The Beginnings of the Ottoman Empire

Clive. Foss
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-beginnings-of-the-ottoman-empire-clive-foss/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

From slaves to prisoners of war: the Ottoman Empire,

Russia, and international law Smiley

https://ebookmass.com/product/from-slaves-to-prisoners-of-war-
the-ottoman-empire-russia-and-international-law-smiley/

Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the

Late Ottoman State 1st Edition Vladimir Hamed-Troyansky

https://ebookmass.com/product/empire-of-refugees-north-caucasian-
muslims-and-the-late-ottoman-state-1st-edition-vladimir-hamed-
troyansky/

Law, Empire, and the Sultan: Ottoman Imperial Authority

and Late Hanafi Jurisprudence Samy Ayoub

https://ebookmass.com/product/law-empire-and-the-sultan-ottoman-
imperial-authority-and-late-hanafi-jurisprudence-samy-ayoub/

Rules, Contracts and Law Enforcement in the Ottoman

Empire: The Case of Tax-Farming Contracts 1st Edition
Bora Altay

https://ebookmass.com/product/rules-contracts-and-law-
enforcement-in-the-ottoman-empire-the-case-of-tax-farming-
contracts-1st-edition-bora-altay/
The Beginnings of the Cult of Relics Robert Wi■niewski

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-beginnings-of-the-cult-of-
relics-robert-wisniewski/

Useful Enemies: Islam and the Ottoman Empire in Western

Political Thought, 1450–1750 Noel Malcolm

https://ebookmass.com/product/useful-enemies-islam-and-the-
ottoman-empire-in-western-political-thought-1450-1750-noel-
malcolm/

Economic Microfoundations of Strategic Management: The

Property Rights Perspective Kirsten Foss

https://ebookmass.com/product/economic-microfoundations-of-
strategic-management-the-property-rights-perspective-kirsten-
foss/

From the Napoleonic Empire to the Age of Empire: Empire

after the Emperor Thomas Dodman

https://ebookmass.com/product/from-the-napoleonic-empire-to-the-
age-of-empire-empire-after-the-emperor-thomas-dodman/

The Palgrave Handbook of Steam Age Gothic Clive Bloom

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-palgrave-handbook-of-steam-age-
gothic-clive-bloom/
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

OX F O R D S T U D I E S I N B Y Z A N T I UM

Editorial Board
jaś elsner catherine holmes
james howard-­j ohnston elizabeth jeffreys
hugh kennedy marc lauxtermann
paul magdalino henry maguire
cyril mango marlia mango
claudia rapp jean-­p ierre sodini
jonathan shepard
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

OXFORD STUDIES IN BYZANTIUM

Oxford Studies in Byzantium consists of scholarly monographs and editions on
the history, literature, thought, and material culture of the Byzantine world.

Church Architecture of Late Antique Northern Mesopotamia

Elif Keser Kayaalp
Byzantine Religious Law in Medieval Italy
James Morton
Caliphs and Merchants
Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700–950)
Fanny Bessard
Social Change in Town and Country in Eleventh-­Century Byzantium
James Howard-­Johnston
Innovation in Byzantine Medicine
The Writings of John Zacharias Aktouarios (c.1275–c.1330)
Petros Bouras-­Vallianatos
Emperors and Usurpers in the Later Roman Empire
Civil War, Panegyric, and the Construction of Legitimacy
Adrastos Omissi
The Universal History of Stepʻanos Tarōnecʻi
Introduction, Translation, and Commentary
Tim Greenwood
The Letters of Psellos
Cultural Networks and Historical Realities
Edited by Michael Jeffreys and Marc D. Lauxtermann
Holy Sites Encircled
The Early Byzantine Concentric Churches of Jerusalem
Vered Shalev-­Hurvitz
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

The Beginnings of the

Ottoman Empire
CLIVE FOSS

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Clive Foss 2022
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2022
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021942724
ISBN 978–0–19–886543–8
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198865438.001.0001
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A.
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

In Memoriam
MARK WHITTOW
Who would have enjoyed discussing all this
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

Contents

List of Maps ix
List of Illustrations xi
Introduction1
1. The Homeland of the Ottomans 9
2. The View from Byzantium 99
3. Reconciling the Accounts 135
4. Non-­Narrative Sources 141
5. The Overlords 157
6. Osman and his Neighbors 163
7. Western Asia Minor in the 1330s 191
8. The Aftermath 223
9. Final Thoughts 231

Bibliography 245
Index 255
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

List of Maps

1. The Homeland xv
2. The Aegean region xvi
3. The Marmara region xvii
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

List of Illustrations

1.1 Ertuğrul’s tomb in Söğüt 11

1.2 Söğüt, seen from the southeast 12
1.3 Söğüt, from the west 12
1.4 Byzantine remains at Günyarık 15
1.5 The Domaniç mountains, with some grazing ground [5] 18
1.6 Looking down on the plain of İnegöl from the Domaniç range 19
1.7 The great forest near Domaniç 19
1.8 The site of Bilecik 24
1.9 Bilecik: Orhan’s mosque 25
1.10 Karacahisar barely visible on top of the hill [10] 30
1.11 The town of İnönü 34
1.12 İnönü’s fortified cave 36
1.13 Looking east from Sultanönü 37
1.14 Harmankaya, home of Mihal 47
1.15 The Sangarius valley, west of Inhisar 50
1.16 Bozaniçkaya on the Sangarius 51
1.17 Taraklı, a goal of raids 51
1.18 Göynük, once an emirate 53
1.19 Mudurnu, once a bishopric 54
1.20 Caravansaray of Mihal beg at Gölpazar 56
1.21 Çakır Pınar 59
1.22 Yarhisar 59
1.23 Yarhisar: Orhan’s mosque 60
1.24 The walls of Ulubat/Lopadion 64
1.25 The fort of Iki Kule 66
1.26 Malagina, overlooking the Sangarius 67
1.27 Walls of Malagina/Akhisar 68
1.28 The Sangarius at Geyve 69
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

xii List of Illustrations

1.29 Justinian’s bridge over the Sangarius 70

1.30 Tower-­like structure on the bridge 71
1.31 Karadin/Trikokkia 71
1.32 Monument to Akçakoca in Kandıra 74
1.33 Looking down on Nicaea 77
1.34 Lascarid tower of Nicaea 78
1.35 Karacakaya, a blockading fort 79
1.36 Apollonia 82
2.1 Nicaea: tower of Andronicus II 106
2.2 Menteşe’s island fortress 107
2.3 Aerial view looking north toward Acropolis of
Sardis. © Archaeological Exploration of Sardis/President
and Fellows of Harvard College, reproduced with permission 112
2.4 Chliara: a Byzantine military base, secure in the mountains
overlooking the plain [40] 114
2.5 Tripolis 115
2.6 The walls of Philadelphia. © History and Art
Collection/Alamy Stock Photo 116
2.7 Walls and citadel of Magnesia © History and Art
Collection/Alamy Stock Photo 116
2.8 Niketiaton 123
2.9 Nicomedia: Byzantine walls 124
2.10 The gulf of Nicomedia 125
4.1 Orhan’s new coinage, struck in Bursa in 1327. © Classic
Numismatic Group, LLC, http://www.cngcoins.com, reproduced
with permission 143
4.2 Birgi’s great mosque (1312) 149
7.1 Peçin, Menteşe’s new capital 193
7.2 Birgi, Aydın’s capital [50] 196
7.3 Aydın’s summer resort 197
7.4 The citadel of Ephesus 198
7.5 The Cayster valley, one source of Aydın’s wealth 199
7.6 Silver gigliato of Theologos (Ephesus). Courtesy of the
Princeton University Numismatic Collection, Department
of Rare Books and Special Collections, Firestone Library 200
7.7 Nif/Nymphaeum: Byzantine and later fortifications [55] 203
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

List of Illustrations xiii

7.8 Nymphaeum: the Lascarid palace 204

7.9 Bergama, a Karesi capital 205
7.10 Achyraous/“Akira,” Karesi’s first capital 206
7.11 Kütahya: walls 209
7.12 Kütahya citadel [60] 209
7.13 Bursa, Orhan’s capital 211
7.14 Kastamonu: city center, with citadel in background 215
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

List of Maps xv

1. The Homeland
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi
2. The Aegean region
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

List of Maps xvii

3. The Marmara region

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/12/21, SPi

Introduction

One of the great historical problems at the dawn of the modern age is the
emergence of the Ottomans and consequent collapse of the Byzantine
empire. At first sight, it seems astonishing that an insignificant Turkish
group in a remote corner of Bithynia on the borders of Byzantium should
rise so rapidly from obscurity to domination. When Osman, the epony-
mous founder of a mighty future empire, was born, his people were a tribe
still wandering, or perhaps recently settled, in the land which was to give
birth to their state. A century later, his descendants had crossed into Europe,
soon to overwhelm all their enemies, and on the threshold of becoming a
world power. Close investigation does little to resolve the problem. It has
fascinated scholars in modern times almost as much as the Fall of the
Roman Empire, and with no more satisfactory results: many theories of
varying plausibility have been constructed, but the mystery remains.1 This
chapter has not the ambition to lift the veil which surrounds the origins of
the Ottomans, but merely to suggest a way of approaching the problem, and
present some material rarely considered in this context.
The earliest Ottoman history depends on Turkish chronicles written in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, with scattered information derived
from earlier Byzantine and Arab writers. The oldest source is the Greek his-
torian George Pachymeres (1242–c.1310), a contemporary of Osman who
first mentions him in 1302, and concludes his narrative in 1308. He is fol-
lowed by Nicephorus Gregoras (1295–1359) and John VI Cantacuzene
(1292–1383), who were active in the reigns of Orhan and Murat I. The
Arabic accounts of al-­Umari and the observant traveler Ibn Battuta describe
a situation in the early years of Orhan, around 1333–1335.2 They are con-
temporary with the oldest epigraphical, numismatic, and archaeological
evidence: the first dated Ottoman inscription is of 1333, the earliest coins
from the beginning of the reign of Orhan, the first buildings or traces of
them from the years following the conquest of Nicaea in 1331. These are the
contemporary sources, adequate enough, perhaps, for the reign of Orhan
(c. 1320–1360), but revealing little of the crucial half-­century previous when

The Beginnings of the Ottoman Empire. Clive Foss, Oxford University Press. © Clive Foss 2022.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198865438.003.0001
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
 copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.