s11042-024-19795-4

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-024-19795-4
Advancing lung cancer diagnosis with bio‑inspired

algorithms: a comprehensive assessment
Jyoti Kumari1 · Sapna Sinha1 · Laxman Singh2
Received: 19 October 2023 / Revised: 4 June 2024 / Accepted: 27 June 2024

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2024
Abstract
Lung cancer is a prevalent and deadly disease with a high global incidence rate. For effi-
cient treatment with a positive prognosis for patients, early identification with precise sub-
type categorization of lung cancer is essential. Bio-inspired algorithms have emerged as
promising tools for solving complex medical problems in recent years. This paper compre-
hensively reviews bio-inspired algorithms used for lung cancer prediction and classifica-
tion. The current study investigates the use of several bio-inspired algorithms for identify-
ing and forecasting problems involving lung cancer, such as genetic algorithms, particle
swarm optimization, artificial neural networks, and ant colony optimization. These algo-
rithms mimic the behaviour of natural systems to optimize model parameters, improve fea-
ture selection, and dimensionality reduction methods and enhance prediction accuracy.
Keywords Lung cancer · Bio-inspired algorithm · Feature selection · Accuracy ·

Prediction · Optimization
1 Introduction
Lung cancer, a significant public health problem, accounts for a significant part of fatalities
caused by cancer globally. Traditional lung cancer prediction and classification methods
rely on manual interpretation of clinical and histological data, which may be time-consum-
ing and subjective. Bio-inspired algorithms have emerged as a viable route for resolving
* Jyoti Kumari
jyoti.kumari4@s.amity.edu
Sapna Sinha
ssinha4@amity.edu
Laxman Singh
Laxman.mehlawat2@gmail.com
1
Department of Information Technology, Amity Institute of Information Technology, Amity
University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201313, India
2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering (AI‑ML), KIET Group of Institutions,
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201206, India
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
these problems and improving the accuracy and efficiency of lung cancer diagnosis in
recent years.
Bio-inspired algorithms are computational approaches that draw inspiration from
biological concepts and mechanisms. To handle complicated optimisation and clas-
sification issues, these algorithms replicate the behaviour of natural systems such as
genetic evolution, swarm intelligence, neural networks, and ant colony activity. Engi-
neering optimization problems have been solved at a higher level using bio-inspired
approaches. Because of the efficiency & simplicity of usage, the process has recently
caught the attention of scholars. This review is flexible and durable because natural pro-
cesses motivate it [1]. This in-depth investigation aims to look at how lung cancer sick-
ness is forecasted and classified using bio-inspired methodologies. By carefully analys-
ing the published work, the author wants to offer a comprehensive review of the current
state-of-the-art, recognize research gaps & issues, and offer future directions for utiliz-
ing bio-inspired methodologies in the context of lung cancer studies.
Especially for tackling challenging optimization problems in the engineering field,
bio-inspired approaches are gaining importance. These stochastic search techniques are
employed to identify almost ideal answers to complex optimization problems [2].
The survey indicates that during the last five years, the percentage of those affected
by lung cancer has steadily increased. The results show that lung cancer remains one of
the infections with highest esteem for earlier detection among healthcare professionals
[3]. Lung cancer is often diagnosed by observing symptoms that include bloody cough-
ing, chest pain, shortness of respiration, loss of weight, loss of memory, fractured bones,
facial swelling, vocal change, and sputum of a different colour [4]. Numerous screening
techniques [5] are currently used endlessly to assess patients who have been affected by
these developments, including genetic testing, bronchoscopy, reflex testing, fluid sam-
pling, biopsy, and blood testing. The procedure shown in Fig. 1 is a thorough method of
locating and classifying lung nodules in CT images, combining expert analysis, machine
learning, and image processing to increase diagnostic accuracy.
Bio-inspired algorithms are computational approaches which tackle difficult opti-
mization and classification problems by taking inspiration from biological systems and
Nodule
Preprocessing Segmentation
Detection
Input image
(CT)
Feature
Benign Classification
Extraction
Malignant
Objective Subjective
Analysis Analysis
Fig. 1 Overview of Lung cancer diagnosis
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natural processes. Bio-inspired algorithms are particularly well-suited to handle the dif-
ficulties involved in lung cancer diagnosis because the algorithms are particularly good
at handling complex optimization and classification tasks [6]. Bio-inspired algorithms
provide better accuracy and efficiency than traditional methods, which can be laborious
and subjective. The following examines deeper into a few popular bio-inspired algo-
rithms and how it might be used for lung cancer classification and prediction in the fol-
lowing table 1.
Integrating these bio-inspired algorithms into the context of lung cancer prediction and
classification offers promising avenues for improving the accuracy and efficiency of diag-
nostic processes. By leveraging the principles of natural systems, these algorithms can
potentially handle complex optimization problems inherent in medical data analysis, lead-
ing to more accurate predictions and earlier detection of lung cancer. Scientists improved
the effectiveness of bio-inspired algorithms in lung cancer prediction and classification
tasks by combining feature extraction techniques, dimensionality reduction approaches,
and ensemble learning tactics. These methodologies enable more robust and thorough anal-
ysis of complicated and diverse datasets, aiding the discovery of important biomarkers and
the classification of lung cancer subtypes. Bioinspired algorithms are used to improve lung
cancer diagnosis is a major advancement in cancer detection and medical imaging. These
algorithms present practical solutions to the problems with conventional techniques, which
could result in better patient outcomes, fewer false positives, and earlier and more accurate
diagnoses. Not only will a thorough evaluation of these methods show the benefits and
Table 1 Bio-inspired algorithms and their types
Genetic Algorithms (GA) GAs are inspired by natural selection and genetics, enabling to solve
optimization and search problems by imitating natural development. The
algorithm can be used to optimize feature selection, model parameters,
and machine learning model structure in areas like lung cancer predic-
tion and classification. GAs can explore vast solution spaces and reach
optimal or nearly optimal solutions through selection, crossover, and
mutation processes.
Swarm Intelligence Algorithms Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)
are swarm intelligence algorithms that use the collective behaviour of
social insects or animals. PSO simulates how individuals in groups of
birds or fish modify the placements to find the best solutions based on
the experiences and neighbours. ACO uses pheromone trails to confirm
food routes during foraging behaviour. These techniques can optimize
feature selection, model parameters, and classifier performance by emu-
lating cooperation and communication observed in real systems, such as
lung cancer prediction.
Neural Networks The human brain’s architecture and functioning inspire artificial neural
networks (ANNs), which have proven successful in various categori-
zation tasks, including medical diagnosis. Deep learning algorithms,
a subset of neural networks, have the potential to improve prediction
accuracy in lung cancer diagnosis by learning features from raw data
like genetic profiles or medical pictures. These networks are not "bio-
inspired" and can imitate biological processes.
Evolutionary Strategies Evolutionary strategies (ES) are a type of bio-inspired algorithm that opti-
mizes solutions through mutation and selection, distinct from genetic
algorithms. They focus on mutation-based search without explicit
crossover procedures, enabling the selection of features for machine
learning models and parameter adjustments for lung cancer prediction.
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drawbacks, but it will pave the way to the creation of hybrid diagnostic systems that are
more potent. This research intends to revolutionise lung cancer diagnostics and lay a strong
basis for future breakthroughs in the field by combining the adaptability and efficiency of
bio-inspired algorithms with the potent capabilities of machine learning. The contributions
of this work are as follows:
• Research is being conducted on the detection of lung cancer using bio-inspired algo-
rithms through machine learning techniques.
• Additionally, hybrid approaches are being explored for the detection of lung cancer,
incorporating bio-inspired algorithms.
The structure of this review research is outlined below: The structure of this review
study is explained in Section 2. The existing research, its approach, and its drawbacks are
covered in detail in Section 3. The overview of the methods utilized in this survey research
is covered in Section 4. The difficulties and potential scope are covered in Section 5. The
paper is concluded in Section 6.
2 The structure of this systematic literature review’s procedure
This part describes the approach used to conduct a comprehensive review of the litera-
ture for lung cancer detection.
2.1 Search strategy
The relevant studies were identified using six digital libraries: IEEE Explorer, ACM Digi-
tal Library, Science Direct, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar. These are the
majority of popular and frequently utilized digital archives for recognizing and classifying
lung cancer. The search query string is used to locate papers that are relevant to studying
issues like “Lung cancer”, “bio-inspired algorithm”, “Optimization”, and “feature selec-
tion” in a certain database. For the research, related terms and alternatives to important
words such as ‘ant colony optimization’, ‘genetic algorithm’, and ‘PSO’ are evaluated. The
numerous ways for achieving the objectives are also given.
2.2 Research questions
The research questions are essential in selecting the search strategy, data extraction, and
analysis in the context of a systematic literature review. The following have been chosen as
the research questions for this investigation:
RQ1. Which type of Bio-inspired optimization is used in the existing literature paper
and what are the disadvantages and what are the outcomes obtained?
RQ2. What different performance indicators are utilized to assess lung cancer identifica-
tion methods?
RQ3. What are the various future suggestive techniques for Lung cancer detection?
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RQ4. What are the possible obstacles and facilitators for the implementation of bioin-
spired algorithms in healthcare environments?
RQ6. How much may bio-inspired algorithms be used to improve the accuracy of lung
nodule classification through feature selection?
RQ7. What are the computational efficiency and scalability of bio-inspired algorithms
when applied to large-scale lung CT datasets?
2.3 Criteria for article selection process
The inclusion and exclusion standards have been established after thorough consideration
of the quality of literature already in existence. With the help of an expert advisor, the writ-
ers reviewed the publications and decided which ones to include and exclude. The papers
were evaluated based on the following standards:
Inclusion Criteria: Employing bio-inspired classification, the authors included papers
published between 2012 and 2023 as the algorithm was fully searchable.
Exclusion Criteria: Papers that fail to satisfy the aforementioned inclusion requirements.
2.4 Quality assessment
The articles were acquired and reviewed by qualified professionals connected to reputable
journals and conferences. No specific quality requirements were required.
2.5 Data extraction
The qualities have been identified from existing literature and published literature reviews.
The characteristics taken into account in the extraction are as follows:
a. Publication year
b. Methods discussed
c. Bio-inspired Optimization techniques
3 Literature survey
The research on algorithmic machine learning for lung tumour diagnosis is covered in this
subsection. Aside from important research goals, it also contains various methodologies,
imaging techniques, and performance indicators, as well as a brief examination of existing
articles and methods, as well as their merits and limitations.
In Fig. 2, the taxonomy of several bio-inspired optimization algorithms such as genetic
algorithm, artificial bee colony, ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization, fire-
fly algorithm, Harris hawks optimization, Japanese tree frog algorithm, slime mould opti-
mization, sparrow search algorithm, grey wolf optimization, Siberian tiger optimization,
whale optimization, and jellyfish search algorithm which can be used for diagnosing the
lung cancer.
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Genetic algorithm
Artificial bee colony
Ant colony optimization
Particle swarm optimization
Firefly algorithm
Harris Hawks optimization
Bio-inspired Japanese tree frog algorithm

optimization
Slime mould optimization
Sparrow search algorithm
Grey wolf optimization
Siberian tiger optimization
Whale optimization
Jellyfish search algorithm
Fig. 2 Taxonomy of Bio-inspired Optimization Algorithm
3.1 Related works based on machine learning techniques
For the identification & segmentation of lung CT images, Kumar et al. [7] combined the
2D Otsu technique with an enhanced artificial bee colony method. The correlation val-
ues are used to calculate the performance.
Joon et al. [8] demonstrated the segmentation of malignant and non-cancerous lung
area nodules by k-mean clustering and fuzzy c-mean. The support vector machine clas-
sification uses the obtained architectural & texturing features.
Vijh et al. [9] developed a process for creating a computer-assisted lung tumour seg-
mentation method. For feature selection, the whale optimization method is utilized, and
for classification, the support vector machine is utilized. To evaluate the effectiveness
of the method, many SVM kernels are utilized. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specific-
ity of the RBF support vector kernel, on the other hand, were 95%, 100%, and 92%,
respectively.
For patients with cancer, early sickness identification is crucial. The survival rate is
increased by the disease’s precise prognosis. However, with current techniques, precise
identification of lung cancer is crucial and time-intensive. Venkatesh et al. [10] offer a
hybrid technique to overcome this challenge. The availability of current technologies has
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paved the door for researchers to investigate genes and the interactions in several diseases
such as lung cancer. In this research, a hybrid strategy is suggested in which a genetic opti-
mization algorithm is utilised in conjunction with SVM classification and a unique feature
selection technique to identify cancer in CT images.
Early tumour detection reduces lung cancer mortality by improving the probability of
successful therapy. Venkatesh et al. [11] present a unique Hybrid model for detection and
data transfer. The following processes are all simulated: pre-processing, segmentation uti-
lizing Otsu thresholding and the swarm intelligence method, feature extraction utilizing
a local binary pattern, and then classification utilizing the SVM. Employing the swarm
intelligence optimization method, lung cancer is first detected utilizing CT images. In the
second step, the data was transmitted via Thingspeak and IoT. The initial phase is to read
the lung cancer CT images from both public as well as private sources. Results of the test-
ing reveal that the model developed can reach up to 93.53 per cent accuracy.
Early identification of lung tumours helps patients avoid mortality and provides better
therapy. To help in the initial identification of lung tumours, several research studies were
recommended. The main difficulties are long calculation times and tumour misidentifica-
tion. Abdulla et al.’s [12], hybrid classifier depending on the Atrous Spatial Pyramid Pool-
ing (ASPP)-Unet design with the Whale Optimisation Algorithm (ASPP-Unet -WOA), was
proposed as a solution to these issues. On the dataset from the National Cancer Institute
(NCI) Lung Cancer Database Consortium, this proposed (ASPPUnet -WOA) technique
is used. Different performance metric metrics are analysed and compared to current clas-
sifiers. When compared to the other methods, the accuracy of CNN is 91.67%, UNet is
95.75%, and ASPP-UNet-WOA is 98.68%.
The Ummadi et al [13] framework aims to identify lung tumours in early stages using
various methods such as picture securing, pre-handling, binarization, thresholding, divi-
sion, feature extraction, and neural system identification. The framework inputs lung CT
pictures and undergoes pre-processing using picture handling systems. The first stage
uses binarization to compare two-fold images and identify lung tumour growth. The sec-
ond stage divides the lung CT pictures and uses a solid component extraction technique
to remove critical elements. Separated features are used to prepare the neural system. The
framework’s execution shows acceptable results and 96.67% accuracy.
Negar et al. [14] used a kNN machine-learning method and a feature-selection genetic
algorithm to classify lung cancer patient risks into low, medium, and high levels. The
model used a Python-coded algorithm to determine the optimal number of neighbours in
the kNN algorithm. The study found that when the kNN method is hybridized with a fea-
ture selection algorithm, the classification accuracy significantly increases. Table 2 shows
the survey of various ML methods with their techniques for lung cancer detection. Figure 3
represents the analysis of accuracy metrics with state-of-the-art ML techniques with its
reference cited in the graph.
3.2 Summary
Several studies have explored methods for identifying and segmenting lung CT images
for early tumour detection. Kumar et al. combined the 2D Otsu technique with an
enhanced artificial bee colony method. By optimising the threshold selection process,
the artificial bee colony in conjunction with the 2D Otsu approach successfully seg-
ments lung CT images, while Joon et al. demonstrated nodule segmentation using
k-means clustering and fuzzy c-mean. By combining the advantages of both techniques,
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Table 2 Survey of various machine learning for lung cancer detection
Authors & Reference Title of the paper Publication Year Algorithm Used Dataset Results Limitations/Future work
number
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Kumar et al [7] Segmentation of CT 2011 Differential Evolution - - Otsu is sufficient for high-
Lung Images Based on contrast image segmen-
2D Otsu Optimized by tation but not applicable
Differential Evolution for low-contrast images
Joon et al [8] Segmentation and detec- 2019 Clustering optimization The database is taken - New algorithms need to be
tion of lung cancer from RJ Hospital improved.
using image process-
ing and clustering
techniques
Vijh et al [9] An intelligent lung 2020 Whale Optimization Medical image dataset Accuracy 95% Enhance system perfor-
tumour diagnosis Method mance by utilizing sev-
system using whale eral imaging modalities
optimization algorithm for lung tumour pictures.
and support vector
machine.
Venkatesh et al [10] A novel approach for 2019 Genetic Algorithm - - The algorithm needs
lung lesion segmenta- to improve for better
tion using optimization accuracy.
technique.
Venkatesh et al [11] Lung Cancer Detection 2020 Particle Swarm Optimi- The dataset collected Accuracy 96.5% DL facilitates more effi-
Using Bio-Inspired zation from a private hospital cient analysis of findings
Algorithm in CT in Ananthapuramu
Scans and Secure Data
Transmission through
IoT Cloud
Abdulla et al [12] Detection of Lung Tumor 2022 Whale optimization Dataset of National Accuracy 98.68% This work can be extended
Using ASPP-Unet with Algorithm Cancer Institute (NCI) to diagnosis strategies.
Whale Optimization Lung Cancer Database
Algorithm Consortium
Table 2 (continued)
Authors & Reference Title of the paper Publication Year Algorithm Used Dataset Results Limitations/Future work
number
Ummadi et al [13] Recognition of Lung 2019 Fuzzy Neural Networks Dataset obtained from 96.67% accuracy Dependence on Image
Cancer Using Machine with GAs UCI machine Reposi- Quality and Sensitiv-
Learning Mechanisms tory ity to Pre-processing
with Fuzzy Neural Technique
Networks
Negar et al [14] A k-NN method for lung 2021 Genetic Algorithm Lung cancer dataset 99% accuracy Sensitivity to Parameter
cancer prognosis with Tuning

the use of a genetic
algorithm for feature
selection
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Fig. 3 Analysis of accuracy metrics
k-means and FCM offer a reliable way of segmenting lung lesions. Vijh et al. developed
a computer-assisted lung tumour segmentation method using the whale optimization
method and support vector machine. Venkatesh et al. proposed a hybrid technique using
genetic optimization, SVM classification, and a unique feature selection technique for
precise cancer identification in CT images. Another study presented a hybrid model for
early tumour detection and data transfer. This model efficiently manages the data and
incorporates multiple strategies for early tumour detection. The focus is on early iden-
tification and efficient handling of medical data; the model’s specifics and data transfer
protocols are left ambiguous. Abdulla et al. proposed a hybrid classifier based on the
ASPP-Unet-WOA design, achieving high accuracy on the NCI Lung Cancer Database
Consortium dataset. By combining conventional techniques with innovative algorithms,
improving the accuracy of nodule segmentation and classification, and tackling the chal-
lenges associated with medical image analysis, researchers have improved the diagnosis
of lung cancer.
3.3 Related works based on hybrid techniques
Prabukumar et al.’s hybrid segmentation algorithm [15] for the nodule employed Fuzzy
C-means (FCM) with a region-expanding algorithm. A cuckoo search approach is con-
sumed to choose the optimum features after retrieving the segmented nodule’s statisti-
cal, texture, and geometrical characteristics. An SVM is employed to assess categoriza-
tion utilizing the most effective attributes, producing a total accuracy of 98.5%.
The likelihood of survival is significantly increased by early identification of lung can-
cer. Utilizing Otsu’s threshold segmentation method with a 5-level HAAR discrete wavelet
transform system, the cancerous spots in lung cancer images are retrieved. Perumal et al’s
[16] Enhanced Artificial Bee Colony Optimisation (EABC) approach finds probable cancer
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spots in CT images using MATLAB software. This procedure assists radiologists and med-
ical specialists in identifying the initial phases of lung cancer.
Lung cancer is a particularly prevalent kind of cancer in men worldwide. The oppo-
site therapy is used when lung cancer is discovered soon, saving lives. Senthil Kumar
et al. utilized and evaluated the efficacy of five optimization techniques—k-means clus-
tering, k-median clustering, PSO, inertia-weighted PSO, and guaranteed convergence
PSO (GCPSO)—to remove the tumour from the lung picture [17]. The GCPSO had an
optimal accuracy of 95.89%, it was also found.
This essay’s main emphasis is on earlier lung cancer detection. Identification is advised
using the non-parametric genetic K-Nearest Neighbour (GKNN) Procedure. This optimiza-
tion technique allows clinicians to identify nodules in CT lung scans in the initial phases
of lung cancer. To quickly and effectively identify the cancer images, Bhuvaneswari et al
[18] integrated the Genetic Algorithm technique with the K-NN technique meanwhile
the manual interpretation of lung cancer CT scans takes time but is important. The genetic
approach is used in this recommended method to choose K (50-100) samples for every
iteration that follows when a classification accuracy of 90% is attained as fitness.
Kiran et al [19] presented research to compare the Novel Genetic Algorithm (GA) sys-
tem with the PSO technique to increase lung cancer prediction accuracy. For lung cancer
detection, two groups were used: Group 1 and Group 2. A total of 40 samples were col-
lected, with 20 samples obtained for each group and 40 samples collected as a whole. For
accuracy prediction, the enhanced GA method was compared to the PSO algorithm. For
lung cancer prediction, data was collected from multiple sources, and the Improved GA
algorithm was employed throughout the process, yielding more accurate findings than the
PSO method.
In this study, Surbhi et al. [20] combined the benefits of the whale optimization algo-
rithm (WOA) with the adaptive PSO (APSO) to create an integrated bio-inspired technique.
The hybrid WOA_APSO algorithm designates the suggested method. Pre-processing and
segmentation are used for 120 lung CT images to produce segmented tumored and non-
tumorifed area nodules. The best feature selection has a significant impact on the classifica-
tion method’s accuracy. Results from studies show that the suggested strategy outperforms
the most advanced techniques now available for the autonomous detection of lung cancer.
Lung nodules are crucial indicators of lung cancer, and early discovery allows for proper
treatment and enhances patient survival rates. Even though much effort has been made in
this field, more precision is necessary to increase the patient’s survival rate. In this study,
the normal along with pathological images are identified utilizing the Nave Bayes classi-
fier by Manickavasagam et al [21], and the stages of nodules are estimated utilizing the
neuro-fuzzy with cuckoo search. The input photographs are initially categorized as normal
or abnormal using the Naive Bayes classifier in the initial part of the suggested approach.
The second component of the system divides all four phases of lung cancer into categories
utilizing a Neuro-Fuzzy classifier and the Cuckoo Search algorithm.
Asuntha et al.’s [22] goal is to classify lung cancer by its severity by utilizing cutting-
edge Deep Learning algorithms to recognize malignant lung nodules in a lung image.
Numerous feature extraction techniques are used in this research, namely HoG, wavelet
transform-based features, LBP, SIFT, and Zernike Moment. DL is utilized to categorize
these properties, and the Fuzzy PSO (FPSO) approach is utilized to choose the best feature
from texture, geometric, volumetric, and intensity data. The FPSOCNN shows superior
performance and minimizes the complexity of computation, demonstrating its efficacy in
recognizing malignant lung nodules.
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Asuntha et al. [23] describe a lung cancer detection system that employs image process-
ing techniques such as PSO, Genetic Optimisation, and SVM algorithms. Cancerous cells
can be detected using CT, MRI, and ultrasound scans. The suggested model employs a
canny filter to identify edges and superpixel segmentation to segment them. MATLAB and
simulation results are used to compare the system. The suggested approach detects malig-
nant cells in CT, MRI, and ultrasound images with high accuracy. The performance of the
system is assessed using MATLAB and comparisons of the three medical photos.
Chunhong et al [24] offer a uniquely intelligent approach to diagnosing lung cancer.
This approach focuses on the GA-based selection of an ideal feature subset for defining
input patterns to decrease the dimension of lung cancer illness while retaining high clas-
sification accuracy. To begin, knowledge about nonlinear correlations among variables is
gathered via mutual information (MI). Second, for lung cancer data, an effective GA-based
subset selection strategy is suggested. Lung cancer diagnosis benefits generally from the
recommended feature selection technique according to GA and SVM.
For the recognition of lung cancer, Rashid et al. [25] offer a unique IoT-enabled health
surveillance platform with an improved deep CNN (DCNN) algorithm that utilizes IGWO.
The most important characteristics for identifying lung nodules are chosen using the Tas-
manian Devil Optimization (TDO) method, and a better grey wolf optimization (GWO)
strategy is produced by modifying the convergence rate of the normal GWO algorithm.
Therefore, an IGWO-based DCNN is trained to utilize the most effective IoT platform fea-
tures, then the outcomes are stored in the cloud for the doctor to review. The model is cre-
ated utilizing Python modules that allow DCNN on an Android system, and the outcomes
are contrasted with state-of-the-art lung cancer identification algorithms.
Surbhi et al. [26] have developed a hybrid bio-inspired algorithm, the hybrid WOA_
APSO algorithm, which combines the strengths of the whale optimization algorithm
(WOA) and adaptive particle swarm optimization (APSO). The algorithm uses a convo-
lutional neural network (CNN) for classification purposes. Extensive experiments were
conducted on 120 lung CT images to extract tumored and non-tumored region nodules.
The hybrid bio-inspired WOA_APSO algorithm uses linear discriminant analysis for fea-
ture selection grouping. Twofold performance comparisons were conducted, comparing the
performance against different classification techniques and the computational cost of the
hybrid WOA_APSO with standard WOA and APSO algorithms. The experimental results
showed that the proposed algorithm outperforms other state-of-the-art methods in accuracy
(97.18%), sensitivity (97%), and specificity measures (98.66%).
Naveen Kumar et al. [27] developed a new Enhanced vortex search algorithm optimized
Support Vector Machine (EVSAO-SVM) for detection and classification. The study simu-
lated pre-processing, segmentation, feature extraction, and classification using Gaussian
Filter, Otsu thresholding, local binary patterns, and EVSAO-SVM. The proposed frame-
work outperformed traditional approaches reaching up to 95.42% sensitivity, 96.24% accu-
racy, 998.2% specificity, and 94.26% F1 measure. Table 3 shows the survey of various
hybrid approaches for lung cancer detection. Figure 4 shows the comparative analysis of
accuracy metrics with state-of-art of-hybrid approaches cited with reference in the graph.
3.4 Summary
The study investigates various algorithms and techniques for lung cancer detection. Hybrid
segmentation algorithms, including Fuzzy C-means and a region-expanding algorithm,
achieved 98.5% accuracy. With a 98.5% accuracy rate, these hybrid algorithms are useful
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Table 3 Survey of various hybrid approaches for lung cancer detection
Authors & Ref.no Title of the paper Publication Year Algorithm Used Dataset Results Limitations/Future work
Prabu Kumar et al [15] An intelligent lung can- 2019 Cuckoo Search Optimi- Early Lung Cancer Accuracy 98.5% Need to increase clas-
cer diagnosis system zation & SVM Action Program sification precision; can
using cuckoo search (ELCAP) public enhance the method
optimization and sup- database for various lung cancer
port vector machine image modalities.
classifier
Perumal et al [16] Lung cancer detection 2018 Enhanced ABC optimi- LIDC (7–9) - The method needs to be
and classification on zation improved.

CT scan images using
enhanced artificial
bee colony optimiza-
tion.
Senthil Kumar et al [17] Lung cancer detection 2019 GCPSO Medical Image dataset Accuracy 90% More strategies for
using image segmen- optimization ought
tation by means of to be incorporated to
various evolutionary increase accuracy.
algorithms.
Bhuvaneswari et al [18] Detection of Cancer 2015 Genetic algorithm & Cancer lung CT images Accuracy 90% Computation time is
in Lung with K-NN KNN much less.
Classification Using
Genetic Algorithm.
Kiran et al [19] Detection of Lung 2022 Genetic Algorithm - - Results need to be
Disease using Novel & Particle Swarm improved for better
Genetic Algorithm Optimization accuracy.
in comparison with
Particle Swarm Opti-
mization to improve
Accuracy.
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Table 3 (continued)
13
Surbhi et al [20] Hybrid bio-inspired 2020 Whale Optimization Lung Cancer Database Accuracy 97.18% System performance
algorithm and Algorithm & PSO consortium is low so system
convolutional neural performance needs to
network for automatic be enhanced using a
lung tumour detec- variety of modalities
tion.
Manickavasagamet al Automatic Detection 2019 Neuro-Fuzzy systems LIDC database Accuracy 97.8% The work may be
[21] and Classification and Cuckoo Search expanded to determine
of Lung Nodules algorithm the nodule’s growth
in CT Image Using rate.
Optimized Neuro-
Fuzzy Classifier
with Cuckoo Search
Algorithm.
Asuntha et al [22] Deep learning for lung 2020 Fuzzy PSO Convolu- Real-time dataset Accuracy 94.97% Classification of cancer
Cancer detection and tion Neural Network nodules needs to be
classification improved for better
results.
Asuntha et al [23] Lung cancer detection 2016 PSO with General Opti- Lung CT, MRI AND Accuracy 89.5% Classification using the
using SVM algorithm mization techniques Ultrasound images Pearson and Spearman
and optimization were obtained from Method to identify
techniques. a specialist medical areas that are cancer-
imaging centre prone
Chunhong et al [24] An Intelligent System 2014 Genetic algorithm and Lung cancer dataset Accuracy 99.0% Applicable for a small
for Lung Cancer SVM number of datasets
Diagnosis Using a
New Genetic Algo-
rithm-Based Feature
Selection Method
Table 3 (continued)
Rashid et al [25] A Novel IoT-Enabled 2023 Improved Grey wolf Benchmark Exasens Accuracy 98.27%, sen- This work can be
Healthcare Monitor- optimization and dataset sitivity 97.67%, and extended to real-time
ing Framework and Deep CNN specificity 98.12% applications.
Improved Grey Wolf
Optimization Algo-
rithm-Based Deep
Convolution Neural
Network Model for

Early Diagnosis of
Lung Cancer
Surbhi et al. [26] Hybrid bio-inspired 2023 whale optimization NCI Lung Cancer Accuracy 97.18%, Issues related to scal-
algorithm and algorithm and adap- Database Consortium sensitivity 97%, and ability, generalization
convolutional neural tive particle swarm specificity measures to different datasets,
network for automatic optimization 98.66% and computational
lung tumour detection complexity.
Naveen kumar et al [27] Bio-inspired swarm 2023 Enhanced vortex search IQ-OTH lung cancer 95.42% sensitivity, limitations could include
intelligent with algorithm optimized dataset 96.24% accuracy, the dependency on
machine learning Support Vector 98.2% specificity, and parameter tuning for
framework for predic- Machine 94.26% F1 measure optimal performance
tion and classification
of lung cancer
13
Fig. 4 Analysis of accuracy metrics based on Hybrid techniques cited reference
for accurately segmenting lung regions and possible nodules. Otsu’s threshold segmen-
tation method with a 5-level HAAR discrete wavelet transform system was used for the
early detection of cancerous spots. By more effectively highlighting the suspicious regions,
the wavelet transform in conjunction with Otsu’s technique aids in early detection. Opti-
mization techniques like Enhanced Artificial Bee Colony, k-means clustering, and genetic
algorithms were used for effectively detecting and eliminating tumours from lung images,
as evidenced by accuracy rates as high as 95.89%. The study also explored the integra-
tion of genetic algorithms with K-NN and compared Genetic Algorithms and PSO tech-
niques for improved prediction accuracy. Novel approaches, such as a hybrid WOA_APSO
algorithm, outperformed existing methods in autonomous lung cancer detection. When it
comes to efficiency and accuracy in terms of autonomous lung cancer diagnosis, the com-
bined approach of WOA and APSO performs better than current techniques. Techniques
like Nave Bayes classification, neuro-fuzzy with cuckoo search, and deep learning algo-
rithms were employed for effective lung nodule classification and severity estimation. For
biological and biomedical applications, the first step in analysing current imaging data is
segmenting cell nuclei in histopathological images stated by Basu, A et al. [28]. Overall,
the study shows that the accuracy and efficiency of lung cancer detection systems can be
greatly improved by combining sophisticated segmentation, optimisation, and classifica-
tion algorithms. These algorithms work particularly efficiently for complicated tasks such
as determining the severity of identified nodules and classifying lung nodules. In the end,
improved outcomes in lung cancer diagnosis and therapy can be achieved by the combi-
nation of conventional methods with innovative techniques and hybrid algorithms, which
demonstrate promising improvements in early detection, precise classification, and efficient
tumour removal.
13
4 Overview outcome of literature review
Unsupervised clustering is accomplished using the fuzzy C-mean approach. This tech-
nique might be used to develop both a classification and a clustering technique. FCM
also aids in the discovery of data clusters. It differs from K-means clustering because
it takes a longer procedure. Fuzzy C-means offer advantages, such as outperforming
K-means clustering in terms of results. The data point gives membership to every clus-
ter centre in FCM but only entirely belongs to one cluster centre. Only a single point of
data can be allocated to more than two categories using fuzzy C-means. It does the fol-
lowing tasks:
∑N ∑C
Jm = i=1 j=1 um ij
‖xi − cj ‖2 , 1 ≤ m < ∞ (1)
Given that fuzzy C-mean is highly complex and requires a while to get findings. This
fuzzy C-mean clustering method is recommended by Preeti et al.
Yang and Deb’s 26 features collected from segmented lung nodules were utilized to find
the top characteristics using a novel metaheuristic CS technique inspired by nature. The
technique determines if the lung nodule is benign or cancerous using a cuckoo’s egg as a
new solution. The selection of the feature subset for classifying depends on the egg quality
for every host nest. The likelihood that the host bird will find the egg is pa, which stands
for excluding the least important feature subsets from additional analysis. This likelihood is
considered to remain constant.
xi(t+1) = xit + (𝛼 ⊕ Levy(𝜆)) (2)
Where, α depending on the nature of the problem, is a step size with a value larger than 0.
The product that handles the entry-wise multiplication procedure is called ⊕. Prabukumar
et al. suggested this approach.
The recommended WOA’s conception includes three phases: the investigating phase,
the spiral bubble-net approach, and then the encircling prey. N stands for the total number
of whales, dim for each whale’s input dimension, and tmax for the greatest quantity of
iterations. By employing the most effective search agent, the humpback whale enhances its
location by encircling prey. This approach was suggested by Vijh et al. The behaviour may
be represented by the formulas that follow:
��⃗ = ||C.
D ��⃗ X �⃗ ||
��⃗∗ (t) − X(t) (3)
| |
��⃗∗ (t) − F.D

�⃗ + 1) = X
X(t ��⃗ (4)
The ABC method optimizes food resource solutions by calculating the population of
solutions. The control parameters are the maximum cycle number (MCN), the limit value,
and the number of food sources (SN). The honeybee recruitment rate affects how quickly
the colony discovers and discloses new food sources. The colony’s development and sur-
vival rate are affected by the efficiency of rapid discovery and resource usage. The ABC
algorithm technique is improved by including an adaptive method of lung cancer diagno-
sis. Initial population options are produced at random, and while the process progresses,
the process keeps developing adaptively. Perumal et al.’s proposal suggests estimating
the median dimension of the food supply site’s population from every current population
member.
13
The GCPSO concentrates on innovative particles that deal with the region’s current best
location. The velocity updating formula for this new particle, which is treated as a member
of the swarm in this task, is shown below. This GCPSO optimisation approach is proposed
by K. Senthil Kumar et al. [14].
v𝜑(t + 1) = x𝜑(t) + pbest(t) + 𝜔v𝜑(t) + 𝜌(t)(1 − 2r) (5)
GA is a form of optimization methodology that is driven by the biological development
process and employs probabilistic methodologies. It makes use of "Natural Selection" and
"Genetic Inheritance" concepts. GA is particularly suited for challenging situations where
little attention has been given to the fundamental inquiry area. A genetic algorithm pro-
gresses by repeatedly performing an extensive amount of stochastic administrations to a
population of competing solutions to the current problem. Utilizing stochastic functions
that are utilized iteratively to a collection of workable options, tackles the optimization
issue with viable answers. This strategy was introduced by Venkatesh et al.
The filtered input lung-tumor picture is segmented using the Guaranteed Convergence
Particle Swarm Optimisation Algorithm (GCPSOA). The binary grasshopper optimiza-
tion algorithm (BGOA) is employed for feature selection, while GLCM is implemented
for feature extraction. Focusing on the required features, the Atrous Spatial Pyramid Pool-
ing (ASPP)-Unet design with whale optimization algorithm (ASPP-Unet -WOA) classi-
fies lung tumour images. Alkhonaini et al suggest this method. Several publications have
recommended the approaches listed above for recognizing in addition to classifying lung
cancer. The next section continues with multiple works that discuss the study technique,
advantages, and shortcomings in depth.
The methodology for conducting a thorough analysis of the literature on ML techniques
for lung cancer diagnosis is defined in this part. All of the researchers in the above-men-
tioned studies employed various bio-inspired algorithms for lung cancer recognition. The
different bio-inspired processes employed by the existing writers include the whale opti-
misation method, ant colony optimisation, artificial bee algorithm, PSO, and so on. All the
existing papers consist of various optimization techniques and also detect lung cancer with
good results. Since each research paper has several outcomes still there are numerous draw-
backs for each optimization technique. Further studies may go into this approach to solve
the restrictions mentioned above. Table 4 shows various techniques used in this review
paper with their features. Figures 5 and 6 show the trends in lung cancer cases among men
and women from 2012 to 2024. These graphs emphasise how crucial it is to continuously
track and evaluate cancer trends to inform public health regulations and research agendas.
5 Challenges and future discussion
Lung tumours are a dangerous disease that requires early identification and treatment.
Various methods exist for detecting lung illness, but the methods all have drawbacks.
Early identification of lung cancer increases treatment results and patient survival rates,
making more effective procedures possible. Screening programs for high-risk individu-
als, such as heavy smokers, have shown promise in finding lung cancer earlier. This
study addresses early detection, prediction, and diagnosis to improve patient safety and
reduce hazards. A thorough strategy, including medical history evaluation, physical
examination, imaging testing, and biopsy, is crucial for accurate lung cancer diagnosis.
13
Table 4 Techniques with its Features
Technique Advantage Disadvantage Limitations
Particle Swarm Optimization The approach is easy to understand the train- It is easy to become stuck in local optimal PSO’s iterative nature may preclude its
ing speed is quick, and the efficiency is approaches and perform badly while deal- employment in high-speed real-time applica-
outstanding. ing with discrete optimization issues. tions.
Genetic algorithm Rapid convergence and significant versatility
More complicated and subject to early Premature Convergence, Computational com-
are both present. convergence, depending on the beginning plexity, Search space limitations
population.
Artificial Bee Colony The convergence time is rapid, but the global Search speed decreases down when a local Premature Convergence, Memoryless search,
search capacity is excellent. optimum is reached, which is easy to do. Lack of dynamic adaptation
Whale Optimization algorithm The ability to avoid local optima to obtain Low accuracy, slow convergence, and simple Parameter tuning sensitivity, limited scal-
a global optimum solution, as well as an convergence to the local optimum value. ability, and efficiency for high-dimensional
adapted technique for addressing various problems.
restricted or unconstrained optimization
problems.
Cuckoo search optimization Technique to address optimization issues Using balanced mixing with successful Slow convergence search speed and low con-
using meta-heuristics. random walks, CS may be quite effective in vergence accuracy.
global search.
13
Fig. 5 Analysis of lung cancer for men from 2012 to 2024
Fig. 6 Analysis of lung cancer for women from 2012 to 2024
Ongoing research and developments in screening procedures have the potential to

improve lung cancer diagnosis rates and overall patient prognosis. The diagnosis’s accu-
racy may be impacted by variations in image quality brought on by various CT scan-
ners, patient movement, and noise. Diagnostic algorithm validation and training may
be impacted by radiologists’ inconsistent annotations. Due to a large amount of size,
13
shape, and textural heterogeneity, lung tumours make segmentation and classification
more difficult.
Thus, this review considers several future directions for lung cancer detection:
• Future direction includes more hybrid bio-inspired optimization techniques for better
accuracy and prediction of lung cancer detection.
• It should be mentioned that these prospective research directions are being investigated
and developed at the moment, and their implementation may change.
• Machine learning and AI algorithms have the potential to enhance lung cancer detec-
tion and diagnosis.
• Implementing standardised procedures for imaging and rules for annotation to lower
variability and enhance the overall quality of training datasets.
• Developing the endurance of diagnostic models by the application of methods such as
data augmentation and synthetic data generation.
• The performance of the lung cancer diagnosis optimized by various bio-inspired opti-
mization algorithms can be compared with different types of neural networks in the
same applications and also for other applications.
6 Conclusion
In conclusion, although it might be difficult to determine a lung tumour’s location, early

detection of the disease is still a challenge in the fight against this deadly illness. Although
current lung disease detection techniques have limitations, our thorough analysis of algo-
rithmic techniques covering peer-reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings
from 2012 to 2023 offers insightful information. This analysis summarizes the state-of-
the-art approaches, which include hybrid bio-inspired approaches and machine learning.
Potential research requirements are also identified by weighing the advantages and disad-
vantages of different methodologies. To improve the effectiveness of lung cancer detection
approaches going forward, it is urged that future research projects investigate cutting-edge
methods that take advantage of technological breakthroughs and interdisciplinary coop-
eration. The purpose of this study is to provide guidance and motivation for continued
attempts to find novel and more efficient ways to deal with the difficulties associated with
early lung cancer diagnosis.
Author contributions All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of
this manuscript.
Data availability The data that has been used is confidential
Declarations
Ethical approval The article does not contain any studies with Human Participants or animals performed by
any of the Authors.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
13
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Advancing lung cancer diagnosis with bio‑inspired

Jyoti Kumari1 · Sapna Sinha1 · Laxman Singh2

Received: 19 October 2023 / Revised: 4 June 2024 / Accepted: 27 June 2024

Keywords Lung cancer · Bio-inspired algorithm · Feature selection · Accuracy ·

Fig. 1 Overview of Lung cancer diagnosis

Table 1 Bio-inspired algorithms and their types

2 The structure of this systematic literature review’s procedure

2.3 Criteria for article selection process

Artificial bee colony

Ant colony optimization

Particle swarm optimization

Harris Hawks optimization

Bio-inspired Japanese tree frog algorithm

Sparrow search algorithm

Grey wolf optimization

Siberian tiger optimization

Jellyfish search algorithm

Fig. 2 Taxonomy of Bio-inspired Optimization Algorithm

3.1 Related works based on machine learning techniques

cancer prognosis with Tuning

Fig. 3 Analysis of accuracy metrics

3.3 Related works based on hybrid techniques

and classification on zation improved.

Network Model for

Fig. 4 Analysis of accuracy metrics based on Hybrid techniques cited reference

4 Overview outcome of literature review

xi(t+1) = xit + (𝛼 ⊕ Levy(𝜆)) (2)

���⃗∗ (t) − F.D

5 Challenges and future discussion

Fig. 5 Analysis of lung cancer for men from 2012 to 2024

Fig. 6 Analysis of lung cancer for women from 2012 to 2024

Ongoing research and developments in screening procedures have the potential to

In conclusion, although it might be difficult to determine a lung tumour’s location, early

Data availability The data that has been used is confidential

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2 The structure of this systematic literature review’s procedure

2.3 Criteria for article selection process

3.1 Related works based on machine learning techniques

3.3 Related works based on hybrid techniques

4 Overview outcome of literature review

��⃗∗ (t) − F.D

5 Challenges and future discussion