuous loading)
– Load coincident (high load coincident increase maximum demand)
– Utilization voltage level (230V/ 400V )
– Configuration
– Location etc.
• A transformer's ability to handle load is constrained by the internal temperature rise it experiences (due to electrical
losses).
• The rule of thumb requires that a transformer be centrally located with respect to the load it supplies in order to provide
proper cable economy, voltage drop, losses and aesthetic effect.
• In general, the distribution transformer costs can be classified as
• the cost of investment,
• the cost of lost energy due to the losses in the transformer,
• the cost of demand lost (i.e., the cost of lost capacity) due to the losses in the transformer.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 4
 Table above gives standard transformer capacity and voltage ratings
according to ANSI Standard C57.12.20-1964 for single-phase distribution transformers.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 5
 Distribution Transformer Loading guides
• The rated kilo volt amperes of a given transformer is the output that can be obtained continuously at rated voltage
& frequency without exceeding the specified temperature rise.
• The life of insulation commonly used in transformers depends upon the temperature the insulation reaches and
the length of time that this temperature is sustained.
• Temperature rise is used for rating purposes rather than actual temperature, since the ambient temperature may
vary considerably under operating conditions.
• It is temperature rise of the hottest spot on the transformer core (usually at the top) that sets a bound on
capacity.
• The standard allowable average winding, of copper, temperature rise (by resistance test) for the modern liquid-filled
power transformer is either 55°C/65°C or 65°C, based on an average ambient of 30°C (40°C maximum) for any 24
hour period.
• Transformers have certain overload capabilities, varying with ambient temperature, pre-loading, and overload
duration.
• These capabilities are defined in ANSI Std. C57.92, Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Distribution and Power
Transformers, and ANSI Std. C57.96, Guide for Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers.
• A 65°C rated transformer in a 30°C ambient environment is usually rated for a hottest spot temperature of 110°C.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 11
 Annual cost per unit load vs load level

• At low-load levels, the relatively high costs result basically from the investment cost,
• Whereas at high-load levels, they are due to the cost of additional loss of life of the transformer, the cost of lost
energy, and the cost of demand loss in addition to the investment cost.
• Usually, it is economical to install a transformer at approximately 80% of its nameplate rating and to replace it
later, at approximately 180%, by one with a larger capacity.

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 Load Center Size
• Transformer should take care of the total load and the losses it has to supply in order to determine its
kVA rating.
• The distance or area to be served as well as the siting of the substation determines the voltage level of
the transformer.
• If the load center is far, then HT should reach near to consumer, require more number of
transformers. → Far
• If the load center is near, require less number of transformers. → Near
• If load center is large, require HT to reach near load center, bigger size required, more number of
transformers required. – High load Density
• If load center is small, LT reaches near load center, smaller size required, lesser number of
transformers required.- Low load Density
• Transformer connection is dependent on the nature of the load it has to supply. E.g. Dela-star

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 Location of transformer

• As far as possible the transformer must be located at the center of gravity of the service area
• In rural areas some times a single transformer is used to serve 2, 3 or more small villages located in
proximity.
• In such case following theoretical approach may be used to locate approximate transformer location.
• Take a reference point on the x, y coordinate, The location X, Y is then find using,

n
 Load  X =  Li x i
i =1

n
 Load  Y =  Li y i
i =1

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 Loss Dependence on Load Center Size
Example
For each of the Feeder configuration shown below evaluate the LT Loss .
Consider,:
WEASEL conductor (Resistance 1.05 Ω/km)
Distribution voltage is 380 V.
Peak demand 72 kW and power factor =.85 lag
Assume load is uniformly distributed along conductor length.
length in
km L1 L2 L3 L4
Option I 1 1 1 1

Option II 2 2 0 0
LT Side
Option III 3 1 0 0 L4 L3 L2 L1
Option IV 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Option V 3 3 0 0
Option V I 4 2 0 0

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 15
 Solution
Here, it is assumed the load is uniformly distributed along conductor length.
WEASEL conductor (Resistance 1.05 Ω/km)
Distribution voltage is 380 V.
Peak demand 72 kW and power factor @ 0.85 lag

For Option – I: (L1 = L2 = L3 = L4 = (l) = 1km)

Total power supplied in each line is; Since UDL is assumed, Loss in LT side is:
72 𝑘𝑊 1
= = 18 kW. = 𝐼2 𝑟 × 𝑙
4 3
𝑃
Current in the line (I) = 1 2 1.05Ω
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф = 55.73 × 1𝑘𝑚
18 𝑘𝑊 3 𝑘𝑚
= = 55.73 A. = 1086.99 Watt
380𝑉 ×0.85
Losses in all the lines are same in this option;
i.e. loss in L1 = loss in L2 = loss in L3 = loss in L4 = 1086.99 Watt
Total Loss in Option-I is =4 × 1086.99 Watt = 4347.96 Watt.
The percentage power loss is given by:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
= × 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
4347.96𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
= × 100% = 6.0388%
72000 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 16
 Solution

Loss in Loss in Loss in Loss in

Option
L1 (W) L2 (W) L3(W) L4 (W)
I 1087.01 1087.01 1087.01 1087.01

II 8696.08 8696.08 0.00 0.00

III 29349.27 1087.01 0.00 0.00

IV 1630.51 1630.51 1630.51 1630.51

V 13044.12 13044.12 0.00 0.00

VI 30919.39 3864.92 0.00 0.00

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 17
 Summary
Total feeder Total Power Percentage
Option L1 L2 L3 L4
length (km) Loss (W) Loss
I 1 1 1 1 4 4348.04 6.04%
II 2 2 0 0 4 17392.16 24.16%
III 3 1 0 0 4 30436.28 42.27%
IV 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 6 6522.06 9.06%
V 3 3 0 0 6 26088.24 36.23%
VI 4 2 0 0 6 34784.32 48.31%
60.00%

• The feeder length is not indicative of LT loss. 50.00%

• Load Center position decides the loss in the system. 40.00%

• Load center must be geographically center of the 30.00%

consumer site. 20.00%

10.00%

0.00%
4 km 6 km
2/1/2023 MK/TnD 18
 Loss dependence on Load pattern
Consider a system having a monthly energy sell equals 15552 unit. The conductor used in LT side is Weasel
Conductor (Resistance 1.05 Ω/km) at 380V distribution voltage level. Calculate the percentage power loss and the
energy loss for each case and draw the necessary conclusions. Use 𝑳𝑳𝑭 = 0.3𝑳𝑭 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑳𝑭𝟐
The energy consumption pattern is as below;
• consumed in 3 hours (LF =0.125)
• consumed in 6 hours (LF =0.25)
• consumed in 12 hours (LF=0.50)
• consumed in 24 hours (LF= 1.0) LT Side
Length in km L1 L2 L3 L4 L1
L3 L4 L2
Option I 1 1 1 1
Option II 2 2 0 0
Option III 3 1 0 0
Option IV 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Option V 3 3 0 0
Option V I 4 2 0 0
Assume the load is uniformly distributed along conductor length.
2/1/2023 MK/TnD 19
 Solution → LT percentage power loss
monthly energy sell equals 15552 unit & Weasel Conductor (Resistance 1.05 Ω/km) at 380V distribution voltage level.
Now,
For option- I: (L1 = L2 = L3 = L4 = (l) = 1km) and energy consumed in 3 hours with LF =0.125, we get;
𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 15552 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Power Demand =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (ℎ𝑟𝑠)
= 30×3 ℎ𝑟𝑠
= 172.8 kW.
So, Total power in each line is;
172.8 kW.
= = 43.2 kW.
4 Since UDL is assumed, Loss in LT side is:
𝑃 1
Current in the line (I) =
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф
= 𝐼2 𝑟 × 𝑙
3
43.2 𝑘𝑊 1 2 1.05Ω
=
380𝑉 ×0.85
= 133.746 A. = (133.746) × 1𝑘𝑚
3 𝑘𝑚
Losses in all the lines are same in option-I; = 6260.81 Watt
i.e. loss in L1 = loss in L2 = loss in L3 = loss in L4 = 6260.81 Watt
Total Loss in Option-I is =4 × 6260.81 Watt = 25043.238 Watt.
The percentage power loss is given by:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 25043.238 Watt
= × 100% = × 100% = 14.493%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 172.8×1000 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

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 LT Power Loss variation with demand pattern

Load Factor- Low Load Factor- High

Percentage Power loss
Total
feeder Energy Energy Energy Energy
Option
length consumed in consumed consumed in consumed in
(km) 3 hours in 6 hours 12 hours 24 hours
I 4 14.49% 7.25% 3.62% 1.81%
II 4 57.97% 28.99% 14.49% 7.25%
III 4 101.45% 50.73% 25.36% 12.68%
IV 6 21.74% 10.87% 5.44% 2.72%
V 6 86.96% 43.48% 21.74% 10.87%
VI 6 115.95% 57.97% 28.99% 14.49%

The system should be so decided that the load factor for the feeder becomes high.
i.e. the average consumption in the feeder must be almost near to the peak demand.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 21
 Solution → LT percentage energy loss
monthly energy sell equals 15552 unit & Weasel Conductor (Resistance 1.05 Ω/km) at 380V distribution voltage
level
We have, 𝑳𝑳𝑭 = 0.3𝑳𝑭 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑳𝑭𝟐
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑲𝑾𝒉𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔
And, 𝑳𝑳𝑭 = =
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔×𝒉𝒓𝒔

For option- I: (L1=L2=L3=L4=(l)=1km) & energy consumed in 3 hours with LF =0.125, we get;
𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 15552 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Power Demand =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (ℎ𝑟𝑠)
= 30×3 ℎ𝑟𝑠
= 172.8 kW.
So, Total power in each line is; Since UDL is assumed, Loss in LT side is:
1
172.8 kW. = 𝐼2 𝑟 × 𝑙
= = 43.2 kW. 3
4 1 2 1.05Ω
𝑃 = (133.746) × 1𝑘𝑚
Current in the line (I) = 3 𝑘𝑚
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф = 6260.81 Watt
43.2 𝑘𝑊
= = 133.746 A.
380𝑉 ×0.85
Losses in all the lines are same in option-I;
i.e. loss in L1 = loss in L2 = loss in L3 = loss in L4 = 6260.81 Watt
Total Loss in Option-I is =4 × 6260.81 Watt = 25043.238 Watt.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 22
 Solution → LT percentage energy loss
Now, Loss of Load Factor (LLF) is;
𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.3𝐿𝐹 + 0.7𝐿𝐹 2
Or, 𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.3× 0.125 + 0.7 × 0.1252
Or, 𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.04844
Next, Average Energy Loss is;
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐿𝐿𝐹 × 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒)
= (0.04844 × 25043.238 Watt × 24 hrs)
= 29.115 kWh.
The percentage energy loss is given by:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
= × 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
29.115𝑘𝑊ℎ
= 15552𝑘𝑊ℎ × 100%
30
= 5.616%

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 23
 LT Energy Loss variation with demand pattern

Load Factor- Low Load Factor- High

Percentage Energy loss

Total feeder Energy Energy Energy
Option Energy consumed
length (km) consumed in 3 consumed in 6 consumed in 12
in 24 hours
hours hours hours
I 4 5.62% 3.44% 2.36% 1.81%
II 4 22.46% 13.77% 9.42% 7.25%
III 4 39.31% 24.10% 16.49% 12.68%
IV 6 8.42% 5.16% 3.53% 2.72%
V 6 33.70% 20.65% 14.13% 10.87%
VI 6 44.93% 27.54% 18.84% 14.49%

The system should be so decided that the load factor for the feeder becomes high.
i.e. the average consumption in the feeder must be almost near to the peak demand.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 24
 Loss dependence on feeder unbalancing
• Scenario one all phase have equal loading: 20 A
• Scenario two feeder loading
– Phase R: 10 A
– Phase Y: 20 A
– Phase B: 30 A
• Scenario three feeder loading
– Phase R: 10 A
– Phase Y: 10 A
– Phase B: 40 A
• If the loss in scenario 1 is 6%
• The loss in scenario 2 is about 7 %
• The loss in scenario 3 may be around 9%

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 25
 Other Factors

• The loss also depends on conductor size

– Thick conductor: less loss
– Thin conductor: more loss
– E.g the loss with dog conductor is about 1/3rd of loss with weasel conductor
• The loss also depends on load type
– Example motor loading cause more loss than lighting load

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 26
 Summary
• Transformer should be appropriately installed to minimized transformer loss. It should
not be oversized.
• The load center size should be as small as possible. The feeder should be configured so
that the consumers should be as close to the source (transformer).
• To reduce the percentage loss it’s required to increase the other activities than lighting
only. As far as possible minimize other use during peak hours.
• While connecting consumers to supply phase balancing should be kept in mind.
• Thick conductor cause less loss but high cost compromise is done to select appropriate
conductor

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 27
 3-phase Connections

• The various combinations of Star-Delta Connections of Transformer is well known.

• For a Distribution Transformer the reason for Neutral grounding is to facilitate for
both 1-phase and-Three phase (unbalance loading)
• Usually the primary is in delta to facilitate the circulating current. → in urban areas
• Additional reason for star – delta transformer with neutral grounding is to facilitate
the open star or delta configuration → in rural areas

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 28
 Impact of Coincidence behavior of consumer groups on the
Voltage Drop and the losses

Coincidence behavior is hardly

achieved in the areas
– With high load density
– With many consumers dwelling
in large area.

The voltage drop in a LT line and on

a distribution transformer is higher
not only because of low voltage and
high currents but also due to the
load coincident behavior

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 31
 That is, from coincidence point of view we can go for long LT line so that high load density as well as many consumer
in larger area could be obtained.
• But the increase in load density is limited with the thermal limit.
• & increase in LT length is limited with the more voltage drop limit.

• Thus, the transformer size could be commissioned bigger to accommodate more load density such
that higher load coincidence is obtained that reduces the loss as well as voltage drop.
• In urban area, go for maximum Transformer size.
– However, the LT conductor capacities should be taken into account such that they don’t exceed the thermal
limit.
– Also, the length of the LT conductor should be kept more to accommodate many number of consumers in
larger area to obtain more coincidence behavior.
• In rural area, go for smaller Transformer size and many in number along the feeder length.
– However, length of LT conductor is limited due to increasing drop with the increasing length of LT
conductor.

Also, Transformer size selection is reflected by the

utilization Voltage level and the transformer voltage ratio.
2/1/2023 MK/TnD 32
 Transformer size for which year ?
• The load on a distribution transformer is very low for some initial year due to either no
connection or less appliances.
• If the transformer capacity is to meet many years from installation, not only the high useless
initial investment but most importantly the no load loss.
• On the other hand, if it is of small capacity may necessitate immediate up gradation.

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 Transformer Size Selection
A suitable size of distribution transformer among different options has to be found. Consider the
demand for the transformer is 20 kW and the monthly energy sell equals 4320 unit @ 0.9 power factor.
The available Transformer Sizes are:

No Load
Tr size Rated Cu Loss (W)
loss(W)
25 kVA 72 300
50kVA 135 560
100 kVA 260 1100
160 kVA 380 1620
200 kVA 480 2000

The minimum standard size transformer required is 25 kVA.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 34
 Transformer Size Selection based on Transformer Efficiency
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕+𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕+(𝑵𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔+𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔)

Here, For 25kVA Transformer;

Output Rated Power = 25 kVA ×0.9 = 22.5 kW.
Losses at rated output of 25kVA = No- load loss + Rated Load loss
= 72Watt+300 Watt
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Thus, Efficiency = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕+(𝑵𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔+𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔)
22.5×1000 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
= × 100 %
22.5×1000 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡+(72𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡+300 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡)
= 98.374%
No Load Rated Cu Loss Total loss at Rated % efficiency at rated
Tr size
loss(W) (W) power (W) power & 0.9 pf

25 kVA 72 300 372 98.37355719

50kVA 135 560 695 98.47904585
100 kVA 260 1100 1360 98.51138354
160 kVA 380 1620 2000 98.63013699
200 kvA 480 2000 2480 98.64094695
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 Transformer Size Selection based on Transformer Efficiency
98.7
98.65
98.6
98.55
98.5
98.45
98.4
98.35
98.3
98.25
98.2
25 50 100 160 200

• Bigger sized transformers, have higher investment cost, and also there is no – load loss.
• Thus, the transformer size selection based on efficiency alone is not wise to decide.
• Also, rated power loss is not good deciding factor.
2/1/2023 MK/TnD 36
 Transformer Size Selection based on Transformer Efficiency
Here, For 25kVA Transformer;
Output Power = 20 kW.
20𝑘𝑊 2
Cu loss at output power = × 300𝑊 = 237.037𝑊
25𝑘𝑉𝐴×0.9

Losses at rated output of 25kVA = No- load loss + Rated Load loss
= 72Watt + 237.037 Watt
Thus,
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕+(𝑵𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔+𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔)

20×1000 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
= × 100 %
20×1000 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡+(72𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡+237.037 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡)
No Load Rated Cu Loss Total loss @ 20kW % efficiency at rated
Tr size
loss(W) (W) load power & 0.9 pf
= 98.47833%
25 kVA 72 300 309.037037 98.47833
50kVA 135 560 245.617284 98.78681
100 kVA 260 1100 314.3209877 98.45271
160 kVA 380 1620 411.25 97.98518
200 kVA 480 2000 504.691358 97.53865

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 37
 Transformer Size Selection based on Transformer Efficiency

99
98.8
98.6
98.4
98.2
98
97.8
97.6
97.4
97.2
97
96.8
25 50 100 160 200

• Efficiency of the transformer is more for a certain range only.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 38
 Transformer Size Selection based on Energy Loss
A suitable size of distribution transformer among different options has to be found. Consider the
demand for the transformer is 20 kW and the monthly energy sell equals 4320 unit @ 0.9 power factor.
Use Loss of Load Factor (𝑳𝑳𝑭) = 0.3𝑳𝑭 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑳𝑭𝟐
The available Transformer Sizes are:
Tr size No Load loss(W) Rated Cu Loss (W)

25 kVA 72 300
50 kVA 135 560
100 kVA 260 1100
160 kVA 380 1620
200 kvA 480 2000
For option- I: Tr-1→ 25 kVA , we get;
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 4320𝑘𝑊ℎ
Load Factor (LF) = = = 0.3
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 20𝑘𝑊×30×24 ℎ𝑟
Then, LLF is given as;
𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.3𝐿𝐹 + 0.7𝐿𝐹 2
Or, 𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.3× 0.3 + 0.7 × 0.32
Or, 𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.153

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 39
 Transformer Size Selection based on Energy Loss
Next, Average Energy Loss due to Cu-loss is;
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐿𝐿𝐹 × 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒)
Hence, Peak Power loss due to Cu-loss is calculated as;
20𝑘𝑊 2
Peak Power Loss= × 300𝑊 = 237.037𝑊
25𝑘𝑉𝐴×0.9
Thus, 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑢 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
= 0.153 × 237.037𝑊 × 30 × 24hrs = 26.112kWh
Again, Total Energy loss of a Transformer is;
Total Energy loss of a Transformer = Energy loss due to Cu-loss + Energy loss due to no-load loss
72𝑊×30×24ℎ𝑟𝑠
= 26.112kWh +
1000
= 77.952 kWh
Next, Percentage Energy Loss is calculated as;
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
Percentage Energy Loss = × 100%
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
77.952𝑘𝑊ℎ
= × 100% = 1.804 %
4320𝑘𝑊ℎ

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 40
 Transformer Energy Loss variation with transformer size

Tr size Monthly No-load loss kWhr Monthly Cu-loss kWhr Total loss (kWhr) Percentage Energy loss
25 kVA 51.84 26.11 77.95 1.80%
50kVA 97.20 12.19 109.39 2.53%
100 kVA 187.20 5.98 193.18 4.47%
160 kVA 273.60 3.44 277.04 6.41%
200 kVA 345.60 2.72 348.32 8.06%

9.00%
8.00%
7.00%

%age Energy Loss

6.00%
With current loading scenario, we select
5.00%
25kVA.
4.00%
3.00%
2.00%
1.00%
0.00%
25 kVA 50kVA 100 kVA 160 kVA 200 kVA
BUT…………….. Transformer Ratings
2/1/2023 MK/TnD 41
 Transformer Size Selection based on Economic Aspect
BUT……………..
• So far we discussed on the following criteria to decide on the size of the distribution
transformer.
– Transformer current load demand
– Transformer efficiency
– Transformer Energy loss
• These are not enough.
• As transformer being one time investment in 25 years or more, except for the O&M cost,
generally the larger sized are commissioned taking into account the load demand
growth.
• In order to select the larger sized transformer, the payback period must justify with the
investment cost.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 42
 LT conductor selection
• The size of the LT conductor is guided by the thermal limit in the urban
distribution where as the voltage drop in the rural distribution.

• Traditionally AAC was used as the LT conductor.

• Later due to the popularity of the ACSR conductor it has been used even for LT
conductor.

• In Nepal Rabbit and weasel ACSR has been used in LT conductor.

• These days Aerial Bundled Conductor (ABC) is popularly used.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 43
 Cable in OH Application
• Recently ABC conductors are becoming popular not only in The Nepal and other Asian countries as
well.
• ABC conductor was first introduced in Nepal in 1989-90 just for a few service area under 7th
Power Project.
• The ABC conductors comprise three separately insulated aluminum phase conductors with an
insulated aluminum alloy neutral conductors/ messenger wire.
• The three phase cores are wound around the neutral to form a “bundle” and the total line tension
is applied to only the neutral conductor/messenger.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 44
 Advantage of ABC LT conductors

• Reliability: Reduced frequency of outages with insulated conductors.

• Safety: Due to insulation safety to power utility personnel and the public is
increased.
• Clearance: Reduced clearance
• Lower reactance: Reactance is about 1/4th of equivalent separated circuit.
Improve voltage regulation.
• Non-Technical loss: hooking and theft of electricity greatly reduced.
• Technical loss: Leakage current due to touching of trees and other object
reduces.
• Connection: reduced sparking and voltage fluctuation.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 45
 Disadvantage of ABC Conductor
• ABC has higher capital cost than conventional open wire construction, but
this is partially offset by a saving through reduced pole height and less costly
construction.
• Due to twisting of insulated conductors it is more difficult to locate a
insulation fault. But experience shows this happenings are rare.
• Neutral are under greater stress and consequently likely to break in case of
falling trees etc. This is offset by special breakage point in support fitting
design to break before conductor UTS.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 46
In the selection of LT line route
The following criteria should be taken into consideration:
– The routing of the lines (radial length) has been made as short as possible so as to
minimize the voltage drop and line loss.
– The LT lines are mostly routed along the feasible roads, foot trail/hilly road so that
• The transportation of lines/construction materials to site is easier.
• This also facilitates the maintenance of lines.
– The line routing is done in such a way that maximum number of households could be
covered.
• Avoids placing poles in flooded or land – sliding areas
• Minimizes deforestation as much as possible
• Minimizes width of river crossings.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 47
 Distribution Feeder Loss and Voltage drop

Let’s consider a distribution feeder branch

Vk+1 Vk
Rj Xj
Pj+jQj

The branch Feeder loss (Technical)

Pj + Q j
2 2

i.e. I 2R Loss = 2
Rj
Vk

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 Distribution Feeder Loss and Voltage drop

And the Voltage drop is given by: • In transmission line, the line carry same P and
Pj − jQ j Q over a longer distance and just for a line;
Vk +1 = Vk + IZ = Vk + *
( R j + jX )
Vk thus is very easy to compute.
Pj R j Qj X j  Pj X j Q j R j  • In a distribution line (whether a primary or
= Vk + *
+ *
+ j * − *  secondary) The P and Q along the feeder do
Vk Vk  Vk Vk 
not remain the same. Hence the loss even for a
Pj R j Qj X j
 Vk + + single feeder is represented as:
* *
Vk Vk

Pj + Q j
2 2

j Vk
2
Rj

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 For minimum Loss & voltage drop

Pj R j Qj X j
Voltage Drop = Vk +1  Vk + V * + V *
k k

Pj + Q j
2 2

I2R Loss = j Vk
2
Rj

– Pj to be minimum
– Q j to be minimum
– Rj to be minimum
– Xj to be minimum
– Vk to be maximum
Fortunately, all of these are possible for distribution system.
2/1/2023 MK/TnD 52
 Minimum loss and voltage drop can be achieved by…..
• Optimum configuration (for planning decisions)
–(shorter distance planning justifying minimum power loss & voltage loss)
• Re-enforcement (for existing system)
–(making of substations for compensation and capacity up gradation,
changing conductor type)
• Reconfiguration (operational decisions)
–(re-routing of power during operation)
• Addition of Real and reactive power sources along the distribution feeder
–(Distributed generator/Reactive compensation)

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 Considering same Loading condition
Let's consider five different distribution transformers of same size and same number of customers are
desired to be connected from the substation through a radial distribution feeder of similar conductor.
Out of practically feasible feeder layout options two are shown in Fig.(a) & (b).

2 km
• The load to be served in both B C B C
the cases are same i.e. 5S
2 km 2 km 2 km 2 km

2 km A 2 km
• Conductor length same S/S 2 km A
D S/S D

2 km 2 km
• But it can be shown that the losses
in option – A is about 1.5 times
greater than option-B. E E
(a) Option-A (b) Option-B

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 Considering same Loading condition
Suppose the transformer size at each of the node is S kVA. Then the power flow through the
branches can be easily computed and is shown in Fig. below.
2 km B C
B 3S C
S
2 km 2 km S
2 km 4S 2 km 2S
2 km A 2 km
2 km A S/S D
S/S D 3S
5S 5S
S S
2 km
2 km

E
E (b) Option-B
(a) Option-A

LossA 52 + 42 + 32 + 22 + 1 S 2

= 2 2 2 2 = 1.486486
LossB 5 + 1 + 3 + 1 + 1 S 2

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 Considering same Loading condition
• WHY? It is to be noted that this difference in losses are only due to the fact that the branch power to
serve the same load are significantly different in two options.
• Alternatively, it can be said that the node powers have to travel larger distance in option-A than
option-B. Summarized in Table below:

Node Traveling distance (km)

Option-A Option-B
A 2 2
B 4 4
C 6 6
D 8 4
E 10 6
To conclude;
Should configure the feeder in such a way that the distance of all the load points to
source should be minimum.
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 Reliability Consideration
• Also for the same case Reliability is also maximum
• Take an example with 100 consumers at each node
– Failure rate 0.04/km/year

Node Traveling Probability Probable No. of Node Traveling Probability Probable No. of
distance of consumer not getting distance of consumer not getting
failure/yr supply/yr failure/yr supply/yr
A 2 0.08 8 A 2 0.08 8
B 4 0.16 16
C 6 0.24 24 B 4 0.16 16
D 8 0.32 32 C 6 0.24 24
E 10 0.40 40 D 4 0.16 16
1.2 120
E 6 0.24 24
 Different nodal demands and different conductors

• If the load at different nodes are different then;  Li  S i should be minimum.

Where: Si Demand at ith Node
Li distance of ith Node from S/S

• If different conductors are in the path, then; Li =  l j rj

j

Where: j represents the branch in ith path and

lj length of jth branch
rj p.u. length resistance of jth branch

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 Reactive Power Flow
For the 11 kV Primary distribution Network shown below, determine the size (kVAR) of the
capacitor to be placed at the location shown in diagram to achieve the maximum loss reduction. For
simplifying the analysis assume voltage at each node is 1 p.u.
All impedances are in p.u. at 1000 kVA.

S
S 1+2j 1+2j 1+2j
1000 kVA
33/11kV 100 kVA 100 kVA 100 kVA
0.8 p.f. lag 0.8 p.f. lag 0.8 p.f. lag

In fact the system is so simple that no any complex calculation is required and the
answer is ………….kVAR.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 59
 Reactive Power Flow
We have already discussed that capacitor can change only the reactive power flow in the Feeder.
And, the idea is minimize the  Li  Qi for obtaining minimum loss.

A B C
S
S 1+2j 1+2j 1+2j

1000 kVA
33/11kV 100 kVA 100 kVA 100 kVA
0.8 p.f. lag 0.8 p.f. lag 0.8 p.f. lag

• The Source of reactive power are shown by arrow and demand of reactive power is at A, B and C.
• So for Minimum loss it is very easy to say that reactive power for B and C should come from
Capacitor and for A it should from S/S.
• Hence the Size of the Capacitor for Minimum Loss is 120 kVAR.

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 60
 Capacitors at HT or LT
• If capacitors are placed at LT
• Loss will be minimum at both HT and LT
• Requires switching operations necessitating expensive switchgear
• The provision of LT capacitors on the individual services usually having low power factor is
generally preferred.
• The capacitors are placed normally on HT only at some optimal locations with optimal sizing and
control switch gear.
HT

S/S

LT

2/1/2023 MK/TnD 61
 Capacitors Location

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 Here, reactive component equals zero

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