FIOT_UNIT_1

Fundamentals of IoT Unit-1
UNIT – I
Introduction to Internet of Things
IoT Definition:
A dynamic global n/w infrastructure with self configuring capabilities based on standard and interoperable
communication protocols where physical and virtual ―things‖ have identities, physical attributes and virtual
personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated into information n/w, often
communicate data associated with users and their environments.
Features of IOT
The most important features of IoT on which it works are connectivity, analyzing,
integrating, active engagement, and many more. Some of them are listed below:
Connectivity: Connectivity refers to establish a proper connection between all the things of
IoT to IoT platform it may be server or cloud. After connecting the IoT devices, it needs a
high speed messaging between the devices and cloud to enable reliable, secure and bi-
directional communication.
Analyzing: After connecting all the relevant things, it comes to real-time analyzing the data
collected and use them to build effective business intelligence. If we have a good insight
into data gathered from all these things, then we call our system has a smart system.
Integrating: IoT integrating the various models to improve the user experience as well.
III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

Artificial Intelligence: IoT makes things smart and enhances life through the use of data.
For example, if we have a coffee machine whose beans have going to end, then the coffee
machine itself order the coffee beans of your choice from the retailer.
Sensing: The sensor devices used in IoT technologies detect and measure any change in the
environment and report on their status. IoT technology brings passive networks to active
networks. Without sensors, there could not hold an effective or true IoT environment.
Active Engagement: IoT makes the connected technology, product, or services to active
engagement between each other.
Endpoint Management: It is important to be the endpoint management of all the IoT

system otherwise, it makes the complete failure of the system. For example, if a coffee
machine itself order the coffee beans when it goes to end but what happens when it orders
the beans from a retailer and we are not present at home for a few days, it leads to the failure
of the IoT system. So, there must be a need for endpoint management.
Advantages of IoT
Internet of things facilitates the several advantages in day-to-day life in the business sector.
Some of its benefits are given below:
o Efficient resource utilization: If we know the functionality and the way that how
each device work we definitely increase the efficient resource utilization as well as
monitor natural resources.
o Minimize human effort: As the devices of IoT interact and communicate with each
other and do lot of task for us, then they minimize the human effort.
o Save time: As it reduces the human effort then it definitely saves out time. Time is
the primary factor which can save through IoT platform.

o Enhance Data Collection:

o Improve security: Now, if we have a system that all these things are interconnected
then we can make the system more secure and efficient.
Disadvantages of IoT
As the Internet of things facilitates a set of benefits, it also creates a significant set of
challenges. Some of the IoT challenges are given below:
o Security: As the IoT systems are interconnected and communicate over networks.
The system offers little control despite any security measures, and it can be lead the
various kinds of network attacks.
o Privacy: Even without the active participation on the user, the IoT system provides
substantial personal data in maximum detail.
o Complexity: The designing, developing, and maintaining and enabling the large
technology to IoT system is quite complicated.
IoT Applications
1. IoT Applications – Wearables

Wearable technology is a hallmark of IoT applications and probably is one of the earliest
industries to have deployed the IoT at its service. We happen to see Fit Bits, heart rate
monitors and smartwatches everywhere these days.
One of the lesser-known wearables includes the Guardian glucose monitoring device. The
device is developed to aid people suffering from diabetes. It detects glucose levels in the
body, using a tiny electrode called glucose sensor placed under the skin and relays the
information via Radio Frequency to a monitoring device.

2. IoT Applications – Smart Home Applications

When we talk about IoT Applications, Smart Homes are probably the first thing that we
think of. The best example I can think of here is Jarvis, the AI home automation employed
by Mark Zuckerberg. There is also Allen Pan’s Home Automation System where functions
in the house are actuated by use of a string of musical notes. The following video could give
you a better idea.
3. IoT Applications – Health Care

IoT applications can turn reactive medical-based systems into proactive wellness-based
systems.
The resources that current medical research uses, lack critical real-world information. It
mostly uses leftover data, controlled environments, and volunteers for medical
examination. IoT opens ways to a sea of valuable data through analysis, real-time field data,
and testing.
The Internet of Things also improves the current devices in power, precision, and
availability. IoT focuses on creating systems rather than just equipment.
4. IoT Applications – Smart Cities

By now I assume, most of you must have heard about the term Smart City. The hypothesis
of the optimized traffic system I mentioned earlier, is one of the many aspects that constitute
a smart city.
The thing about the smart city concept is that it’s very specific to a city. The problems faced
in Mumbai are very different than those in Delhi. The problems in Hong Kong are different
from New York. Even global issues, like finite clean drinking water, deteriorating air quality
and increasing urban density, occur in different intensities across cities. Hence, they affect
each city differently.

5. IoT Applications – Agriculture

Statistics estimate the ever-growing world population to reach nearly 10 billion by the year
2050. To feed such a massive population one needs to marry agriculture to technology and
obtain best results. There are numerous possibilities in this field. One of them is the Smart
Greenhouse.
A greenhouse farming technique enhances the yield of crops by controlling environmental

parameters. However, manual handling results in production loss, energy loss, and labor
cost, making the process less effective.
6. IoT Applications – Industrial Automation

This is one of the fields where both faster developments, as well as the quality of products,
are the critical factors for a higher Return on Investment. With IoT Applications, one could
even re-engineer products and their packaging to deliver better performance in both cost and
customer experience. IoT here can prove to be game changing with solutions for all the
following domains in its arsenal.
• Factory Digitalization
• Product flow Monitoring
• Inventory Management
• Safety and Security
• Quality Control
• Packaging optimization
• Logistics and Supply Chain Optimization
Characteristics of IoT
1) Dynamic & Self Adapting: IoT devices and systems may have the capability to
dynamically adapt with the changing contexts and take actions based on their operating

conditions, user‘s context or sensedenvironment.

Eg: the surveillance system is adapting itself based on context and changing
conditions.
2) Self Configuring: allowing a large number of devices to work together to
provide certain functionality.

3) Inter Operable Communication Protocols: support a number of
interoperable communication protocols ans can communicate with other
devices and also with infrastructure.
4) Unique Identity: Each IoT device has a unique identity and a unique
identifier(IP address).
5) Integrated into Information Network: that allow them to communicate
and exchange data with other devices andsystems.
Physical Design Of IoT

1) Things inIoT:

The things in IoT refers to IoT devices which have unique identities and
perform remote sensing, actuating and monitoring capabilities. IoT
devices can exchange data with other connected devices applications. It
collects data from other devices and process data either locally or
remotely.
An IoT device may consist of several interfaces for communication to
other devices both wired and wireless. These includes (i) I/O interfaces
for sensors, (ii) Interfaces for internet connectivity
(iii) memory and storage interfaces and (iv) audio/videointerfaces.
2) IoTProtocols:
a) Link Layer : Protocols determine how data is physically sent over
the network‘s physical layer or medium. Local network connect to
which host is attached. Hosts on the same link exchange data

packets over the link layer using link layer protocols. Link layer
determines how packets are coded and signaled by the h/w device
over the medium to which the host isattached.
Protocols:
• 802.3-Ethernet: IEEE802.3 is collection of wired Ethernet
standards for the link layer. Eg: 802.3 uses co-axial cable; 802.3i
uses copper twisted pair connection; 802.3j uses fiber optic
connection; 802.3ae uses Ethernet overfiber.
• 802.11-WiFi: IEEE802.11 is a collection of wireless LAN(WLAN)
communication standards including extensive description of link
layer. Eg: 802.11a operates in 5GHz band, 802.11b and 802.11g
operates in 2.4GHz band, 802.11n operates in 2.4/5GHz band,

802.11ac operates in 5GHz band, 802.11ad operates in 60Ghzband.

• 802.16 - WiMax: IEEE802.16 is a collection of wireless broadband
standards including exclusive description of link layer. WiMax
provide data rates from 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s.
• 802.15.4-LR-WPAN: IEEE802.15.4 is a collection of standards for
low rate wireless personal area network(LR-WPAN). Basis for
high level communication protocols such as ZigBee. Provides data
rate from 40kb/s to250kb/s.
• 2G/3G/4G-Mobile Communication: Data rates from 9.6kb/s(2G) to up
to100Mb/s(4G).
B) Network/Internet Layer: Responsible for sending IP datagrams

from source n/w to destination n/w. Performs the host addressing
and packet routing. Datagrams contains source and
destinationaddress.
Protocols:
• IPv4: Internet Protocol version4 is used to identify the
devices on a n/w using a hierarchical addressing scheme.
32 bit address. Allows total of 2**32addresses.
• IPv6: Internet Protocol version6 uses 128 bit address
scheme and allows 2**128 addresses.

• 6LOWPAN:(IPv6overLowpowerWirelessPersonalAreaNetwork)oper
atesin
2.4 GHz frequency range and data transfer 250 kb/s.
C) Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end message transfer
capability independent of the underlying n/w. Set up on connection
with ACK as in TCP and without ACK as in UDP. Provides functions
such as error control, segmentation, flow control and congestion
control. Protocols:
• TCP: Transmission Control Protocol used by web browsers(along
with HTTP and HTTPS), email(along with SMTP, FTP).
Connection oriented and stateless protocol. IP Protocol deals with
sending packets, TCP ensures reliable transmission of protocols in
order. Avoids n/w congestion and congestioncollapse.
• UDP: User Datagram Protocol is connectionless protocol. Useful
in time sensitive applications, very small data units to exchange.
Transaction oriented and stateless protocol. Does not provide
guaranteeddelivery.
D) Application Layer: Defines how the applications interface with
lower layer protocols to send data over the n/w. Enables process-to-
process communication usingports.
Protocols:
• HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol that forms foundation of
WWW. Follow request- response model Stateless protocol.
• CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol for machine-to-
machine(M2M) applications with constrained devices, constrained

environment and constrained n/w. Uses client- server architecture.
• WebSocket: allows full duplex communication over a single
socketconnection.
• MQTT: Message Queue Telemetry Transport is light weight
messaging protocol based on publish-subscribe model. Uses client
server architecture. Well suited for constrained environment.
• XMPP: Extensible Message and Presence Protocol for real time
communication and streaming XML data between network entities.
Support client-server and server-server communication.
• DDS: Data Distribution Service is data centric middleware
standards for device-to-device or machine-to-machine
communication. Uses publish-subscribe model.
• AMQP: Advanced Message Queuing Protocol is open application
layer protocol for business messaging. Supports both point-to-
point and publish-subscribe model.
LOGICAL DESIGN of IoT

Refers to an abstract represent of entities and processes without
going into the low level specifies of implementation.
1) IoT Functional Blocks
2) IoT Communication Models
3) IoT Comm. APIs

1) IoT Functional Blocks: Provide the system capabilities for

identification, sensing, actuation, communication and
management.
• Device: An IoT system comprises of devices that provide sensing,

actuation, monitoring and controlfunctions.
• Communication: handles the communicationfor IoTsystem.
• Services: for device monitoring, device control services, data
publishing services and services for devicediscovery.
• Management: Provides various functions to govern the IoTsystem.
• Security: Secures IoT system and priority functions such as
authentication,authorization, message and context integrity and
datasecurity.
• Application: IoT application provide an interface that the users
can use to control and monitor various aspects of IoTsystem.
2) IoT CommunicationModels:
1) Request-Response 2) Publish-Subscibe 3)Push-Pull 4) ExclusivePair
1) Request-ResponseModel:
In which the client sends request to the server and the server
replies to requests. Is a stateless communication model and each
request-response pair is independent of others.
2) Publish-SubscibeModel:

Involves publishers, brokers and consumers. Publishers are source of

data. Publishers send data to the topics which are managed by the
broker. Publishers are not aware of the consumers. Consumers subscribe
to the topics which are managed by the broker. When the broker receives
data for a topic from the publisher, it sends the data to all the
subscribedconsumers.
3) Push-Pull Model: in which data producers push data to queues

and consumers pull data from the queues. Producers do not need to
aware of the consumers. Queues help in decoupling the message
between the producers andconsumers.

4) Exclusive Pair: is bi-directional, fully duplex communication

model that uses a persistent connection between the client and
server. Once connection is set up it remains open until the client
send a request to close the connection. Is a stateful communication
model and server is aware of all the open connections.
3) IoT CommunicationAPIs:
a) REST based communication APIs(Request-Response BasedModel)
b) WebSocket based Communication APIs(Exclusive PairBasedModel)

a) REST based communication APIs: Representational State

Transfer(REST) is a set of architectural principles by which we can
design web services and web APIs that focus on a system‘s resources
and have resource states are addressed andtransferred.
The REST architectural constraints: Fig. shows communication
between client server with REST APIs.
Client-Server: The principle behind client-server constraint is the

separation of concerns. Separation allows client and server to be
independently developed and updated.
Stateless: Each request from client to server must contain all the info.
Necessary to understand the request, and cannot take advantage of any
stored context on the server.
Cache-able: Cache constraint requires that the data within a response to
a request be implicitly or explicitly labeled as cache-able or non-

cacheable. If a response is cache-able, then a client cache is given the
right to reuse that response data for later, equivalentrequests.
Layered System: constraints the behavior of components such that each
component cannot see beyond the immediate layer with which they are
interacting.
User Interface: constraint requires that the method of communication
between a client and a server must be uniform.
Code on Demand: Servers can provide executable code or scripts for
clients to execute in their context. This constraint is the only one that is
optional.
Request-Response model used by REST:

RESTful webservice is a collection of resources which are

represented by URIs. RESTful web API has a base URI(e.g:
http://example.com/api/tasks/). The clients and requests to these
URIs using the methods defined by the HTTP protocol(e.g: GET,
PUT, POST or DELETE). A RESTful web service can support
various internet media types.
b) WebSocket Based Communication APIs: WebSocket APIs
allow bi-directional, full duplex communication between
clients and servers. WebSocket APIs follow the exclusive pair
communicationmodel.

Sensing
Sensor:
“A device which detects or measures a physical quantity and converts its

into a equivalent electrical signal”
Example:
• Heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor.
• Atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer
Transducers:
• Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into another.

• For example, in a sound system, a microphone (input device) converts
sound waves into electrical signals for an amplifier to amplify (a
process), and a loudspeaker (output device) converts these electrical
signals back into sound waves.
Sensor Features:
• It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A temperature

sensor senses the ambient temperature of a room.)
• It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its
application (e.g., A temperature sensor does not bother about light or
pressure while sensing the temperature.)
• It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring the
temperature does not reduce or increase the temperature).

Sensor Resolution:
• The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the

quantity that it is measuring.
• The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the
smallest resolution the digital output it is capable of processing.
• The more is the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is its
precision.
• A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.
Sensor Classes:
• Based on Energy
Passive and Active Sensors
• Based on Output
Analog and Digital Sensors
• Based on Data type
Scalar and Vector Sensors
Passive Sensor:
• A Passive sensor is a sensing device that simply detect and respond to

some type of input from the physical environment.
• Example: Metal Detector, A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Active Sensor:
• An active sensor is a sensing device that requires an external source of

power to operate.

• Example: radar, GPS, x-ray, sonar, infrared.
Analog Sensors:
• Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which

is generally proportional to the quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc. are all analog quantities as they tend to be
continuous in nature.
• For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which continuously
responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled
down.
Digital Sensors:
• Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages

that are a digital representation of the quantity being measured.
• Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic
“1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”).
• Digital signal only produces discrete (non‐continuous) values,
which may be output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), or by
combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel
transmission).
Scalar Sensors:
• Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally

proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.

• Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc.

are all scalar quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to
convey an information.
• For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple, which responds to temperature
changes irrespective of the orientation of the sensor or its direction.
Vector Sensors:
• Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally

proportional to the magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation
of the quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration,
orientation, etc. are all vector quantities, as only their magnitude is
not sufficient to convey the complete information.
• For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an
accelerometer, which gives the components of acceleration of the
body with respect to the x,y,z coordinate axes.
Sensor Types: The following are the different types of sensors
• Temperature Sensor
• Proximity Sensor
• Pressure Sensor
• Water Quality Sensor
• Chemical/Smoke & Gas Sensor

• Level Sensor
• IR Sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Image sensors
• Motion Detection Sensors
• Accelerometer Sensors
• Gyrometer Sensors
• Humidity Sensors
• Optical Sensors
Differences between Sensor & Transducer
Basis For
Sensor Transducer
Comparison
Definition Senses the physical changes The transducer is a device which, when
occurs in the surrounding and actuates transforms the energy from one form
converting it into a readable to another.
quantity.
Components Sensor itself Sensor and signal conditioning
Function Detects the changes and induces Conversion of one form of energy into
the corresponding electrical another.
signals.

Examples Proximity sensor, Magnetic Thermistor, Potentiometer,

sensor, Accelerometer Thermocouple, etc.
sensor, Light sensor etc.
Actuation
Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical quantity such as
movement, force, sound etc. An actuator is also classed as a transducer because it
changes one type of physical quantity into another and is usually activated or operated
by a low voltage command signal.
Actuators can be classified by the motion they produce and the power source they
use.
Motion
Actuators can create two main types of motion: linear and rotary.
Linear Actuators
Implied by their name, linear actuators are devices that produce movement within a
straight path. They can either be mechanical or electrical and are mostly seen in
hydraulic or pneumatic devices. Any machine, equipment, or gadget that requires some
form of straight motion typically has a linear actuator.
In a simple linear actuator, there is a nut, cover, and a sliding tube. The sliding tube
provides the space for the motion, whereas the nut and cover provide the interlocking
movement that keeps the actuator in a straight path. Other complex linear actuators
will have additional parts, but the system mentioned above is the foundation for
straight movement.
Rotary Actuators

In contrast to linear actuators, rotary actuators create a circular motion. From the term
“rotary,” most machines use these rotating parts to complete a turning movement. They
are often used in conjunction with a linear actuator if a machine requires moving
forward, backward, up, or down.
Many rotary actuators are electrically powered, but some are powered using a
hydraulic or pneumatic system. You can find rotary actuators in windshield wipers,
electric fans, or manufacturing machines that transport goods from one area to another.
Source of Energy
To further distinguish different types of actuators, we can also sort them according to
the power source or system they use to move. Below are the most common actuators
according to energy source:
Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic actuators operate by the use of a fluid-filled cylinder with a piston

suspended at the center. Commonly, hydraulic actuators produce linear movements,
and a spring is attached to one end as a part of the return motion. These actuators are
widely seen in exercise equipment such as steppers or car transport carriers.
Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators are one of the most reliable options for machine motion. They use
pressurized gases to create mechanical movement. Many companies prefer pneumatic-
powered actuators because they can make very precise motions, especially when
starting and stopping a machine.
Examples of equipment that uses pneumatic actuators include:
• Bus brakes
• Exercise machines

• Vane motors
• Pressure sensors
• Pneumatic mailing systems
Electric Actuators
Electrical actuators, as you may have guessed, require electricity to work. Well-known
examples include electric cars, manufacturing machinery, and robotics equipment.
Similar to pneumatic actuators, they also create precise motion as the flow of electrical
power is constant.
The different types of electrical actuators include:
• Electromechanical actuators: These actuators convert electric signals into

rotary or linear movements and may even be capable of a combination of both.
• Electrohydraulic actuators: This type of actuator is also powered electrically

but gives movement to a hydraulic accumulator. The accumulator then provides the
force for movement, usually seen in heavy industrial equipment.
Thermal and Magnetic Actuators
Thermal and magnetic actuators usually consist of shape memory alloys that can be
heated to produce movement. The motion of thermal or magnetic actuators often
comes from the Joule effect, but it can also occur when a coil is placed in a static
magnetic field. The magnetic field causes constant motion called the Laplace-Lorentz
force. Most thermal and magnetic actuators can produce a wide and powerful range of
motion while remaining lightweight.
Mechanical Actuators
Some actuators are mostly mechanical, such as pulleys or rack and pinion systems.
Another mechanical force is applied, such as pulling or pushing, and the actuator will
leverage that single movement to produce the desired results. For instance, turning a

single gear on a set of rack and pinions can mobilize an object from point A to point B.
The tugging movement applied on the pulley can bring the other side upwards or
towards the desired location.
Supercoiled Polymer Actuators
Supercoiled polymer actuators are a relatively new addition to the different types of
actuators. They are used in robotics and prosthetic limbs as they can replicate the
motion of human muscle via a coil that contracts and expands when heated or cooled.
Basics of IoT Networking
IoT network
An IoT network refers to a collection of interconnected devices that communicate
with other devices without the need for human involvement, such as autonomous cars,
smart appliances, and wearable tech.
IoT Components:
IoT is a transformation process of connecting our smart devices and objects to network
to perform efficiently and access remotely
The Basic IoT Components are:

1. Smart devices and sensors – Device connectivity

Devices and sensors are the components of the device connectivity layer. These smart
sensors are continuously collecting data from the environment and transmit the
information to the next layer.
Latest techniques in the semiconductor technology are capable of producing micro

smart sensors for various applications.
Common sensors are:
• Temperature sensors and thermostats

• Pressure sensors
• Humidity / Moisture level
• Light intensity detectors
• Moisture sensors
• Proximity detection
• RFID tags
How the devices are connected?
Most of the modern smart devices and sensors can be connected to low power
wireless networks like Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Bluetooth, Z-wave, LoraWAN etc… Each of
these wireless technologies has its own pros and cons in terms of power, data transfer
rate and overall efficiency.

Developments in the low power, low cost wireless transmitting devices are promising
in the area of IoT due to its long battery life and efficiency. Latest protocols like
6LoWPAN- IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks have been
adapted by many companies to implement energy efficient data transmission for IoT
networks.
6LoWPAN uses reduced transmission time (typically short time pulses) and thus saves energy.
2. Gateway
Image: pinterest.com
IoT Gateway manages the bidirectional data traffic between different networks and
protocols. Another function of gateway is to translate different network protocols and
make sure interoperability of the connected devices and sensors.
Gateways can be configured to perform pre-processing of the collected data from

thousands of sensors locally before transmitting it to the next stage. In some scenarios,
it would be necessary due to compatibility of TCP/IP protocol.
IoT gateway offers certain level of security for the network and transmitted data with
higher order encryption techniques. It acts as a middle layer between devices and cloud
to protect the system from malicious attacks and unauthorized access.

3. Cloud
Internet of things creates massive data from devices, applications and users which has
to be managed in an efficient way. IoT cloud offers tools to collect, process, manage
and store huge amount of data in real time. Industries and services can easily access
these data remotely and make critical decisions when necessary.
Basically, IoT cloud is a sophisticated high performance network of servers optimized
to perform high speed data processing of billions of devices, traffic management and
deliver accurate analytics. Distributed database management systems are one of the
most important components of IoT cloud.
Cloud system integrates billions of devices, sensors, gateways, protocols, data storage
and provides predictive analytics. Companies use these analytics data for improvement
of products and services, preventive measures for certain steps and build their new
business model accurately.
4. Analytics
Analytics is the process of converting analog data from billions of smart devices and
sensors into useful insights which can be interpreted and used for detailed analysis.
Smart analytics solutions are inevitable for IoT system for management and
improvement of the entire system.
One of the major advantages of an efficient IoT system is real time smart analytics
which helps engineers to find out irregularities in the collected data and act fast to

prevent an undesired scenario. Service providers can prepare for further steps if the
information is collected
5. User interface
User interfaces are the visible, tangible part of the IoT system which can be accessible
by users. Designers will have to make sure a well designed user interface for minimum
effort for users and encourage more interactions.
Modern technology offers much interactive design to ease complex tasks into simple
touch panels controls. Multicolor touch panels have replaced hard switches in our
household appliances and the trend is increasing for almost every smart home devices.
An Example IoT Implementation

The IoT implementation can be done to achieve different application needs. Figure
shows that we have different sensors, processors and radio.
It refitted to each of these devices or the sensor nodes or the sensor motes or the IoT
motes . These motes, they talk to one another, but these different sensor nodes, they are
basically within the jurisdiction or the domain of the gateway.
The gateway is basically tasked to assign different locally unique addresses to these
different nodes, to these different IoT nodes and the gateway basically takes care of the
local addressing within that particular local area network.
So, from that point, all the data can flow through a proxy server if internet access is
required. It will go through the internet, then a web socket and from the websocket, it
goes through a cloud server. That means, this is where lot of analytics and backend
processing takes place and based on that the actuation based on the analytics and the
inference that are drawn from the sensed data actuation of different devices can take
place.
IV. IOT Interdependencies: Another perspective of IOT
So, if we look at IoT from another prospective or we have sensors. The

sensors basically sense the data and that data is serving the application
requirements and then, we have an operating system and a power
management unit which does things like duty cycling of the sensors, how
much the sensors you know how much time we are going to be active or
how much time they are going to be in the sleep state, how to power them
because these are very small, very resource staved sensors. So, basically the
power unit in these sensor nodes, these are very small in size. So, basically
consequently what happens is these embedded devices; they themselves are
very resource starved.
We have a very power management unit which basically takes care of

power management as a whole. It takes care of the following major
questions in the system.
i. How much power is required, for how long it is going to power,

ii. what are the ways to harvest energy if at all it can be harvested, and
iii. how much power consumption is going to take place at different
points of time, can it be optimized different points of operation on
and so on and so forth.
There after we have these different radios involving Bluetooth, Zigbee,

6Low Pan, Wi-Fi, Ethernet and low range Wi-Fi. These are the different
radios that can help in communicating the data that is sensed onward to
other nodes. These technologies have evolved over time and are a nice fit
for the IoT communication. These basically different radio technologies can
help for the communication purpose.
Alongside we also have things like virtual machines which take care of the
virtualization of the nodes.

The web, and there are different things like http client, MQTT client,
CoAP client. We have different application level protocols that are used for
functioning of these different IoT devices.
Finally the actuator verticals. We have the sensors, we have different

applications operating system, power management, radios, virtual machines
web and then, we have these actuators all together which forms the
embedded systems, the embedded devices.
Service-oriented architecture
The architectural design of IoT technologies is based on the number of

things such as business models, web services, web applications,
corresponding process, smart objects, data processing, networking and
communication, and security etc. For IoT technologies, the architecture of
IoT must ponder the scalability, modularity, extensibility, and
interoperability among various devices. The architecture of IoT needs to
provide effective and efficient event driven capability due to its
decentralized and heterogeneous nature


IoT Categories:
IoT is classified as
The industrial internet of things (IIoT)
The Consumer IoT
The industrial internet of things (IIoT) refers to the extension and use of the internet
of things (IoT) in industrial sectors and applications.

The IIoT encompasses industrial applications, including robotics, medical devices, and
software-defined production processes.
The Consumer IoT refers to the billions of physical personal devices, such as
smartphones, wearables, fashion items and the growing number of smart home
appliances, that are now. connected to the internet, collecting and sharing data.
IoT Protocols:
IoT Protocols
IoT Protcols help to establish Communication between IoT Device (Node Device) and
Cloud based Server over the Internet. It help to sent commands to IoT Device and
received data from an IoT device over the Internet. An image is given below. By this
image you can understand which protocols used.
Application Layer Protocols;
Defines how the applications interface with lower layer protocols to send data over the
n/w and enables process-to-process communication using ports. The following are the
Application Layer Protocols.

•HTTP
•CoAP
•WebSocket
•MQTT
•XMPP
•DDS
•AMQP
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
This protocol has formed the foundation of data communication over the web. It is the
most common protocol that is used for IoT devices when there is a lot of data to be
published. However, the HTTP protocol is not preferred because of its cost, battery-
life, energy saving, and more constraints.
Additive manufacturing/3D printing is one of the use cases of the HTTP protocol. It
enables computers to connect 3D printers in the network and print three-dimensional
objects and pre-determined process prototypes.
CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)
✓ CoAP – Constrained Application Protocol.
✓ Web transfer protocol for use with constrained nodes and networks.
✓ Designed for Machine to Machine (M2M) applications such as smart energy

and building automation.

✓ Based on Request‐Response model between end‐points
✓ Client‐Server interaction is asynchronous over a datagram oriented

transport protocol such as UDP .
✓ The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a session layer protocol

designed by IETF Constrained RESTful Environment (CoRE) working group to
provide lightweight RESTful (HTTP) interface.
✓ Representational State Transfer (REST) is the standard interface between HTTP

client and servers.
✓ CoAP is designed to enable low‐power sensors to use RESTful services while

meeting their power constraints.
✓ Built over UDP, instead of TCP (which is commonly used with HTTP) and has
a light mechanism to provide reliability.
✓ CoAP architecture is divided into two main sub‐layers:
1. Messaging
2. Request/response.
✓ The messaging sub‐layer is responsible for reliability and duplication of

messages, while the request/response sub‐layer is responsible for
communication.
✓ CoAP has four messaging modes:
1. Confirmable
2. Non‐confirmable
3. Piggyback
4. Separate

1. Confirmable and non‐confirmable modes represent the reliable and unreliable

transmissions, respectively, while the other modes are used for
request/response.
2. Piggyback is used for client/server direct communication where the server sends
its response directly after receiving the message, i.e., within the
acknowledgment message.
3. On the other hand, the separate mode is used when the server response comes in
a message separate from the acknowledgment, and may take some time to be
sent by the server.
4. Similar to HTTP, CoAP utilizes GET, PUT, PUSH, DELETE messages requests
to retrieve, create, update, and delete, respectively .
Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)
MQTT is one of the most commonly used protocols in IoT projects. It stands for
Message Queuing Telemetry Transport.
In addition, it is designed as a lightweight messaging protocol that uses

publish/subscribe operations to exchange data between clients and the server.
Furthermore, its small size, low power usage, minimized data packets and ease of
implementation make the protocol ideal of the “machine-to-machine” or “Internet of
Things” world.
MQTT has unique features you can hardly find in other protocols, like:
• It’s a lightweight protocol. So, it’s easy to implement in software and fast in data
transmission.
• It’s based on a messaging technique. Of course, you know how fast your
messenger/WhatsApp message delivery is. Likewise, the MQTT protocol.
• Minimized data packets. Hence, low network usage.

• Low power usage. As a result, it saves the connected device’s battery.

• It’s real time! That’s is specifically what makes it perfect for IoT applications.
MQTT is based on clients and a server. Likewise, the server is the guy who is
responsible for handling the client’s requests of receiving or sending data between each
other.
• MQTT server is called a broker and the clients are simply the connected devices.
• When a device (a client) wants to send data to the broker, we call this operation
a “publish”.
• When a device (a client) wants to receive data from the broker, we call this
operation a “subscribe”.
In addition, These clients are publishing and subscribing to topics. So, the broker here
is the one that handles the publishing/subscribing actions to the target topics.
Example:
Let’s say there is a device that has a temperature sensor. Certainly, it wants to send his
readings to the broker. On the other side, a phone/desktop application wants to receive
this temperature value. Therefore, 2 things will happen:
• The device defines the topic it wants to publish on, ex: “temp”. Then, it
publishes the message “temperature value”.

• The phone/desktop application subscribes to the topic “temp”. Then, it receives

the message that the device has published, which is the temperature value.
Again, the broker role here is to take the message “temperature value” and deliver it to
phone/desktop application.
MQTT Components:
That takes us to the MQTT components, which are 5 as follows:
• Broker, which is the server that handles the data transmission between the
clients.
• A topic, which is the place a device want to put or retrieve a message to/from.
• The message, which is the data that a device receives “when subscribing” from a
topic or send “when publishing” to a topic.
• Publish, is the process a device does to send its message to the broker.
• Subscribe, where a device does to retrieve a message from the broker.

How many devices you can connect to a broker
The number of connected devices “clients” to the broker depends on the broker service
provider.
In fact, it can reach a massive number of clients those are publishing and subscribing
all the time.
but the amazing part of this isn’t only the huge number of these connected devices but
also any the fact that any device can get any other device’s data at any time. As a
result, the applications based on these quickly shared data are limitless.
MQTT Topics
✓ A topic is a simple string that can have more hierarchy levels, which are
separated by a slash.
✓ A sample topic for sending temperature data of the living room could be
house/living‐room/temperature.
✓ On one hand the client (e.g. mobile device) can subscribe to the exact topic or
on the other hand, it can use a wildcard.
✓ The subscription to house/+/temperature would result in all messages sent to

the previously mentioned topic house/living‐ room/temperature, as well as any
topic with an arbitrary value in the place of living room, such as
house/kitchen/temperature.
✓ The plus sign is a single level wild card and only allows arbitrary values for
oneahricehry.
✓ If more than one level needs to be subscribed, such as, the entire sub‐tree, there
is also a multilevel wildcard (#).
✓ It allows to subscribe to all underlying hierarchy levels.
✓ For example house/# is subscribing to all topics beginning with house.
Applic ations
✓ Facebook Messenger uses MQTT for online chat.

✓ Amazon Web Services use Amazon IoT with MQTT.
✓ Microsoft Azure IoT Hub uses MQTT as its main protocol for telemetry
messages.
✓ The EVRYTHNG IoT platform uses MQTT as an M2M protocol for millions
of connected products.
✓ Adafruit launched a free MQTT cloud service for IoT experimenters called
Adafruit IO.
SMQTT
✓ Secure MQTT is an extension of MQTT which uses encryption based on

lightweight attribute based encryption.
✓ The main advantage of using such encryption is the broadcast encryption
feature, in which one message is encrypted and delivered to multiple other
nodes, which is quite common in IoT applications.

✓ In general, the algorithm consists of four main stages: setup, encryption, publish
and decryption.
✓ In the setup phase, the subscribers and publishers register themselves to the
broker and get a master secret key according to their developer’s choice of key
generation algorithm.
✓ When the data is published, it is encrypted and published by the broker which
sends it to the subscribers, which is finally decrypted at the subscriber end
having the same master secret key.
✓ The key generation and encryption algorithms are not standardized.
✓ SMQTT is proposed only to enhance MQTT security features.
XMPP – Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol.
✓ A communication protocol for message‐oriented middleware
based on XML (Extensible Markup Language).
✓ Real‐time exchange of structured data.

✓ It is an open standard protocol.
✓ XMPP uses a client‐server architecture.
✓ As the model is decentralized, no central server is required.
✓ XMPP provides for the discovery of services residing locally or across a
network, and the availability information of these services.
✓ Well‐suited for cloud computing where virtual machines, networks, and
firewalls would otherwise present obstacles to alternative service discovery and
presence‐based solutions.
✓ Open means to support machine‐to‐machine or peer‐to‐peer communications
across a diverse set of networks.
Highlights:

✓ Decentralization – No central server; anyone can run their own XMPP server.
✓ Open standards – No royalties or granted permissions are required to implement
these specifications
✓ Security – Authentication, encryption, etc.
✓ Flexibility – Supports interoperability
Weaknesses
✓ Does not support QoS.

✓ Text based communications induces higher network overheads.
✓ Binary data must be first encoded to base64 before transmission.
Applic ations
✓ Publish‐subscribe systems
✓ Signaling for VoIP
✓ Video
✓ File transfer
✓ Gaming
✓ Internet of Things applications
▪ Smart grid
▪ Social networking services
AMQP(Advanced Message Queuing Protocol)
✓ Open standard for passing business messages between applications or

organizations.
✓ Connects between systems and business processes.
✓ It is a binary application layer protocol.
✓ Basic unit of data is a frame.
✓ ISO standard: ISO/IEC 19464

AMQP Components
The AMQP Model defining how messages are received, routed, stored, queued and
how application parts handling these tasks work rely on the clear set definitions of the
below components:
• Exchange: A part of the broker (i.e. server) which receives messages and routes
them to queues
• Queue (message queue): A named entity which messages are associated with
and from where consumers receive them
• Bindings: Rules for distributing messages from exchanges to queues
Message Delivery Guarantees:
✓ At‐most‐once
▪ each message is delivered once or never
✓ At‐least‐once
▪ each message is certain to be delivered, but may do so multiple times

✓ Exactly‐once
▪ message will always certainly arrive and do so only once
AMQP Frame Types
✓ Nine AMQP frame types are defined that are used to initiate, control and tear
down the transfer of messages between two peers:
▪ Open (connection open)
▪ Begin (session open)
▪ Attach (initiate new link)
▪ Transfer (for sending actual messages)
▪ Flow (controls message flow rate)
▪ Disposition (Informs the changes in state of transfer)
▪ Detach (terminate the link)
▪ End (session close)
▪ Close (connection close)
AMQP Features
✓ Targeted QoS (Selectively offering QoS to links)

✓ Persistence (Message delivery guarantees)
✓ Delivery of messages to multiple consumers
✓ Possibility of ensuring multiple consumption
✓ Possibility of preventing multiple consumption
✓ High speed protocol
WebSocket
• WebSocket is a persistent connection between a client and server.

• WebSockets provide a bidirectional, full-duplex communications channel that

operates over HTTP through a single TCP/IP socket connection.
• At its core, the WebSocket protocol facilitates message passing between a client
and server.
• WebSocket is a framed protocol, meaning that a chunk of data (a message) is
divided into a number of discrete chunks, with the size of the chunk encoded in
the frame. The frame includes a frame type, a payload length, and a data portion.
DDS(Data Distribution Service )
• DDS is an open standard middleware designed by OMG that provides real-time

communication through the publish–subscribe message pattern.
• DDS derives a benefit of no longer needing participants to know each other from
applying discovery methods, including the Data Centric Publisher Subscriber
(DCPS) discovery method or Real-Time Publisher Subscriber (RTPS).
Therefore, DDS is a broker less information exchange protocol without the risk
of bottleneck failure. According to the
• concept of DCPS revealed in Figure , there is a domain space in which all
applications can interact through that, and all communication entities are placed
in the domain.
• Domain participants are including Data Reader, Data Writer, Publisher, and
Subscriber. Participants have access to data based on domain topic and type

Communication Protocols:
The following communication protocols have immediate importance to consumer and
industrial IoT.
✓ IEEE 802.15.4
✓ Zigbee
✓ 6LoWPAN
✓ Wireless HART
✓ Z‐Wave
✓ ISA 100
✓ Bluetooth

✓ NFC
✓ RFID
IEEE 802.15.4
Features of IEEE 802.15.4
✓ Well‐known standard for low data‐rate WPAN.
✓ Developed for low‐data‐rate monitoring and control applications and
extended‐life low‐power‐consumption uses.
✓ This standard uses only the first two layers (PHY, MAC) plus the logical link
control (LLC) and service specific convergence sub‐layer (SSCS) additions to
communicate with all upper layers
✓ Operates in the ISM band.

✓ Uses direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation.
✓ Highly tolerant of noise and interference and offers link reliability improvement
mechanisms.
✓ Low‐speed versions use Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK).
✓ High data‐rate versions use offset‐quadrature phase‐shift keying (O‐QPSK).
✓ Uses carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA‐CA) for
channel access.
✓ Multiplexing allows multiple users or nodes interference‐free access to the same

channel at different times.
Node types
The standard defines two types of network node.
The first one is the full-function device (FFD). It can serve as the coordinator of a
personal area network just as it may function as a common node. It implements a
general model of communication which allows it to talk to any other device: it may
also relay messages, in which case it is dubbed a coordinator (PAN coordinator when it
is in charge of the whole network).
On the other hand, there are reduced-function devices (RFD). These are meant to be
extremely simple devices with very modest resource and communication requirements;
due to this, they can only communicate with FFDs and can never act as coordinators.
Topologies
IEEE 802.15.4 star and peer-to-peer

Networks can be built as either peer-to-peer or star networks. However, every network
needs at least one FFD to work as the coordinator of the network. Networks are thus
formed by groups of devices separated by suitable distances. Each device has a unique
64-bit identifier, and if some conditions are met, short 16-bit identifiers can be used
within a restricted environment. Namely, within each PAN domain, communications
will probably use short identifiers.
Peer-to-peer (or point-to-point) networks can form arbitrary patterns of connections,

and their extension is only limited by the distance between each pair of nodes. They
are meant to serve as the basis for ad hoc networks capable of performing self-
management and organization. Since the standard does not define a network layer,
routing is not directly supported, but such an additional layer can add support for
multihop communications. Coordinator.
IEEE 802.15.4 cluster tree
A more structured star pattern is also supported, where the coordinator of the network
will necessarily be the central node. Such a network can originate when an FFD
decides to create its own PAN and declare itself its coordinator, after choosing a
unique PAN identifier. After that, other devices can join the network, which is fully
independent from all other star networks.

IEEE 802.15.4 Network Types:
Beacon Enabled:
• Periodic transmission of beacon messages

• Data‐frames sent via Slotted CSMA/CA with a super frame structure managed
by PAN coordinator
• Beacons used for synchronization & association of
• other nodes with the coordinator
• Scope of operation spans the whole network.
Non‐Beacon Enabled:
• Data‐frames sent via un‐slotted CSMA/CA (Contention Based)
• Beacons used only for link layer discovery
• Requires both source and destination IDs.
• As 802.15.4 is primarily, a mesh protocol, all protocol
• addressing must adhere to mesh configurations
• De‐centralized communication amongst nodes

Zigbee
• Standard- Zigbee 3.0 based on IEEE802.15.4
• Frequencies- 2.4 Ghz
• Range- Approx. 10-100m
• Data Rates – 250 kbps
• It has some significant advantages in complex systems offering low power

operation, high security, robustness & high scalability as well as a position to
take advantage of wireless control.
• It is designed especially for industrial sites where low power is required and less
for the consumers’ network. With a maximum 1024 number of nodes in the
network, Zigbee can transfer data with a range of up to 200 meters, ZigBee can
even use 128 bit AES encryption.
Features of ZigBee
• Most widely deployed enhancement of IEEE 802.15.4.
• The ZigBee protocol is defined by layer 3 and above. It works with the
802.15.4 layers 1 and 2.
• The standard uses layers 3 and 4 to define additional communication

enhancements.

• These enhancements include authentication with valid nodes,encryption for

security, and a data routing and forwarding capability that enables mesh
networking.
• The most popular use of ZigBee is wireless sensor networks using the mesh
topology.
ZigBee Mesh
• In a mesh, any node can communicate with any other
node within its range.
• If nodes are not in range, messages are relayed through
intermediate nodes.

• This allows the network deployment over large areas.
• Meshes have increased network reliability.
• For example, if nodes C and Fare down, the message packets from A can still be
relayed to G via B and E.
• ZigBee mesh networks are self configuring and self‐healing.
ZigBee Types
ZigBee Coordinator (ZC):
• The Coordinator forms the root of the ZigBee network tree and might act as a
bridge between networks.
• There is a single ZigBee Coordinator in each network, which originally initiates

the network.
• It stores information about the network under it and outside it.
• It acts as a Trust Center & repository for security keys.
ZigBee Router (ZR):
• Capable of running applications, as well as relaying information between nodes

connected to it.
ZigBee End Device (ZED):
• It contains just enough functionality to talk to the parent node, and it cannot
relay data from other devices.
• This allows the node to be asleep a significant amount of the time thereby
enhancing battery life.
• Memory requirements and cost of ZEDs are quite low, as compared to ZR or

ZC.
Applications
• Building automation
• Remote control (RF4CE or RF for consumer electronics)
• Smart energy for home energy monitoring
• Health care for medical and fitness monitoring
• Home automation for control of smart homes
• Light Link for control of LED lighting
• Telecom services
6LoWPAN
• Low‐power Wireless Personal Area Networks over IPv6.
• Allows for the smallest devices with limited processing ability to transmit
information wirelessly using an Internet protocol.
• Allows low‐power devices to connect to the Internet.

• üCreated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) ‐ RFC5933 and RFC
4919
• Standard- LoRaWAN
• Frequencies- Various
• Range- Approx. 2.5 km( Urban environment), 15 km (Suburban environment)
• Data Rates – 0.3 to 50 Kbps
Features of 6LoWPANs
• Allows IEEE 802.15.4 radios to carry 128‐bit addresses of Internet Protocol

version 6 (IPv6).
• Header compression and address translation techniques allow the IEEE

802.15.4 radios to access the Internet.
• IPv6 packets compressed and reformatted to fit the IEEE802.15.4 packet

format.
• Uses include IoT, Smart grid, and M2M applications.
Addressing in 6LoWPAN
• 64‐bit addresses: globally unique
• 16 bit addresses: PAN specific; assigned by PAN coordinator
• IPv6 multicast not supported by802.15.4

• IPv6 packets carried as link layer broadcast frames
6LowPAN Packet Format




RFID
RFID-Introduction
• RFID is an acronym for “radio‐frequency identification”

• Data digitally encoded in RFID tags, which can be read by a reader.
• Somewhat similar to barcodes.
• Data read from tags are stored in a database by the reader.
• As compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes, RFID tagdata can be read

outside the line‐of‐sight.
• RFID tag consists of an integrated circuit and an antenna.
• The tag is covered by a protective material which also acts as a shield against
various environmental effects.
• Tags may be passive or active.
• Passive RFID tags are the most widely used.
• Passive tags have to be powered by a reader inductively before they can

transmit information, whereas active tags have their own power supply.
Working Principle
• Derived from Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC) technology.
• AIDC performs object identification, object data collection and mapping of the
collected data to computer systems with little or no human intervention.
• AIDC uses wired communication
• RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC functions.

• The main components of an RFID system include an RFID tag or smart label,
an RFID reader, and an antenna.
Applications
• Inventory management
• Asset tracking
• Personnel tracking
• Controlling access to restricted areas
• ID badging
• Supply chain management
• Counterfeit prevention (e.g. in the pharmaceutical industry)

HART & Wireless HART
• Wireless HART is the latest release of Highway Addressable Remote

Transducer (HART) Protocol.
• üHART standard was developed for networked smart field devices.
• The wireless protocol makes the implementation of HART cheaper and easier.
• HART encompasses the most number of field devices incorporated in any field
network.
• Wireless HART enables device placements more accessible and cheaper– such
as the top of a reaction tank, inside a pipe, or at widely separated warehouses.
• Main difference between wired and unwired versions is in the physical,data link
and network layers.
• Wired HART lacks a network layer.

HART Physical Layer
• Derived from IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
• It operates only in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
• Employs and exploits 15 channels of the band to increase reliability.
HART Data Link Layer
• Collision free and deterministic communication achieved by means of

super‐frames and TDMA.
• Super‐frames consist of grouped 10ms wide timeslots.

• Super‐frames control the timing of transmission to ensure collision free and

reliable communication.
• This layer incorporates channel hopping and channel blacklisting to increase

reliability and security.
• Channel blacklisting identifies channels consistently affected by interference

and removes them from use.
HART Network & Transport Layers
• Cooperatively handle various types of traffic, routing, session creation, and

security.
• Wireless HART relies on Mesh networking for its communication , and each
device is primed to forward packets from every other devices.
• Each device is armed with an updated network graph (i.e., updated topology) to
handle routing.
• Network layer (HART)=Network + Transport + Session layers (OSI)
HART Application Layer
• Handles communication between gateways and devices via a series of

command and response messages.
• Responsible for extracting commands from a message , executing it and

generating responses.

• This layer is seamless and does not differentiate between wireless and wired
versions of HART.
HART Congestion Control
• Restricted to 2.4Ghz ISM band with channel 26 removed, due to its restricted
usage in certain areas.
• Interference‐prone channels avoided by using channel switching post every

transmission.
• Transmissions synchronized using 10ms slots.
• During each slot, all available channels can be utilized by the various nodes in
the network allowing for the propagation of 15 packets through the network at a
time, which also minimizes the risk of collisions.
Wireless HART Network Manager
• The network manager supervises each node in the network and guides them
on when and where to send packets.
• Allows for collision‐free and timely delivery of packets between a source and
destination. The network manager updates information about neighbors,
signal strength, and information needing delivery or receipt.
• Decides who will send, who will listen, and at what frequency is each time‐slot.
• Handles code‐based network security and prevents unauthorized nodes

from joining the network.

WirelessHART vs. ZigBee
• A Wireless HART node hops after every message, changing channels every
time it sends a packet. ZigBee does not feature hopping at all, and only hops
when the entire network hops.
• At the MAC layer, Wireless HART utilizes time division multiple access
(TDMA), allotting individual time slots for each transmission. ZigBee applies
carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD).
• Wireless HART represents a true mesh network, where each node is capable of
serving as a router so that, if one node goes down, another can replace it,
ensuring packet delivery. ZigBee utilizes a tree topology, which makes nodes
along the trunk critical.
• Wireless HART devices are all back compatible, allowing for the integration of
legacy devices as well as new ones. ZigBee devices share the same basis for
their physical layers, but ZigBee, ZigBee Pro, ZigBee RF4CE, and ZigBee IP
are otherwise incompatible with each other.
NFC
• NFC is a standards-based technology used to provide short range wireless

connectivity technology that carry secure two-way interactions between
electronic devices. Communications are established in a simple way, not
requiring set-up by users as in the case of many other wireless communications.
As such NFC enables users to perform contactless transactions, access digital
content and connect electronic devices by touching devices together.
• NFC near field communication provides contactless communication up to
distances of about 4 or 5 centimetres. In this way there communications are

inherently more secure because devices normally only come into contact and
hence communication when the user intends this.
• As no physical connectors are used with NFC near field communication, the
connection is more reliable and does not suffer problems of contact wear,
corrosion and dirt experienced by systems using physical connectors.
• NFC utilises inductive-coupling, at a frequency of 13.56 MHz - a licence free
allocation in the HF portion of the radio spectrum.
• NFC is a form of RFID, but it has a specific set of standards governing its
operation, interface, etc. This means that NFC equipment, and elements from a
variety of manufacturers can be used together. The NFC standards determine not
only the contactless operating environment, but also the data formats and data
transfer rates.
NFC applications
NFC technology has evolved from a combination of contactless identification and

interconnection technologies including RFID and it allows connectivity to be achieved
very easily over distances of a few centimetres. Simply by bringing two electronic
devices close together they are able to communicate and this greatly simplifies the
issues of identification and security, making it far easier to exchange information. In
this way it is anticipated that Near Field Communications, NFC technology will allow
the complex set-up procedures required for some longer range technologies to be
avoided.
Near field communication NFC lends itself ideally to a whole variety of applications.
These include:
• Payment cards
• Ticketing
• Mobile phones, PDAs, etc

• Check-out cash registers or "point-of-sale" equipment

• Turnstiles
• Vending machines
• Parking meters
• ATMs
• Applications around the office and house, e.g. garage doors, etc
NFC technology data transfer
The data transfer rate may be either 106, 212 or 424 kbps. The application itself sets up
the initial communication speed, but it may be changed later dependent upon the
communication environment and the requirements.
NFC technology device types
The NFC near field communication standard defines two types of NFC device. These
are known as the Initiator and Target of the communication. As the names imply, the
initiator is the device that initiates the communication and it controls the data
exchanges. The Target device is the one that responds to the requests from the Initiator.
The NFC near field communication standard defines two different modes of operation:
• Active mode of communication: In the active NFC mode of communication,

both devices generate an RF signal on which the data is carried.
• Passive mode of communication: In this mode of communication, only one
NFC device generates an RF field. The second passive device which is the target
uses a technique called load modulation to transfer the data back to the primary
device or initiator.
In addition to the NFC modes of operation, three communication modes are also
defined:

• Read / Write: This mode of operation within NFC near field communication
allows applications to transfer data in an NFC Forum-defined message format. It
should be noted that this mode is not secure. It is also necessary to note that this
mode is supported the Contactless Communication API
• NFC card emulation: This NFC mo enables the NFC device to behave as a
standard Smartcard. In this mode, data transfer is secure and the mode is also
supported by the Contactless Communication API.
• Peer to peer: A third mode within NFC is the peer to peer mode which
supports device to device link-level communication. It is worth noting that this
mode of NFC communication is not supported by the Contactless
Communication API.
Bluetooth
Introduction
• Bluetooth wireless technology is a short range communications technology.

• Intended for replacing cables connecting portable units
• Maintains high levels of security.
• Bluetooth technology is based on Ad‐hoc technology also known as Ad‐hoc
Piconets
Features
• Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and

medical (ISM) band at 2.4 to 2.485 GHZ.
• Uses spread spectrum hopping, full‐duplex signal at a nominal rate of 1600
hops/sec.
• Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and3Mbps data rate for
Version 2.0 combined with Error DataRate.
• Bluetooth operating range depends on the device:
• Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 meter or 3 feet

• Class 2 radios are most commonly found in mobile devices have a range of
10 meters or 30 feet
• Class 1 radios are used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of
100 meters or 300 feet.

Baseband

• Physical layer of the Bluetooth.

• Manages physical channels and links.
• Other services include:
• Error correction
• Data whitening
• Hop selection
• Bluetooth security
• Manages asynchronous and synchronous links.
• Handles packets, paging and inquiry.
L2CAP
• The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP).

• Layered over the Baseband Protocol and resides in the data link layer.
• Used to multiplex multiple logical connections between two devices.
• Provides connection‐oriented and connectionless data services to upper layer
protocols.
Provides:
• Protocol multiplexing capability

• Segmentation and reassembly operation
• Group abstractions
RFComm
• Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM).

• It is a cable replacement protocol used for generating a virtual serial data
stream.
• RFCOMM provides for binary data transport .

• Emulates EIA‐232 (formerly RS‐232) control signals over the Bluetooth

baseband layer, i.e. it is a serial port emulation.
• RFCOMM provides a simple reliable data stream to the user, similar to TCP.
• Supports up to 60 simultaneous connections between two BT devices.
Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)
• Enables applications to discover available services and their features.

• Addresses the unique characteristics of the Bluetooth environment such as,
dynamic changes in the quality of services in RF proximity of devices in motion.
• Can function over a reliable packet transfer protocol.
• Uses a request/response model.
Bluetooth Topologies:
Piconets
Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven
active secondary (slave) nodes.
• Thus, piconet can have up to eight active nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations
within the distance of 10 meters.
• There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.
• The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or
one-to-many.

• All communication is between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is not

possible.
• In addition to seven active slave station, a piconet can have up to 255 parked nodes.
These parked nodes are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in
communication until it is moved from parked state to active state.
2. Scatternet
• Scattemet is formed by combining various piconets.
• A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.
• Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first piconet and
deliver the message to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This node
is also called bridge slave.
• Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.
• A station cannot be a master in two piconets.

Applications
• Audio players
• Home automation
• Smart phones
• Toys
• Hands free headphones
• Sensor networks
Z Wave
• Zwave (or Z wave or Z‐wave) is a protocol for communication among devices
used for home automation.
• It uses RF for signaling and control.
• Operating frequency is 908.42 MHz in the US & 868.42 MHz in Europe.
• Mesh network topology is the main mode of operation, and can support 232
nodes in a network.
• Zwave utilizes GFSK modulation and Manchester channel encoding.
• A central network controller device sets‐up and manages a Zwave network.
• Each logical Zwave network has 1 Home (Network) ID and multiple node IDs
for the devices in it.
• Nodes with different Home IDs cannot communicate with each other.
• Network ID length=4 Bytes, Node ID length=1 Byte.
•
Zwave Global Operating Frequency
• Frequency in MHz Used in

• 865.2 India
• 868.1 Malaysia
• 868.42 ; 869.85 Europe
• 868.4 China, Korea
• 869.0 Russia
• 908.4 ; 916.0 USA
• 915.0 ‐ 926.0 Israel
• 919.8 Hong Kong
• 921.4 ; 919.8 Australia, New Zealand
• 922.0 ‐ 926.0 Japan
GFSK
• Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying.

• Baseband pulses are passed through a Gaussian filter prior to modulation.
• Filtering operation smoothens the pulses consisting of streams of ‐1 and 1, and
is known as Pulse shaping.
• Pulse shaping limits the modulated spectrum width.


ISA 100.11A
Introduction
• International Society of Automation.

• Designed mainly for large scale industrial complexes and plants.
• More than 1 billion devices use ISA 100.11A
• ISA 100.11A is designed to support native and tunneled application layers.
• Various transport services, including ‘reliable,’ ‘best effort,’ ‘real‐time’ are
offered.
• Network and transport layers are based on TCP or UDP / IPv6.

• Data link layer supports mesh routing and Frequency hopping.
• Physical and MAC layers are based on IEEE 802.15.4
Topologies allowed are:
• Star/tree
• Mesh
Permitted networks include:
• Radio link
• ISA over Ethernet
• Field buses
Application Support Layer deliver communications services to user and management

processes.
• It can pass objects (methods, attributes) natively within the ISA 100.11A
protocol.
A tunneling mode is available to allow legacy data through the ISA100.11A network.

Features
• Flexibility
• Support for multiple protocols
• Use of open standards
• Support for multiple applications
• Reliability (error detection, channel hopping)
• Determinism (TDMA, QoS support)
• Security
Security
• Security is fully built‐in to the standard.

• Authentication and confidentiality services are independently available.
• A network security manager manages and distributes keys.

Twin data security steps in each node:
• Data link layer encrypts each hop.

• Transport layer secures peer‐to‐peer communications.
Sensor Networks
A Wireless Sensor Network is one kind of wireless network that includes a large
number of circulating, self-directed, minute, low powered devices named sensor nodes
called motes. These networks certainly cover a huge number of spatially distributed,
little, battery-operated, embedded devices that are networked to caringly collect,
process, and transfer data to the operators, and it has controlled the capabilities of
computing & processing. Nodes are tiny computers, which work jointly to form
network.
The sensor node is a multi-functional, energy-efficient wireless device. The

applications of motes in industrial are widespread. A collection of sensor nodes
collects the data from the surroundings to achieve specific application objectives. The
communication between motes can be done with each other using transceivers. In a
wireless sensor network, the number of motes can be in the order of hundreds/ even
thousands. In contrast with sensor n/ws, Ad Hoc networks will have fewer nodes
without any structure.
The sensor node is a multi-functional, energy-efficient wireless device. The

applications of motes in industrial are widespread. A collection of sensor nodes
collects the data from the surroundings to achieve specific application objectives. The
communication between motes can be done with each other using transceivers. In a
wireless sensor network, the number of motes can be in the order of hundreds/ even
thousands. In contrast with sensor n/ws, Ad Hoc networks will have fewer nodes
without any structure.

Wireless Sensor Network Architecture
The most common wireless sensor network architecture follows the OSI architecture
Model. The architecture of the WSN includes five layers and three cross layers. Mostly
in sensor n/w, we require five layers, namely application, transport, n/w, data link &
physical layer. The three cross planes are namely power management, mobility
management, and task management. These layers of the WSN are used to accomplish
the n/w and make the sensors work together in order to raise the complete efficiency of
the network.
Layered Network Architecture
This kind of network uses hundreds of sensor nodes as well as a base station. Here the
arrangement of network nodes can be done into concentric layers. It comprises five
layers as well as 3 cross layers which include the following.
The five layers in the architecture are:
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Network Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Physical Layer
Application Layer
The application layer is liable for traffic management and offers software for numerous
applications that convert the data in a clear form to find positive information. Sensor
networks arranged in numerous applications in different fields such as agricultural,
military, environment, medical, etc.

Transport Layer
The function of the transport layer is to deliver congestion avoidance and reliability
where a lot of protocols intended to offer this function are either practical on the
upstream. These protocols use dissimilar mechanisms for loss recognition and loss
recovery. The transport layer is exactly needed when a system is planned to contact
other networks.
Providing a reliable loss recovery is more energy-efficient and that is one of the main
reasons why TCP is not fit for WSN. In general, Transport layers can be separated into
Packet driven, Event-driven. There are some popular protocols in the transport layer
namely STCP (Sensor Transmission Control Protocol), PORT (Price-Oriented Reliable
Transport Protocol and PSFQ (pump slow fetch quick).
Network Layer
The main function of the network layer is routing, it has a lot of tasks based on the
application, but actually, the main tasks are in the power conserving, partial memory,
buffers, and sensor don’t have a universal ID and have to be self-organized.
The simple idea of the routing protocol is to explain a reliable lane and redundant
lanes, according to a convincing scale called a metric, which varies from protocol to
protocol. There are a lot of existing protocols for this network layer, they can be
separated into; flat routing and hierarchal routing or can be separated into time-driven,
query-driven & event-driven.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is liable for multiplexing data frame detection, data streams, MAC,
& error control, confirm the reliability of point–point (or) point– multipoint.

Physical Layer
The physical layer provides an edge for transferring a stream of bits above the physical
medium. This layer is responsible for the selection of frequency, generation of a carrier
frequency, signal detection, Modulation & data encryption. IEEE 802.15.4 is suggested
as typical for low rate particular areas & wireless sensor networks with low cost, power
consumption, density, the range of communication to improve the battery life.
CSMA/CA is used to support star & peer to peer topology. There are several versions
of IEEE 802.15.4.V.
Clustered Network Architecture
In this kind of architecture, separately sensor nodes add into groups known as clusters
which depend on the “Leach Protocol” because it uses clusters. The term ‘Leach
Protocol’ stands for “Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy”. The main
properties of this protocol mainly include the following.
Clustered Network Architecture
• This is a two-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.

• This distributed algorithm is used to arrange the sensor nodes into groups,
known as clusters.

• In every cluster which is formed separately, the head nodes of the cluster will
create the TDMA (Time-division multiple access) plans.
• It uses the Data Fusion concept so that it will make the network energy efficient.
This kind of network architecture is extremely used due to the data fusion property. In
every cluster, every node can interact through the head of the cluster to get the data.
All the clusters will share their collected data toward the base station. The formation of
a cluster, as well as its head selection in each cluster, is an independent as well as
autonomous distributed method.
Design Issues of Wireless Sensor Network Architecture
The design issues of wireless sensor network architecture mainly include the
following.
• Energy Consumption
• Localization
• Coverage
• Clocks
• Computation
• Cost of Production
• Design of Hardware
• Quality of Service
Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Network
The characteristics of WSN include the following.
• The consumption of Power limits for nodes with batteries

• Capacity to handle node failures
• Some mobility of nodes and Heterogeneity of nodes
• Scalability to a large scale of distribution
• Capability to ensure strict environmental conditions

• Simple to use
• Cross-layer design
Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks
The advantages of WSN include the following
• Network arrangements can be carried out without immovable infrastructure.

• Apt for the non-reachable places like mountains, over the sea, rural areas, and
deep forests.
• Flexible if there is a casual situation when an additional workstation is required.
• Execution pricing is inexpensive.
• It avoids plenty of wiring.
• It might provide accommodations for the new devices at any time.
• It can be opened by using centralized monitoring.
Wireless Sensor Network Applications

• Military Applications
• Health Applications
• Environmental Applications
• Home Applications
• Commercial Applications
• Area monitoring
• Health care monitoring
• Environmental/Earth sensings
• Air pollution monitoring
• Forest fire detection
• Landslide detection
• Water quality monitoring

WSN Network Topologies
For radio communication networks, the structure of a WSN includes various topologies
like the ones given below.
Wireless Sensor Network

Topologies
Star Topologies
Star topology is a communication topology, where each node connects directly to a

gateway. A single gateway can send or receive a message to several remote nodes. In
instar topologies, the nodes are not permitted to send messages to each other. This
allows low-latency communications between the remote node and the gateway (base
station).
Due to its dependency on a single node to manage the network, the gateway must be
within the radio transmission range of all the individual nodes. The advantage includes
the ability to keep the remote nodes’ power consumption to a minimum and simply
under control. The size of the network depends on the number of connections made to
the hub.
Tree Topologies
Tree topology is also called as a cascaded star topology. In tree topologies, each node
connects to a node that is placed higher in the tree, and then to the gateway. The main
advantage of the tree topology is that the expansion of a network can be easily
possible, and also error detection becomes easy. The disadvantage with this network is
that it relies heavily on the bus cable; if it breaks, all the network will collapse.
Mesh Topologies
The Mesh topologies allow transmission of data from one node to another, which is
within its radio transmission range. If a node wants to send a message to another node,
which is out of the radio communication range, it needs an intermediate node to
forward the message to the desired node. The advantage of this mesh topology includes
easy isolation and detection of faults in the network. The disadvantage is that the
network is large and requires huge investment.
Node Behavior in WSNs
• Normal nodes work perfectly in ideal environmental

conditions

• Failed nodes are simply those that are unable to perform an

operation; this could be because of power failure and
environmental events.
• Badly failed nodes exhibit features of failed nodes but they
can also send false routing messages which are a threat to the
integrity of the network.
• Selfish nodes are typified by their unwillingness to cooperate,
as the protocol requires whenever there is a personal cost
involved. Packet dropping is the main attack by selfish nodes.
• Malicious nodes aim to deliberately disrupt the correct
operation of the routing protocol, denying network service if
possible.
Dynamic Misbehavior: Dumb Behavior

Detection of such temporary misbehavior in order to preserve normal
functioning of the network – coinage and discovery of dumb behavior
• In the presence of adverse environmental conditions (high temperature,
rainfall, and fog) the communication range shrinks
• A sensor node can sense its surroundings but is unable to transmit the
sensed data
• With the resumption of favorable environmental conditions, dumb nodes
work normally
• Dumb behavior is temporal in nature (as it is dependent on the effects of
environmental conditions)
Detection and Connectivity Re-establishment
The presence of dumb nodes impedes the overall network performance
• Detection, and, subsequently, the re‐establishment of network
connectivity is crucial

• The sensed information can only be utilized if the connectivity between

each dumb node with other nodes in the network could be re‐established
• Before restoration of network connectivity, it is essential to detect the
dumb nodes in the network.
• CoRD and CoRAD are two popular schemes that re‐establish the
connectivity between dumb nodes with others.

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Fundamentals of IoT Unit-1

Introduction to Internet of Things

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

Endpoint Management: It is important to be the endpoint management of all the IoT

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

o Enhance Data Collection:

1. IoT Applications – Wearables

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

2. IoT Applications – Smart Home Applications

3. IoT Applications – Health Care

4. IoT Applications – Smart Cities

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

5. IoT Applications – Agriculture

A greenhouse farming technique enhances the yield of crops by controlling environmental

6. IoT Applications – Industrial Automation

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

conditions, user‘s context or sensedenvironment.

provide certain functionality.

and exchange data with other devices andsystems.

Physical Design Of IoT

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

which host is attached. Hosts on the same link exchange data

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

802.11ac operates in 5GHz band, 802.11ad operates in 60Ghzband.

B) Network/Internet Layer: Responsible for sending IP datagrams

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

machine(M2M) applications with constrained devices, constrained

LOGICAL DESIGN of IoT

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

1) IoT Functional Blocks: Provide the system capabilities for

• Device: An IoT system comprises of devices that provide sensing,

1) Request-Response 2) Publish-Subscibe 3)Push-Pull 4) ExclusivePair

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

Involves publishers, brokers and consumers. Publishers are source of

3) Push-Pull Model: in which data producers push data to queues

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

4) Exclusive Pair: is bi-directional, fully duplex communication

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

a) REST based communication APIs: Representational State

Client-Server: The principle behind client-server constraint is the

a request be implicitly or explicitly labeled as cache-able or non-

Request-Response model used by REST:

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

RESTful webservice is a collection of resources which are

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

“A device which detects or measures a physical quantity and converts its

• Heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor.

• Atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer

• Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into another.

• It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A temperature

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

• The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the

• A Passive sensor is a sensing device that simply detect and respond to

• Example: Metal Detector, A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

• An active sensor is a sensing device that requires an external source of

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

• Example: radar, GPS, x-ray, sonar, infrared.

• Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which

• Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages

• Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally

III B.Tech II Semester Branch :CSE KITS(S)

• Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc.

• Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally

• Water Quality Sensor