Bachelor’s in Electrical Engineering

Transmission and Distribution Design

For Bachelor’s Students- Fourth Year/ First Part

By: Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

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 Chapter-5
Electric Power Distribution [4 hours]

Asst. Prof. Menaka Karki

Institute of Engineering,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
 Electric Power Distribution [4 hours]

• Underground and overhead lines systems

• Radial and networked systems.
• Distribution equipment: overhead lines, single phase and there phase cables, distribution
transformers, switcher
• Voltage levels, regulation, compensation
• Urban and rural distribution system
• Right‐of‐way, effects of terrain and weather and other construction problems
• Distribution practices in rural and urban Nepal

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 Electric Power Distribution System

230 V

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 Electric Power Distribution System
• Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries electricity from the
transmission system to individual consumers.
• Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium
voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers.
• Primary Distribution
– operates at somewhat higher voltages than general residential consumer utilization.
– Commonly used primary distribution voltages in most countries are 33kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV.
– Primary distribution handles large consumers such as factories and industries.
– It also feeds small substation from where secondary distribution is carried out.
– Primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system.
• Secondary Distribution
– Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by residential end consumers for lighting,
industrial equipment and household appliances.
– Domestic consumers are fed with single phase supply at 230 volts (120 volts in USA and some other countries).
– Three phase supply may also be provided at 400 volts for big properties, commercial buildings, small factories etc.
– Secondary distribution in most countries is carried out by 3-phase, 4-wire system.

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 Why Electrical Distribution System Study?
1. Operational and Technical aspects of transmission and the distribution system are different.
2. Transmission network are heavily looped but distribution network are radial and weakly meshed.
3. Transmission networks are considered as balanced and transposed whereas distribution system are
inherently unbalanced and untransposed.
4. The number of buses in distribution system is very large as compared to the transmission system.
5. The (X/R) ratio is higher in transmission system and lower in distribution system. (i.e. (R/X) ratio
is higher in distribution system)
6. Therefore, analysis tool developed for transmission system will not be adequate for distribution
system.
7. Rather analysis tools specifically developed for distribution systems will be simpler and efficient.
8. These distribution system analysis tools such as load flow, and short-circuit analysis are integral
part of various design, planning and operational studies of distribution systems, such as volt work
control, load balancing, feeder reconfiguration, protection co-ordination, renewable integration etc.

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 Nepal’s Standard
• 230 volt in A.C. single phase & 400 volt in three- phases for general consumers.
• For those who want a supply of electricity from four wires, the electric service shall be made available in 230/400
volt from A.C. three phases.
• The standard of the voltage in the high voltage distribution system:
(a) 3,300 volt,
(b) 6,600 volt,
(c) 11,000 volt,
(d) 22,000 volt,
(e) 33,000 volt,
The fluctuation shall not be allowed for more than five percent.
• The standard of the voltage in the high voltage transmission system:
(a) 33,000 volt,
(b) 66,000 volt,
(c) 1,32,000 volt,
(d) 2,20,000 volt,
(e) 4,00,000 volt,
The fluctuation shall not be allowed for more than ten percent.

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 Overhead Vs Underground System

• Overhead lines are generally mounted on wooden, concrete or steel poles which are arranged to carry distribution
transformers in addition to the conductors.
• The underground system uses conduits, cables and manholes under the surface of streets and sidewalks.
• The choice between Overhead vs Underground System depends upon a number of widely differing factors,

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 Overhead Vs Underground System
• Public safety:
– The underground system is safer than overhead system because all distribution wiring is placed underground and there are little chances of
any hazard.
• Initial cost:
– The underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of trenching, conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipment. The
initial cost of an underground system may be five to ten times than that of an overhead system.
• Flexibility:
– The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground system. In the latter case, manholes, duct lines etc., are permanently placed
once installed and the load expansion can only be met by laying new lines. However, on an overhead system, poles, wires, transformers etc.,
can be easily shifted to meet the changes in load conditions.
• Faults:
– The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the cables are laid underground and are generally provided with better insulation.
Overhead lines have more chances of fault occurrence.
• Appearance:
– The general appearance of an underground system is better as all the distribution lines are invisible. This factor is exerting considerable public
pressure on electric supply companies to switch over to underground system.

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 Overhead Vs Underground System
• Fault location and repairs:
– In general, there are little chances of faults in an underground system. However, if a fault does occur, it is difficult to locate and repair on
this system. On an overhead system, the conductors are visible and easily accessible so that fault locations and repairs can be easily made.
• Current carrying capacity and voltage drop:
– An overhead conductor has a considerably higher current carrying capacity than an underground cable conductor of the same material and
cross-section. On the other hand, underground cable conductor has much lower inductive reactance than that of an overhead conductor
because of closer spacing of conductors.
• Voltage level restriction:
– Underground system cannot be operated above 66 kV because of insulation difficulties but overhead system can be designed for operation
up to 400 kV or higher.
• System Upgradation:
– While overhead lines can easily be upgraded by modifying line clearances and power poles to carry more power, underground cables cannot
be upgraded but must be supplemented or replaced to increase capacity.

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 Overhead Vs Underground System
• Useful life:
– The useful life of underground system is much longer than that of an overhead system. An overhead system may have a useful life of 25
years, whereas an underground system may have a useful life of more than 50 years.
• Maintenance cost:
– The maintenance cost of underground system is very low as compared with that of overhead system because of less chances of faults and
service interruptions from wind, ice, and lightning as well as from traffic hazards.
• Interference with communication circuits:
– An overhead system causes electromagnetic interference with the telephone lines. The power line currents are superimposed on speech
currents, resulting in the potential of the communication channel being raised to an undesirable level. However, there is no such
interference with the underground system.
• Theft control:
– Underground cables have much less danger of conductor theft, illegal connections, sabotage, and damage from armed conflict.

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 Transition from 3-phase to 1-phase
• The place in a distribution system where this transition occurs depends on planner preferences and other
situations.
• For distribution system, three-phase segments have a tremendous advantage:
– The current only has to be sent “out” to the load, no need of return path.
– There are no losses or voltage drop associated with bringing the current “back” to the source in a completely balanced ckt.
• By contrast, if serving a load from a single-phase Y-circuit (one-phase and neutral) Current flows goes out
of the load & then must return and there are losses associated with each direction.

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 YET three phase system is used for bulk load only and not for light loads
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 Transition from 3-phase system to 1-phase system

North American System of Electrical Power Distribution

European System of Electrical Power Distribution

• Idea of transitioning electrical power system from 3-phase system to 1-phase system evolved at the beginning
with North American and European System
• For both, hardware is much the same: conductors, cables, insulators, arresters, regulators, and transformers are
very similar.
• Both systems are radial, and voltages and power carrying capabilities are similar.
• The main differences are in layouts, configurations, and applications.

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 Development of Electrical Distribution System in North
America and Europe
In North America,
• many of the roads and electrical circuits were developed at the same time.
• Houses here were smaller.
• North America has standardized on a 120/240-V secondary system;
• Because of voltage drop constraints secondaries could run typically no more than 250 ft.
In Europe,
• the roads and buildings were already in place when the electrical system was developed, so the design had to
“fit in.”
• higher secondary voltages allow secondaries to stretch to almost 1 mile.
• secondaries are largely three-phase
• Most countries have a standard secondary voltage of 220, 230, or 240 V.

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 North American System
• 3-phase, 4 wire multi-grounded primary

• Single phase laterals

• Single phase distribution transformer having

• one high voltage primary winding
• two low voltage secondary windings.

• Secondary coils each rated at a nominal 120 V may

be connected in parallel to supply a two-wire 120-V
circuit or they may be connected in series to supply a
three-wire 120/240-V single circuit

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 North American System

• Former is used where the loads are comparatively

small and the length of the secondary circuits is
short. It is often used for a single phase customer
requiring power only at 120V.

• Lower wattage devices (e.g. light) connected to

120V. Higher wattage devices e.g. Oven connected
to 240V.

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 European System

• This uses few laterals and 3-phase primary circuit.

• Service Transformers are larger & often 3-phase

• In the secondary circuit, individual consumers are

provided with single phase as well as three phase
service from three phase secondary circuit.

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 Comparison: North American System and European
System
1. Cost
– The European system is generally more expensive than the North American system,
– For the types of loads and layouts in Europe, the European system fits quite well.
– European primary equipment is generally more expensive, especially for areas that can be served by single-phase
circuits.
2. Flexibility
– The North American system has a more flexible primary design,
– European system has a more flexible secondary design.
– For urban systems, the European system can take advantage of the flexible secondary; for example, transformers can be
sited more conveniently.
– For rural systems and areas where load is spread out, the North American primary system is more flexible.
– The North American primary is slightly better suited for picking up new load and for circuit upgrades and
extensions.
3. Safety
– The multi-grounded neutral of the North American primary system provides many safety benefits; protection can more
reliably clear faults, and the neutral acts as a physical barrier, as well as helping to prevent dangerous touch voltages
during faults.
– The European system has the advantage that high-impedance faults are easier to detect.
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 Comparison between North American System and
European System
4. Reliability
– Generally, North American designs result in fewer customer interruptions.
– Loss of the main feeder results in an interruption for all customers on the circuit.
– European systems need more switches and other gear to maintain the same level of reliability.
5. Power quality
– Generally, European systems have fewer voltage sags and momentary interruptions.
– On a European system, less primary exposure should translate into fewer momentary interruptions compared to a North American
system that uses fuse saving.
– The three-wire European system helps protect against sags from line-to-ground faults.
6. Aesthetics
– To supply same load, there is lesser number of primary, the European system has an aesthetic advantage: the secondary is easier to
underground or to blend in.
– For underground systems, fewer transformer locations and longer secondary reach make siting easier.
7. Theft
– The flexibility of the European secondary system makes power much easier to steal.

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 Practical Electrical Power Distribution System

• European system is quite appropriate for higher load

1-phase laterals
densities so this could be often implemented in urban
areas.
• Similarly, the 3-phase secondary provides fairly well 3-phase laterals
balanced loading on the service level, decreasing losses
and increasing utilization.
• Whereas, the American system has low capital
investment and could be used in the area with low load
density, i.e. rural areas.

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 Practical Electrical Power Distribution System

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 Single-phase ground return (SWER)

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 Single-phase ground return (SWER)
• A single conductor may stretch for tens or even hundreds of kilometers,
• Earth (or sometimes a body of water) is used as the return path for the current, to avoid the need for a second wire
(or neutral wire) to act as a return path.
• Requires high quality earthing at each load center/consumer, Grounding is critical. Significant currents on the order
of 8 Amperes flow through the ground near the earth points.
• main advantage is its low cost.
• A number of distribution transformers along its length.
• Load densities are usually below 0.5 kVA per kilometer (0.8 kVA per mile) of line.
• Useful in rural electrification; when the distance between load center/consumer is very high may be preferable
option.
• May feed as many as 80 distribution transformers, transformers are usually rated at 5 kVA, 10 kVA and 25 kVA.
• Any single customer's maximum demand will typically be less than 3.5 kVA, larger loads up to the capacity of the
distribution transformer can also be supplied.
• Up to 66 kV, single phase-ground return are in use in US, India , China, Australia

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 Single-phase ground return (SWER)
• Isolation Transformer changes the grid voltage (typically 22 or 33 kV line-to-line) to the SWER voltage (typically 12.7 or
19.1 kV line-to-earth).
• Since the lines tend to be long, radial with high impedance, the voltage drop along the line is often a problem, causing
poor regulation.
• Most faults (overcurrent) are transient. Automatic reclosing circuit breakers (Reclosers).

• Each service site needs a re-wirable

drop out fuse for protection and
switching of the transformer.

• A surge arrestor (spark gap) on the

high voltage side is common,
especially in lightning-prone areas.

• The transformer secondary should also

be protected by a standard high-
rupture capacity (HRC) fuse or low
voltage circuit breaker.

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 Single-phase ground return (SWER)
ADVANTAGES
1. Cost Reduction
• one conductor, less pole top
equipment
• Long, hilltop to hilltop spans
• Fewer switching and protection
devices
2. Design simplicity
3. Speed of construction
4. Reduced maintenance costs
5. Reduced bushfire hazard- avoid
conductor clashing
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ISSUES
1. Earthing must prevent dangerous step
potential and touch potential
2. Interference problem
3. Creates imbalance in 3-phase supply
line which could erode efficiency
4. Voltage control difficult, power quality
compromised
5. Load density limitations
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 Different Feeder Configurations

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 Radial Feeder Configuration
• the three-phase backbone of the circuit, which is often called the mains or mainline.
• The mainline is normally a modestly large conductor such as a 500- or 750-kcmil aluminum conductor.
• Utilities often design the main feeder for 400 A and often allow an emergency rating of 600 A.
• Branching from the mains are one or more laterals may be
single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase.
• For improved reliability, radial circuits are often
provided with normally open tie points to other circuits
still operating radially,
• If a fault occurs on one of the circuits, the tie switches
allow some portion of the faulted circuit to be restored
quickly.
• Normally, these switches are manually operated, but some
utilities use automated switches or reclosers to perform
these operations automatically.

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 Radial Feeder Configuration
Advantages of the radial distribution network
• Simplest as fed at only one end
• The initial cost is low
• Can be installed easily
• It is useful when the generating is at low voltage
• Preferred when the station is located at the center of the load
• More economical for some areas with a low load requirement;
• Require less amount of cables;
• Radial system can be expanded
• It has a low maintenance.
• Minimum duration of interruption and maximum security of supply.

Disadvantages of the radial distribution network

• The end of distributor near to the substation gets heavily loaded;
• When load on the distributor changes, the clients at the distant end of the distributor
face serious voltage fluctuations;
• As users are dependent on single feeder and distributor, a fault on any of these two
causes interruption in supply to all the users connected to that distributor.
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 Loop or Ring main System
• The failure of the normal source of a
primary cable fault can be isolated
and service restored by
sectionalizing.

• Finding a cable fault in the loop,

however, may be difficult and
dangerous.

• A section may also be energized at

both ends, thus, affecting another
potential danger.

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 Loop or Ring main System
Advantages of the ring distribution network
• In ring power is supplied from both ends as compared to radial;
• In case of a fault in the radial circuit the entire system goes off unlike in ring where by in case one
end gets a fault the other end still keeps on supplying power;
• Compared to the radial system, the voltage drop is less along the distribution line;
• Less voltage fluctuations can be seen at client’s terminals.
• Voltage fluctuations in high loaded areas can be reduced using a tie line.

Disadvantages of the ring distribution network

• Ring is very expensive and requires more materials than radial;
• System and network complexities is more.
• Justification of the loop in required areas is tedious.
• High maintenance cost;
• Not practical where the load is scattered.
• This system is difficult to expand.

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 Spot and Grid Network

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 Spot and Grid Network
• If a primary feeder fails, or a fault occurs on a primary feeder or distribution transformer, the other
transformers start to feed back through the network protector on the faulted circuit.
• The secondary network is the most reliable for large loads. A power interruption can only occur when
there is a simultaneous failure of all primary feeders or when a fault occurs on the secondary bus.
• Voltage dips which could be caused by faults on the system, or large transient loads, are materially
reduced.
• Networks are expensive because of the extra cost of the network protector and excess transformer
capacity.
• The network protector automatically disconnect its associated distribution transformer from the secondary network when
the power starts flowing in reverse direction.
• In addition, each transformer connected in parallel increases the available short-circuit current and
may increase the duty rating requirement of secondary equipment.

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 The Distribution System Terminology
Distribution
transformer

Primary Distribution

Feeder: Line which supplies a point of distribution network without being tapped at any intermediate point.
“without being tapped at any intermediate point” means that feeders are not tapped at any intermediate point to
give supply for direct use to consumers.

Distributor: A line from which tapings are taken along its length to provide supply to various consumers.
Distributor is supplied from a distribution substation where voltage is finally stepped down to utilization voltage for
consumers’ use.

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 The Distribution System Terminology (contd.):

Distribution transformer

Primary Distribution

• Service Wire (Or Secondary Distribution):

The conductor which route power at utilization voltage within very close proximity to customers.

• Distribution Transformer (Service Transformer /Distribution Substation):

The transformer which lowers the voltage at utilization voltage level.

• Load Center:
Area served by a particular service transformer.
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 The Distribution System Terminology (contd.):
• Substation (Area Substation):
Meeting point between transmission & distribution the primary distribution lines receives power at this
juncture.

• Service Area:
Service area of a particular substation or feeder is the area served by that particular substation or feeder

• located near or inside

city/town/village/industrial area
• receives power from a transmission
network
• size of the load to be served
determines the capacity of the
substation
• on the surface in fenced enclosures,
underground, or located in special-
purpose buildings
• Changing the voltage, to isolate
faults, voltage regulations

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1. Primary power lines 2. Ground wire 3. Overhead lines 4. Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
5. Disconnect switch 6. Circuit breaker 7. Current transformer 8. Lightning arrester 9. Main transformer
10. Control building 11. Security fence 12. Secondary power lines (Image Credit: Kiddle)

1. Distribution Transformer 6. Relays

2. Instrument Transformers 7. Capacitor Banks
a. Current Transformer 8. Batteries
b. Potential Transformer
9. Switchyard
10. Metering and Indication Instruments
3. Busbars
11. Equipment of carrier current
4. Lightning Arrestors 12. Surge Voltage Protection
5. Switching Apparatus 13. Grounding
Switches, Fuses, Circuit Breakers 14. Outgoing Feeders
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 Distribution Transformer
• Power rating is expressed in kilovolt-amperes (kVA) or megavolts amperes (MVA), and indicates the amount of power
that can be transferred through the transformer.
– Peak demand of the load center
– Based on the forecasted data
• Distribution substation transformers are typically in the range of 3 kVA to 25 MVA.
• Insulation includes liquid or dry types of transformer insulation.
• Voltage rating dictates the construction and insulation requirements of the transformer to withstand rated voltage or higher
voltages during system operation.
• Typically, distribution transformer is connected delta at the high-voltage side and wye at the low-voltage side.
– Delta connection isolates the two systems with respect to some harmonics (especially third harmonic), which are not desirable in the system.
– A wye connection establishes a convenient neutral point for connection to the ground.
• Typical transformer rated winding temperature rise is 55°C/65°C at ambient temperature of 30°C for liquid-filled
transformers to permit 100% loading or higher if temporarily needed for system operation. Modern low-loss transformers allow
even higher temperature rise; however, operating at higher temperatures may impact insulation and reduce transformer life.
• To achieve voltage regulation, transformers are equipped with voltage tap regulators.
– Those can be either no-load type (requiring disconnecting the load to change the tap) or under-load type (allowing tap changing during
transformer normal load conditions).
– Transformer taps effectively change the transformation ratio and allow voltage regulation of 10–15% in steps of 1.75–2.5% per tap (normally
on the HV side).

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 Switchyard

Outdoor switchyard Indoor Switchyard

• a section of a substation where transmission or distribution lines are fed, which may contain switchgear, standalone,
transfer switches, reclosers, lightning arrestors etc.
• Switchgear in general covers primary switching and interrupting devices together with its control and regulating
equipment.
• Outdoor switchgear is typically used for voltages above 26 kV, whereas indoor switchgear is commonly for voltages
below 26 kV.

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 Aerial Bundled Cable (ABC)
An innovative concept for Over Head (OH) power distribution

ABC provides higher

• Safety
• Reliability
• lower power losses
• stability in voltage regulation
• ultimate system economy by reducing installation,
maintenance and operation cost.
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 Advantages of ABC Cables
• Relative immunity to short circuits caused by external forces (wind, fallen branches), unless they abrade the
insulation.
• Can stand in close proximity to trees/buildings and will not generate sparks if touched.
• Little to no tree trimming necessary
• Simpler installation, as crossbars and insulators are not required.
• Ease of erection and stringing, less labor intensive, less construction resources needed.
• More aesthetically appealing.
• Can be installed in a narrower right of way.
• Significantly improved safety for linespersons, particularly when working on live conductors.
• Electricity theft is made harder, and more obvious to detect.
• Less required maintenance and necessary inspections of lines.
• Improved reliability in comparison with both bare conductor overhead systems and underground systems.

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 Disadvantages of ABC Cables

▪ Additional cost for the cable itself.

▪ Insulation degrades due to sun exposure, though the critical insulation between the wires is
somewhat shielded from the sun.
▪ Shorter spans and more poles due to increased weight.
▪ Can lead to much longer repair times for installations in hilly areas due to much higher line weights
requiring bigger and more specialized equipment to repair.
▪ Older installations are known to cause fires in areas where falling large trees or branches regularly
cause breaks in lines and or in insulation leading to short circuits which can then lead to burning
insulation dripping to ground and starting ground fires.
• Due to twisting of insulated conductors it is more difficult to locate a insulation fault. But experience
shows this happenings are rare.

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 Voltage Regulation in Distribution System

• In distribution system consumer has voltage that vary from:

• Where, V= voltage that needs to be maintained in range.

• Voltage regulation should be maintained at +-5%

• Increasing tapping could increase voltage regulation above permissible value.

• To limit voltage regulation receiving end voltage need to be maintained. Whereas sending end is not
considered much.

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 Voltage Regulation in Distribution System

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 Voltage Regulation in Distribution System

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 Voltage Regulation in Distribution System

• In power system:

Direction of active power flow is form leading phase angle to lagging phase angle whereas direction
of reactive power flow is from higher voltage magnitude to lower magnitude.

• In Distribution system:

Direction of active power flow and direction of reactive power flow both is from higher voltage
magnitude to lower voltage magnitude.

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 Urban and rural
distribution system

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 Urban Electrification
• The special characteristics of the urban distribution system are;
– Capacity limits design: Voltage drop & losses costs are seldom a major concern
requiring large no. of feeders.
– Thermal limit has to be checked.
– Loads are large & often 3-phases
– Higher load density
– Reliability requirements are above average
– Routes are restricted i.e. land problem
– Faster rate of expansion

• For these reasons there are some common adaptations to work within
these design constraints as follows
– UG practice:
– Maximum size cable is often installed:
– Very grid like planning:

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 And reinforcing, reconfiguration is often done by:

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 Rural Electrification
The special characteristics of the Rural distribution system are;
– Sparse load
– Loads vary from small single phase to medium sized three phase.
– Distances are tremendous
– Losses are high
– Voltage drop limits design
– Reliability requirements below average
– Often not profitable

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 AREA SUBSTATION SELECTION

• Service area
• Input / Output voltage level
• Sitting
• Sizing
• Source Grid Substation
• High Voltage & low voltage side configuration
(e.g HT bus bar arrangement, No. of LV feeders, No. of Transformer etc.)

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 Substation sitting
• Availability of land for the various necessary equipment of the required capacity and
required number of distribution feeders for the identified service area of the
substation.
• The cost of land.
• Opportunity for Feeder getaway
• The cost of preparing the site (slope, drainage, underlying soil and rock)
• The cost of transporting material
• Esthetic requirements (fencing, landscaping)
• Available options for expanding the substation capacities, addition of distribution
feeder and extension of sub transmission line for the new substation that may come in
future.
• Right of way for transportation of substation equipment.

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 Service Area identification & Sizing
The expected substation service area has to be fixed asserting the following;

• The area where the reach of the distribution feeder is acceptable. This is to assure
that the entire load within the service area is adequately served (voltage,
reliability).
• No equipment is over loaded considering the constraint in the plan such as
limitations on the size of transformers, circuit breakers etc.
• Distribution feeder costs and its losses are within the acceptable limit considering
the social, geographical, political and other similar scenarios.
• Existing substations are utilized wherever possible. i.e. the areas that can be served
by this proposed substation but at higher cost or loss in comparison to the existing
surrounding substation(s) have to be discarded.

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 Selection of sub transmission line route
• Possibly avoiding any crossing of proposed sub transmission line route with
another high (33kV and above) or Medium (11kV) voltage line this increase the
cost due to high tower.
• Minimizing the length of line.
• Reliability of the system within the acceptable limit
• Maintaining the voltage profile and line loss (as from the preliminary
assessment) in the proposed and effected existing sub transmission line within the
standard limit.
• Overall investment and running cost to be minimum.
• Nearest possible motor able road or major tracks
• Avoiding of proposed alignment crossing through the rural/urban settlements.
• Avoiding of deforesting and long river crossing
• Minimizing the Land acquisition problem

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