Quantum Mechanics 7 Here K is the Boltzmann's constant. The experimental results of Lummer and Pringsheim in the infrared region, however, show that the Wien’s law holds good only in the region of shorter wavelengths. It does not hold good at longer wavelengths, The Rayleigh-Jean’s law holds good in the region of longer wavelengths but not for shorter wavelengths. This was shown by Rubens and Kurlbaum. ‘Thus Wein's law and Rayleigh- Jean's law do not precisely agree with the experimental results. The difficulty recognised by Rayleigh and Jean’s is that according to the equation (2.6) the ‘energy increases without limit as the wavelength decreases. 2. Ey diverges to <2 as k+0. This “unphysical” consequence of equation came to be known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. Hence we see that a satisfactory distribution law should approach the Wien distribution at low wavelengths and Rayleigh-Jeans law at higher wavelengths. 2.6 Photo-electric Effect Hertz in 1887 discovered that a metallic surface is capable of emitting electrons when light of very short wavelength falls on it. He noted that the air in the spark gap became a better conductor when it was illuminated by ultra violet light from an arc lamp. Hallwachs in 1888 found that : 1s when ultra-violet light was incident on a neutral zinc plate, the plate became positively charged. when ultra-violet light was incident on a negatively charged zinc plate, it lost its charge rapidly, and “S when ultra-violet light was incident on a positively charged zinc plate, it became more posi- tively charged. He came to the conclusion that only negatively charged particles can be emitted by the surface under the action of ultra-violet light. Thomson in 1898 showed that the * value of emitted particles was the same as that for cathode rays. Einstein in 1916 studied the effect of visible light of arange of frequencies on sodium, potassium, cesium, rubidium and lithium and found that the electrons were ejected out of these metals. The electrons ejected out of the metal under the action of light are known as photo-electrons and this phenomenon is known as ‘photo-electric effect’. Fig. 2.6 Expt. Photo-clectric effect is studied with the help of the following experiment. An evacuated glass tube has a photo-electrically sensitive plate P. It may be a highly A cylinder C has a small hole that permits the incident light to fall on the plate P. A quartz window W allows the light to enter the tube. P is connected to the negative and C is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. A sensitive galvanometer is used in the circuit as shown in (Fig. 2.6). When light from some source such as mercury arc lamp falls on the plate P, photo-electrons are polished zine plate. A hollowAtomic and Nuclear Physics it ed cylinder C. 4 by the positively charged cylin erated OY OF produced inthe circu The he results obtained, the Following laws 38 ejected out of the plate, These photo-electrons are at The galvanometer shows deflection and thus photo-el effect of light of a range of frequencies was studied. Based on 4 of photo-electric emission were formulated. 2.7 Laws of Photo-electrie Emission (1). Fora given metallic surface, there i eject the photo-clectrons out of the metal. Light o| ‘ca mot eject electrons, no matter how long it falls on (2) The number of photo-electrons ejected depends upon ©) Thus, the photo-electric home depends upon the intensity of the incident light. se ott (3) Light of frequency higher than the critical frequency oF threshold frequency a on a of aiteren veocitien, The maximum velocity with which am clecion Is eleter Net upon t frequency of the incident light and not on the intensity of the incident light. The tires ol frenencd isthe minimum frequency which can eject an electron outof the metal. Light of renueey jess than the threshold frequency cannot eject an electron out of the ‘metal, howsoever intense the light may be, (4). The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident light. It does not depend on the intensity of the incident light. : ‘The above experimental facts could not be explained on the basis of the wave theory of light. Einstein in 1905, explained the photo-clectrc effect based on Planck's idea of quantum theory of light. According to quantum theory light consists of quanta or corpuscles of enerBy ‘hy which move through space with the velocity of light. These particles are known as photons and each photon has an energy = hv, where his the Planck's constant and vis the frequency of light. When a photon collides with an electron in the metal, it may transfer energy to the electron. This transfer is an “all or none” process, i.e, either the photon gives the whole of its energy hv to the electron or no energy to the electrons. 2.8. Ritz Combination Principle Using Rydberg's formula for the spectral lines, Ritz came up with a principle to extend it to the spectral lines. Series other than Balmer for hydrogen was predicated. cy for which the incident light can f frequency smaller than this particular value how high is its intensity. he surface OF : pon the intensity of the incident light minimum freque Now and 8, 2.7)renee ‘Quantum Mechanics 39 ‘This gave a new line in the spectra in the infra-red region discovered latter by Paschen. Ritz made this discovery empirically much before Bohr's theory was known, Similarly other lines Brackett were obtained using this principle. Such lines are known as intercombination lines or | Series. | This principle was useful for X-rays as well. It also gave Bohr a clue to interpret the spectra on the basis of the Quantum theory. 2.9 Planck’s Radiation Law Max-Planck's in 1900 deduced an empirical relation to explain the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body observed experimentally. ‘The law is derived with the following basic assumptions : (1) A Black body radiator contains simple harmonic oscillators capable of vibration with all Possible frequencies. The oscillators are of molecular dimensions. (2) The oscillators do not radiate or absorb energy continuously. (3) The oscillators can exchange energy (emission or absorption) within surrounding in discrete values viz. E = Ohv,2hv, 3 hvete, These are the only available energy states, Here his Planck's constant, and vis the frequency. The average energy per oscillator is given by where £ = hr Sine ere me Taking x= e*"7, we get average energy = But Dit = xt 2P 4 3e ear'e.. x[L+2r¢3r 4404.) x d=» lextr ars... (5) Substituting these values in the main equation, and "Average enerey © ADB) where & 1s small cote wA29) ‘Average encrey = aw of equipartition of enerey- ‘Therefore. in general. sin agreement with Maxwell's € This value 1 average energy of an oscillator #8 pot kT but itis equal 10 But e aw ‘Therefore average energy of a" oscillator hv. = nr er -1) “The number or resonators per unit volume in the frequency v and v +d is given by - anv N= ms dv ‘Therefore energy density Ey, = e210) Ey = | 2A) ‘This expression represents Planck's radiation law and this law explains all experimental results. : st c= vAand U Interms of wavelength, dv Numerically dv = ch Substituting the values in equation (2 10) we get E,dh = sels fe an te or - ra 1 (eur ol (2.12) (i) For shorter wavelengths: ut GeeQuantum Mechanics at From equation (2.12) Ee (2.13) where, Cy =8nheand C, = Equation (2.13) represents Wien’s radiation law. (ii) For longer wavelengths, & is small. From equation (2.12), expanding e"™*T and neglecting higher powers, B= inte 14 14d = Sthe AKT he 8nkT 5 = St o(2.14) Equation (2.14) represents Rayleigh-Jeans’s law. ‘Thus Planck's formula for the energy distribution in a thermal spectrum is applicable for all wavelengths, 2.10 Rigid Rotator A rigid rotator is considered to be dumbell shaped and consisting of two small masses m, and mi, connected together by a thin rod (Fig. 2.8). cM. ———_ m, Ty te Me Fig. 2.8. The system is capable of rotation about an axis passing through the centre of mass of the system and perpendicular to line joining two masses. In such a system the energy is only the kinetic energy of rotation. In such a system the moment of interia /is given by Le mptmy 215) ‘The kinetic energy of the system Igor ay = Cale 2.1 Pe a ema (jr P18) The phase integral for quantum-mechanical energy levels is given by J = fRdo=2np, According to Wilson-Sommerfeld rule nk 2nPy = nh y= ean : The energy of the system‘Atomic and Nuclear Physics 42 we 2AT) The energy values are discrete Een For nel we A= 1 eel For n=2 an B= 2 oral For n=3 on 8 2.11 Einstein’s Photo Electric Equation. According to Einstein's, when light of frequency is incident on a metallic surface, photons of energy hv strike the metal. The energy of a quantum or a photon is found to be directly proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation. ‘The entire energy of the photon is transferred to a single electron in the metal. If the energy iv of the striking photon is less than the energy required to eject an electron out of the metal, no electron is ejected. The minimum energy required = hig, where Vy is the threshold frequency and it depends on the nature of the metal. If the frequency of the incident light is just equal to the threshold frequency .e., = Uo then the electron is just ejected out of the metal but its velocity is zero. If v is greater than Va then the difference in energy (hv — Ug) is used in giving kinetic energy to the electron. If the mass of an electron is m and velocity is v, then, hv-byy = ; mv? where yy = W= Work function of the metal. This is the photo-electric equation due to Einstein. This equation was verified experimentally by Millikan in 1916, 2.18) 1 2.12 Millikan’s Experiment for Verification of Einstein’s Photo-electric Equation ‘The apparatus consists of an evacuated chat drum D is kept which can rotate freely materials (sodium, potassium, lithium imber C (Fig. 2.9). At the centre of the chamber, a y about a vertical axis. Four cylindrical blocks of different etc.) are fixed on the surface of the drum. K isa sharp knifeQuantum Mechanics “a Initially the surface of any one of the metal blocks is scraped with the knife edge K and then by rotating the drum D, the block is turned towards the window W. ‘monochro- matic ight Fig. 2.9 Allow monochromatic radiation of known frequency v to be incident on the surface of the metal block. When the drum is kept at a negative potential with respect to the cylinder F, the photo- electrons ejected from the surface are acceler- ated towards the cylinder and the quadrant elec- trometer records the deflection. When a small positive potential is applied to the drum, only the fast moving electrons reach the cylinder F, 4 the deflection in the electrometer decreases. Now, the positive potential of the drum is gradu- ally increased till the deflection in the quadrant electrometer is zero. At this stage no photo- electron reaches the cylinder. This particular = ¥9 ° —*" potential V, is called the stopping potential. : t le Fig. 2.10 Even when the intensity of light is increased for the same frequency, the deflection remains zero for the same stopping potential Vp. It means that the stopping potential V, is the same and i independent of the intensity of incident light. The experiment is repeated for different frequencies for the same metal. Itis found that the stopping potential V, increases with increase in frequency for a given metal. According to Einstein's photo-electric equation lw = jm? | Here = hy Law? hv=hyy = hmv | vy = 5m Also ev = mv” hy -livy = eVy Y= by - vl‘Atomic and Nuctear Physics 4g The experiment is repeated for different metals and graphs are drawn between frequency v along the y X-axis and the stopping potential Vp along Y-axis The graph is a straight line (Fig. 2.11). A straig line graph is obtained in all cases and this is in agree- ment with Einstein's theory. if Determination of Planck’s Constant Val As discussed earlier, the stopping potentials of articular metal are determined for different frequen- cies. A graph is plotted between frequency v along the X-axis and stopping potential along the X-axis. ———. Take a point A on the graph and measure Vp. Draw [ AB parallel to Y-axis. The point B gives the value of v. The graph meets the X-axis at the point C corre- sponding to the threshold frequency Up. The slope of the graph Fig 2.11. ad a M = des] h = e [slope of the graph] Here e is the charge of the electron and it is equal to 1.6 x 10" constant h can be determined. The value of /t was found to be [6.624 + is in agreement with the value determined by other methods. (Example What is she threshold wavelength for a tungsten surface whose work function is 45eV. [Delhi (Hons.) 1980) Solution. Here = 45eV 4.5 x 1.6x 10°"? Joule But 19. Hence the value of Planck's 0.011 x 10™J-s. This value But or o= Here h = 6.6 x 10™ Joule-second c = 3x 10° ms 6.6% 10 x3x 108 45x1.6x107 dq = 9.640107 m+ Ay = 9640 A, (ExaMple!22, A photoelectric surface has a ? velocity of the photoelectrons emitted by ghee eee oe What de the lgstmars of z incident on th ? b= 66x10 pate on the surface ? € = 16x10"? Coulomb m = 9x10"! -g‘Quantum Mechanics 4ev 4x 1.6x 10°" Joule = 64x10" Joule 19 = iy 9= 66x 10x 10? - 64% 10 Solution. Here mo? = 02x10" m 9x10" v = 2.107 x 10° mvs. Calculate the energy in electron-volts of the photoelectrons from the surface of a tungsten emitter when it is irradiated with light of wavelength 1800 A, given that the threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission in this case is 2300 A. [Dethi (Hons.) 1981) Solution. E = h(v-v) zapft sts lege[2es4 ae afb tea Here h = 66x10™ Fs ¢ = 3x 10° ms A = 1800A=18x 10m 2 = 2300A=23x 10% m 8 E = 66x 10™x3 x 10'| 3210 _, 18x10 x 23x10 66x10 x3x10° x5 E= aka la 18x 23x10 E = 24x10 Joule But eV = 16x10" Joule 1 I Joule = ———s5eV 7 one 6x10 -19 = 24x10 <1 sev 1.6x10 Hence the energy of each photoelectron emitted from the surface is 1.5 eV. (EXampleWA Calculate the longest wavelength of the incident radiation which will eject elec- trons from a metal work function is 6 electron volts. Planck's constant h = 6.624 x 10° joule [Delhi 1982} second. Solution. Here, work function 6 = ftv, = 6 electron volts = 6X 1.6% 10" joule = $X16x10" _6x1.6x10-? h 6624x104 ¢ _ 3x10°x6.624x10™ % 6x 1.6x10"” A = 2.07 x 107 m= 2070 A.‘Atomic and Nuclear Physics 48 vetength of radia Calculate he threshold frequency and the covrgspor! ne S eee = tion incident on a certain ractal whose work function is 331 x10 * WDethi (Sub.) 19891 6.62 x I i function Solution. Here, wor pga 3a1e"3 hh = 6.6210 Jes Yo = hh 662x1 = 5x10" hertz Example 26. 1 100 on vork. 5 v ir ‘a) nickel surface of work function rk facie 2 * ctearon volts. Find out, if electrons electron volts and (b) a potassium surface of work function 2. r ht 1985) will be emitted, and if so, the maximum velocity of the emitted electrons in each case. [Delhi 1985} Solution. (a) For the nickel surface © = fivg electron volts = 5x 1.6x 10" Joule = SX16x10 6.624 x10 c _ 3x10°x6.624x10% BT aig = 2484 x 10m = 2484 A. As Ay is less than the wavelength of the incident radiation, (A = 4300 A), electrons will not be emitied. (6) For the potassium surface, = 2.3 electrons volts = 23x 16x10" joule ch * % = 3X10°x6.624x10™ 23x1.6x10? = 4389x107! m = 4389 A, As dy is greater than A el electrons be vy lectrons wil it will be emitted. Let the maximum velocity of the ejected‘Quantum Mechanics 47. = be Ay \ = [Ay -% as [ “mde 9.1% 107" x 4300% 10°"? x 4389 x10 V = 1.423 x 10° mis. The wavelength of the photoelectric threshold for silver is 3250 A. Determine the maximum energy if the ejected electrons from a silver surface by light of wavelength 2537 A. - [;2asenpeto se ani | UA.S. 1983) Solution, U = hv-v,) ale =h v= lta) ie] Here h = 66x10 J-sandc=3x 10° mis 2 = 2537 A= 2537 x10" m dg = 3250A =3250x 10" m 3250x107"? - 2537 x10" U = 66x10 SF Seen [Bowe ae U = 1625x110"? J ED A surface having work function 1.51 eV is illuminated by light of wavelength 4000 A. Calculate (i) the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons and (ii) the stopping potential. UAS) Solution. Here = LS1eV = 1LS1x16x loys = 2416x1073 A = 4000A=4x 107m ve ja hv- % = U = 6,624x 10x 7.5 x 10 ~ 2.416 x 10 U = 4.96810 - 2.416 x10" U = 2552x10" J “19 ce 2552x107 1.610 U = 1595eV i) Also hv~) = ev=U stopping potential vel e‘Atomic and Nuclear Physics: V = 1.595 volts. for the elect Bxample 29, Theo sping potential fect is found to be 1 Vyorl Tight of 2500 A. Calculate the work fu ° ve= 1 Volt rons emitted froma metal due to photoelectric inction of the metal in eV. ae 000 A = 2.5 x 1077 m 2 62 3x10" °F 2" 25x107 or v = 12x10" He o=? e = 16x10"C iy = o=eV 9 = hu-eV . = 6.624 x 10 x 1.2.x 10" = 16x10 x1 = 7.9488 x 10°"? = 1.6 x 10 3488 x 10°) = 68810" 16x10" 3.968 eV. EGMPIEBID Me photoelectric threshold wavelength for Tungsten is 2300 A. Find the en- ergy in eV of the emitted electrons from the surface by ultraviolet light of wavelength 1800 A. [Dethi, 1990} Solution. E = v-v,) Here h = 66x10 Is ¢ = 3x 10° m/s A = 1800 A = 1800 x 10°! m= 18x 10° m Yq = 2300 A = 2300 x 10° m=23 x 108 m 23x10 ~ 18x 10% OO = 18x10 18x10 x 23x10 E = £6X10™x3x108 x5 18x 23x10" 4 E = 24x10?) jut TeV = 16x 105 6.6 x west a We49 ‘Quantum Mechanics 16x10" E = 15eV Hence, the energy of each photoelectron emitted from the surfac: eis 1.5 eV. me momentum as that of 10 MeV Example 2.11. Calculate the energy of a photon having the same momentum asia a Mey proton. o Solution. Mass of proton, m = 1.67 x 107” kg 10" x 1.6 x 107 Energy of proton, u=-3 u ore) a Momentum, p = mv= [20 ™ 1 p = [2mupe 1 Energy of photon, E = pe= [2mup 1 = [2x1 67x10 x1.6x10"? F x3x108 5 = 219x107 J mm 12 = 2s = 13.69 x 107 eV. 6x Example2I2) The wavelength of light falling on the surface of a metal of work function 2.3 eV is 43008. With what velocity will the electron be emitted. (Dethi (Hons.) 1992 m = 91x10" kg Solution. Here $ = 23eVv = 23x 16x 103 68 x 10" J A = 4300A=4.3x 10m __ { 6.624x10* x3x10! 4.3x107 4.62 x 10°? - 3,68 x 10° 0.94 x 10° 5 1 1 [2xosexuo" “5 [game ' S u 3.68x10"" " m 91x10 = 4.55 x 10° mis. v=‘Atomic and Nuoiear PRS of wavelengtlt ° rum of light electron volt, the energy Of 7 quantum of le! tetns, 1992) (GERaABPIEAD. Cafeutae, in electron 53x10" m : | 7 oom Solution, Here ye Saxl . . ae he _ 6.02410 x3x10" y Boor = =. © 5.3% 10 9 15 *10 ” cv i = 3.15x 10 Tex10® = 2Mev. Prize for Physics * warded Nobel Prize for atom for wi a d move round the nucleus suggested a model of the i in 1918 br suggested model Fhe 2 cles an 39. He suggested that the electrons are in 1922. He sugges nivel ate ir sanaus orbits. The orbit of an electron is fx the name Energy Levels to these orbits. The electron cannot eS Photon \ ‘own fixed orbit known as < cemitany energy when it moves ints SGuonary energy level. In Fig. 2.12 the dotted line orbit is uledout in Bohr's mode! and only thick line orbits are present. It means that the orbits of definite radii are present and orbits of all radii are ruled out. The electron gives: cout energy in the form of electromagnetic radiations of definite frequency when it jumps from higher energy level to lower energy level (Fig. 2.12). The Bohr model opened the way tonew concepts ~ ei fi cee tocnaleth Century: Fig 2.12. Bohr’s model of 244 Rutherford's experiment on the scattering of d-particles led Bohr to the conclusion that the zom consists of a positively charged nucleus at its centre. Moreover, Bohr applied the quantun theo y of radiation as developed by Planck and Einstein to the Rutherford’s model. His theory is mainly based ‘on the following postulates. iQr 2.16 Energy Levels of Hydrogen Atom In the case of Hydrogen atom, the work function for the electron in the first orbit is given by A me Beh o= This value of 6 = 13.60 eV. The energy of electron in the first orbit U, = 13.60 eV. Similarly for the second, third etc. orbits, the energy‘of the electron will be 13.6 _ S U, = -Hb=—s4ev -1.511eV ‘The energy level diagram is shown in Fig. 2.13. ‘The enetgy is inversely proportional to the square of the number of the ‘orbit and is negative. The lowest energy state ( = 1) is called the ground state. With increase in the order of the orbit, the energy of the orbit increases. If n= so, the energy is zero. In all other orbits, the energy is negative. Due to this reason the electron is bound to the nucleus. ane The different spectral series are shown in the Fig. 2.13. "‘Atomic and Nuclear Physics 56 neo " nS aa n=4 -0.85 a -1511 i -34 ret a138 Fig. 2.14. : n sm. Show that the velocity of the elec- Calelare the radius ofthe hydrogen 0 E 1/37) ¢, where c is velocity of light. aa Bohr orbit in hydrogen arom is ( ) ese os tron in the fi : enh Solution. (i) Radius, FST mmLZe Here asl hy = 6.624x 10 5s Eq = 8.85% 10? CN im = 9.1x 107" kg, e = 16x10 Cy a 342 = — 8:85 246.624x10 x9.1x107 x (6x10)? 7 = 5.29x10" m = 0529 A De Velocity. °* Jah Here Z= Lnz y 2 meee 6x) = 2.x 8.8510"? x 6.624 x 10” ve (6x10)? © ~ 2x8,85%10? x 6.62410 x3x 10" vl ¢ * BT = (Le . (ase 2.17 Resonance, excitation and Ionization Potentials Resonance Potential. The mini 1¢ minimum potential requit i ground seo the fist excited site, foman=lton= 2 ealed ewe = 2.is called resonance potential — eeQuantum Mechanics sv eray of elecion inthe ground state of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV and fist excited state The net Therefore. the energy required to move the electton fom the ground state othe : ea eal state is (-3-4) eV ~ (-13.6) eV = 10.2 eV. Fherefore te resonance potential for hydrogen is 10.2 V. rretution Potential. Thestaten> I are called excitedstates. The energy required to move the ato the first, second, third excited states is given by E, = 10.2eV elect E, = - 8 =(-13.6) =1'51 +/13.60 = 12.09 eV E -[Bs]-cso = -0.85 + 13.60 = 12.75 eV \ ‘Therefore the successive excitation potentials are 10.2 V, 12.09 V, 12.75 V and so on. “The excitation potential is the potential required to provide energy to raise the electron from the ground state to the state n > 1 i.e,,n = 2,3, 4... Ionization Potential. It is the minimum potential required that provides energy to bring the electron from the ground state out of the atom. For hydrogen atom, ionization potential = 13.6V ‘The energy to the electron in the atom can be provided by electron emitted from a hot filament and accelerated though a creation potential V. eV. yt m (1) Ifthe energy of the striking electron is just equal to energy required by the electron in atom tomove from the ground state to the first state, the electron will move to first excited state and striking electron gives whole of its energy to the electron in the atom. (2) Ifthe energy of the electron is just equal to or more than the energy required by the electron tocome out of the atom, the electron in the atom absorbs energy and comes out of the atom (Example216 Wavelength of Balmer H, line is 6563 A. Calculate the wavelength of Hgline. [Delhi (Hons.) 1982] The electron will move with a velocity v where v = Solution. For H, line of Balmer series ie., the first number, -5 = 36% oA) ., the second number, : = pit : : y= ek] ona ts 1.23 ' a: fii) | Dividing (i) by (ii) . 5 dy _ 20 : \ A 2\d Nuclear Physics e ‘Atomic an 58 20 = (Fs But a, = 6563 A 2 (69 a, = aso the ground state Calculate he energy required ro excite the hydrogen atom from pel a (Hons. ialcul (n= 1) 10 the first excited state (n = 2) Solution. Energy required U = Ue 4556 o m = 91X10" Ke, e= 16x10" C 8.85 x 10"! C7N-m* 6.624 x 10 J-s 31 -19)4 yo PASAIOXO.SH10 7 utes 32x (8.85 x10)” x (6.62410) wile 39.1107" x (1.6% 107 32x (6.85% 10")? x (6.62410) X1.6x 10" Here 0 I9y4 eV U = 10.13 eV. (Brample 2B. The wavelength of sodium D, levels involved in the emission or absorption of this line. is 590nm. Calculate the difference in energy h Solution. Here Eyegy = v= 5E Here, “k= 6.624x 10 Is c = 3x 10° mis 590 nm = 590 x 10° m A B,,, = ($:624x10™) x3 108 7 590x107 = 337x190 J Example219) The wavel is 4861 A. ‘elength of the second line of th oA Solu Caledate the wavelength ofthe fat ling ie Series in the hydrogen spectrum tion. For the second line, : [Rajasthan]‘Quantum Mechanics For the first line, or Dividing (0) by (ii) But or 1 a es 5 36" ie (ii) a, 7 36" one a, ~ 20 27d, A= 9" Ay = 4861 A 27x 4861 a) = eae 10 A, = 6563 A. (EXAMIPIEZO, A beam of electrons is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen. What is the mini- anu energ, ‘sponding 10 a transition from ny electron-volis the electrons must have if the first number of the Balmer series corre- 2 state is 10 be emitted ? Joule second. state ton, 0 2 a x Ss [Mumbai, 1981, Kolkata, 1992) Solution. Energy required = —€ Here Energy required = But Energy required = ny = LeV = 16x10" Joule Sme* —_ 2 electron-volts 8x36xE9 h? x(1.6X10 ) 5x9x107" x (1.6 x107)* 8x 36(8.85 x10")? x (6.6 x10")? x (1.6 x10") = 1.88 eV. “1, (Example222. Calculate the ionization potential in electron volts for hydrogen atom. Given that Solution. Work function, e = 1.6x10" coulomb m = 9x10" kg h = 6.6.x 10™ Joule-second €, = 885-10" coulomb?/Newton-m? = Joules me* °‘Atomic and Nuclear Physics 9x10" xl Joule 8x6 85%10"") "Joule leV = 1.6% 10 Jou! ons 7 : 9x10" £01.6%107 aan = 5885x1017) x (66x10) *1.6% = 13.51 eV. a - spine first number of Balmer series of hydroRe! rhe moe “ ese, 1 jini 210% (Det, 1982 Cateulate the wavelength of its second number o= (6.6%10 Solution. 4-8 4-4] For the first number yo 7 3 ¥ 5 v= 5R t HR a) me Ay 36 For the second number, ii) or Dividing (i) by (ii) A, . 20 A 27 20. ay = yh But Ay = 6563 x10" m x 6563 x10" Wy, a = 4861 x10" m Example 2.23. The ionization potential of atomic hydrogen is 13.6 V. Calculate the wave: length of light emitted ina transition starting at the first excited state of hydrogen atom. [LA.S. 1985] Solution, lonization potential = 13.6 V Energy of electron in.the first orbit U, = -B6ev Energy of electson in the second orbit = 713.6 % ig YU, = -3.44 13.6 WV = 10.2ev he R = 102 16% 19" 1.632 x 10°83ae ‘Quantum Mechanics a Ae fe 1.63210" = 6624x100 x 3x10" 1.63210" = 1217x107 m = 127A, _Bxample224 nd the radius and speed of the electron in the first Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom. How will the radius and speed of electron change with the increase in atomic number of the {LA.S.] atom ? Solution. (i) The radius of the Bohr orbit is given by re oe mmZe* For hydrogen, Z = \n=1 2 Eh nme? Here Eq = 885x107? CN-m? m = 91x10" kg e = 16x10"%C Ah = 6.624 10 F-s 1, = 885x107 x (6.624107) HO RX91XIO™ x (6x10) ry = 5.3010" m - 2 Also rem Therefore radius of the orbit will decrease with increase in atomic number Z. (ii) Velocity of the electron 2 »- 2 2e, mh In hydrogen Z=In=1 ee cee (16x10?) We Qegh 2x8.85x 10" x 6.624x10* = 22x 10° mis Also v= ZWy Therefore velocity of the electron in the orbit will increase with increase in atomic number Z. (Example22S. Calculate the radius of the first Bohr orbit for (i) H and (ii) He atoms and also the velocity of the electron in these orbits as compared to the velocity of light. {LA.S.] Solution. For hydrogen atom, the radius of the orbit is,‘Atomic and Nuclear Physica 62 Here n= Ze 8.85 x 107"? C°/N-m* 1 107! kg. 1.6 107"'C 624 x 10 J-s 8.85% 10" x1 (6.624 X10 ty = XI 6.62 © 3.142 x9.1 x10! x (16X10 ry = 53X10" m For helium, atom, n = 1, Z=2 " Gi) Velocity of the electron, v For hydrogen Zz Uy = 2.2% 10° mvs Also, My _ 2.210% . = S72 3 c 3x10° 33 x 10 For helium Heren = 1,Z=2 ze ty = ee Me eh OH Ve = 22.2 x 10° = 44x 10° m/s 4.4x10° Solution, Se‘Quantum Mechanics fi : Ry ~ [yam 1+0000274 D Ro. Ro = 1,00027 Ry Rp = (Ry) 1.00027 Rp = 1.097 x 10” x 1.00027 Ry = 1.0973 x 10"/m In the case of Balmer series, for the first member a, = 3& 1 1 5Ry 5x1.097 x10" dy = 6.5633 x 107m Similarly 36 dp = aoe > SRp - 36 ~ 5x1.0973x10" 6.5615 x 107 m dyno 6.5633 x 10°” - 6.56 0.0018 x 10°” m 184 that of an electron and charge is same as that of electron, Bohr’s theory. . (ie) 15x 107 Example 2.27. In hydrogen atom the electron is replaced by a muon whose mass is 200 times calculate the ionization on the basis of {LA.S. 1989) Solution. In the case of hydrogen atom, having an electron, the ionization potential 4 4 = me © 86," when electron is replaced by muon. m, = 200m Ai)=a! Atomic and « Dividing (i) by (9) % 2 200 ° 136eV “ 200 13.6 ame length of the photon emitted by a omentum and wa "om n=210n= | sre? Given fontation What is the energy. 1™ hydrogen atom when an electron makes @ transition potential = 13.6 eV. : ; a Energy of electron in the first orbit of hydrogen a£0™ E, = -136eV Energy of electron in second orbit Ey = -34eV (1) Energy of photon emitted = E,~ E, E = -3.4+(13.6) = 10.2eV 10.2 x 1.6 x 10" = 1632x1075 £ 1632x107" ~~ 3x10° P = 5.44x10™ kg-m/s 6.624x107* : 544x107 = 1218x107 m = 128A. Example 2.29, Calculate the energy required to create a vacancy in (i) K shell of copper atom (ii) L shell of copper atom Given, Ionization potential of hydrogen atom = 13.6 eV For copper Z = 29, : Soh i Sie inten. (i) The energy required to create a vacancy in the first orbit (n = 1) ie., K shell of 195 x " (2) Momentum, (3) Wavelength, he e Z)x136 n = Brx136 11.44x 10 ey E, =‘quantum Mechanics Gi Energy required to create a vacancy in the second orbit (n = 2) i., shell of copper atom (29)? «13.6 2 E, = 2.86% 10" eV Baie 2s The radiations given off by the Hg atoms returning to their normal states were indied by Frank and Hertz and a line was observed at 2537 A. Caleulate excitation potential or Hs. {Mumbai, 991) Solution. Here A = 2537 A=2597 x 107" m Let excitation potential be V. y= eV = ive he Ne KX = he x 6.624 x 10 Js 3% 10° mis 16x10 19 2537 x 10 m 6.624 x10 x3x10" 1.6% 10? x 25371 V = 49 volts. Example 2.31. An X-ray line of wave length 0.53832 A is found to be emitted from an X-ray tube with Zinc(Z-= 30) target in addition to the characteristic K line of Zinc of wavelength 1.43603 A. Ifthe unknown line is due to an impurity in the target, obtain the atomic number of impurity. (Kolkata, 1992) Here yaos ss 4 Solution. Here A, = 1.43603 A Z, = 30 dq = 0.53832 A =? ten Ret deZ and a Z oe NIN st u — x 4 N Te oS a= 20 fe B=. Example 2.32. In a jt-mesonic atom, muon with’a charge -e and mass 200 m, maves in a circular orbit around the nucleus of charge + 3e. Assuming that Bohr’s model of atom is applicable to this system. J‘Atomic and Nucloar Physics = ® 66 (i) Derive the expression for the radius of n th Bolir orbit. y the same as that of (ii) Find the value of n for which the radius of the orbit is approximatel [Kolkata, 1991] Bohr’s first orbit of hydrogen atom. Bohr radius = 0.53 x10" Om. (ili) Calculate the first excitation potential of the atom. Solution. (i) Here Zier) m = 200 me Here mts r fi) my? = Also mur = v= [at nmr « Ze" = aneyr pe Citi) ) re mm Ze" Here tn pe Soh x 200m, x3 e* Eg? re 600 | rm, For hydrogen atom, for the first Bohr orbit . Eh? ihe an nm, _. re (es) But r = ry (given) 0.53 x 107° m (ui) HereIn spite of the extraordinary success of the Bohr's theory there were some serious limitations : (1) Itcould not account for the spectra of complex atoms. -n simple atoms as neutral helium having more than one electron could not be dealt with 2 by the Bohr’s theory. (3) Intensities of lines could not be calculated, (4) It failed to give correct results in the complicated conditions of the splitting of lines in the presence of a magnetic field, known as the anomalous Zeeman effect. i (5) It did not account for the fine structure of the hyd it accour doublet structure of the alkali metal spectra. Se eee ate EXERCISE IL What is a black body ? Discuss briefly the inadequacy of classical mechanics. Discuss the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body. Derive Planck’s radiation law, Give briefly the Ritz combination principle in explaining the spectra of an atom. How was Millikan able to verify Einstein's photoelectric equation experimentally ? How will you determine experimentally Planck’s constant by cut off potential method ? 1 2% 3 4. 5 6. Describe Einstein’s photoelectric equation. 2 8 9. On the basis of Bohr’s theory, deduce expressions for the radius, frequency and energy of an orbit of hydrogen atom. What is meant by ionization potential ? Calculate its value in the case of hydrogen atom. 10. 11. State and explain the fundamental postulates of Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom. Derive an expression for the energy of an electron in the nth orbit. Explain the various series in the hydrogen spectrum op the basis of Bohr’s theory. 12, State Bohr’s postulates for the theory of the hydrogen atom. Derive an expression for the energy of this atom when the electron is in the nth orbit. What is Binding energy ? 13. Explain the hydrogen spectrum on the basis of Bohr’s theory. Outline Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom. What is the justification for assuming quantised 14, stationary orbit ? Explain the formation of Balmer lines. 15, What are the limitations of the Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom 16. Calculate the velocity of the electron in the first orbit of the hydrogen atom. 17. The wavelength of the photoelectric threshold for tungsten is 230 nm. Determine the energy of the electrons ejected from the surface by ultra-violet light of wavelength 180 nm. 18. Calculate the energy of a photon of wavelength 5890 A. Express the result in (i) Joules and GeV. The longest wavelength of the incident radiation that can eject electrons from platinum is 1972 A. Calculate the work function of platinum in electron volts. Calculate the number of photons from the D, line of sodium (A = 5896 x 10"'° m) required to do 6,624 joules of work. h = 6.624 x 10” Joules-second. 19, 20.3 MATTER WAVES Wave-Particle Duality and Uncertainty Principle 31, Inadequacy of Classical Mechanics Prior to 1900 most of the phenomena involving macroscopic systems could be explained satis- factorily with the accepted laws for classical Physics. In most of the cases the effects with which the ‘iessical theory is associated are ether directly observable or capable of observation withthe help of Simple instruments. There is also aclose link between the world of sensory perception and the realm of classical Physics. With the discovery of an electron as a fundamental particle by J.J. Thomson in 1897, most of the studies in Physics concentrated to explore microscopic or atomic systems which are’ beyond the scope stdirect observations. Many difficulties were encountered with phenomena viz. spectral distribution of heat radiations from black bodies, specific beats of solids at low temperature et. ‘These difficulties were overcome by Planck in 1900 who suggested that the black body radiation (emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiations) takes place as discrete quanta and the energy equivalent of each quantum, E = hv. ‘The quantum concept was also used by Einstein to explain the observed photoelectric effect. ‘Thus a dual character of electromagnetic radiation that it behaves as waves and particles became evident. “The concept of discrete energy levels has become very fundamental in the field of atomic and uclear physics and itis a consequence of planck’s hypothesis of quantam of energy. 3.2. Two Slit Experiment-Superposition Principle {A fine beam of electrons produces interference and diffraction patterns. For studying the two WEEE ' 1 To Vacuum , Pump Fig. 3.1ind Nuclear Physics » ‘Atomic a ofan electron gun altinterference pattern with electrons, the exe mental arangement consis of an rongun and two sits (5, and S,) (Fig. 3.) “The electrons emitted from the filament ec : having a fine role # Dn ore slits 5, and So: ANY ted towards the diaphragm Dy i rectrons emerging out at 0 is incident o 5 ia ight slits §, and Sz. ) ceives electrons from both Re HY ; an * from S, and Stakes place ‘and the distri 1 antrean with maxima and minima. fine beam and are accelerat positive potential. The beam of el point on the photographic plate P ic lectron: ‘waves, superposition of the wo beams ofel intensity on the photographic plate shows A interference patter intensity distribution Is sh own in the Fig. 3.1- similarly employing a suitable experimental ec alge was studied and the distribution of intensity com of electrons at a straight spnique, the diffraction o t as Found vo be similar tO that of High waves diffrace ec waves just similar to the Tight = ee Jy show that electrons behave as matte wine a te STeeron calculated from these mat ments the same as the value rtealated from De-Broglie equation aek Bel) Light and Matter 3.3 Wave-Particle Dualism fo ‘The earliest theory for explaining the nature of light radia Newton, However, Huygen’s wave theory could expalin satisfactorily the ph aveesitraction, double refraction and polarization. ‘The quantum theory of radi explaining the phenomenon of photoelectric effec. Bohr’s quantization principle to explain the atom mo very satisfactory. However, Bohr’s quantization theory had to be modified by Sommerfeld and other tocxplain the fll structure of hydrogen spectrum. Though the vheory We sucessful in case of hydro- gon it could explain satisfactorily the experimentally observed energy levels of helium or any atom Bet, more than two electrons. There were other inconsistencies also to correlate the experiment and theory. Einstein suggested that the waves merely sc a frequency V. This suggestion, however brought experimental data. eres in 1929, suggested that the material particles like photons should be associated with sane orm of vps ae Dero hypothesis suggests that such waves existed and he called s. This point of view was used to explai ization pri pay s plain quantization princi it expkining te byarogen atom. This was further verified by Davisson and ¢ orn pea ic n experiments. The experimental resul ; rough thee L i ts. is system of waves associated with an electron beam, ‘This new rival ong the existence of leory of the coexistence of waves and particles was fully developed subsequently by Schrodinger, Heisenburg, and Maxborn. This i aa ; ae y Schrodinger, Hei 'g, Dirac and Maxborn. Thi A photon of i e ight of frequency v has a momentum p = 1% =! since d = 4 since Av =c. Now, the wave- ng was the corpuscular theory of enomena of interfer- jtion was helpful in del and the spectral series of hydrogen was sve as guides for photons carrying the energy hv for {ta new and difficult concept to explain the various a= * where hi pp Where is Planck's constant, De Broglie suggested that the: iggested that i ial {he equation for the wavelength A= !* sh materi Should also be true for mat ————_Matter ve" pases greeter a particle of mass m and velocity v the momentum is my and its De-Broglie wa ast, ja De-Broglie Model of the Atom ‘The dual behaviour of photons inspired De-Broglic to suggest a model ofthe atom. Th nents on interference, difraction and polarisation established the wave natute of i ‘The experi i on phovoelectrc effect established the corpuscular nature of light. Einstein’ equation E= mc? imei ste energy. mis the mass and ci the velocity of light, gives the relation of conversion of whet energy. De-Broglie noted that the corpuscular properties were more obvious for 7 mastic light -<~ light of shorter wavelength. Thus, the light particle known asa photon has co oY Shhar as well as WAVE HALUTE. ed ‘Thinking on the same lines, De-Broglie suggested that particles like electron have also a wave nature. mye E = m= ae 3.2) Here mg is the rest mass. ‘The energy of a wave of frequency v according to Planck is Breen G3) From (3-1) and (3.2) hy But vase or nee 34 fa 04) For an electron of velocity D agi-| 2 he £ 3.3) md mgd For electrons, the wavelength is longest, w! for proton it is smaller than the electrons. If the values of h, m and v are substitued in equation (3.5), 4 is found to be very small. 8th ORBIT STRAIGHTENED ‘ORBITS Fig. 3.2. De-Broglie Model of Atom.i afl ‘Atomic and Nuclear Physics R tectrons behave as “Thus De-Broglie model of an atom has electron in various orbits and the el ing wave in each orbit. The {wavelength 4 = 2. ‘The electron exists as a standing wave © ery rete cad “ati ofthe Baz rnodel ce retained, Moreover. his model explains the Ba s y levels and ‘orbits’ of the Bohr model a nodel expan he Bohs erry and ris pe eho umes can conta he COMP Fae aoc length ofthe orbit sa whole number multiple of the vlenah Fie 33), ee ee ceca yot bein an orbit whose length isnot a whole number rutile of the wave The lecton can om forte electron ina paul obit an e clelated m eer =n nisawl : aly “The length of the orbit of radius r= 27 rand 27. r= nh, where h [from equation (3.4)} But ary : 2nr 3.6) or mor = at 2m ; i : e-Brogli Equation (3.6) is in agreement with the Bohr's quantization hypothesis, Ths the ee Broglie model seems to be more exact and the electrons are matter waves in various = he a ees Davison and Germer experiment on the diffraction of electrons demonstrated the fa rial particles like electrons exhibit a wavelength given by the De-Broglie equation, 3.5 Davisson-Germer Experiment =himv. Davisson and Germer performed an experiment to study the wave-nature of electrons as sug- gested by De-Broglie. The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.3. Electrons from a filament F are rendered into a fine beam by applying a positive potential to the cylinder D. Primary Electron Beam 0, = 50° Nickel “Single Crystal Fig. 3.3, A fine narrow beam ne of electrons is inci andthe intensity of the reece a nent Om the nickel erystal C. ‘The electron are reflected meter M.~~ ppattor Waves 3 reinensty ofthe eesrons etter in any given directions found by allowing te elecvors Tora eharbe, set 10 an Appropriate positon and measuring the d i woerected to the chamber. ig the deflection produced by a meter Results = When the difference of potential is 40 volts between F and D, the curve is fairl pooth, At 4 volts distne Pur appears on he curve at an angle of 60 degres. With increasing ottage he Jength of the spur increases unit it reaches a maximum at 54 volts at an angle of 30 sc. fer his the sp deeresss and disappears completely a 68 vot “Theselective reffection of the ‘54 volt’ electrons at $0 degrees angle can be explained due to the corsnetventererence. The waves from the sucessve layers ofthe crystal enforce cach oer. came we conclude that waves must be associated with the electrons. The spins prominent sage Hempelsive evidence that waves are associated wit electrons and wih mate in genera rom the De-Broglie relation the wavelength of $4-V electrons should be A, 1227 167K. Using Brag@’s law we find the observed wavelength to be 4, =D sin 0, =2.15 sin 50°= 1.65 A (D=2.15 A] ‘The two values of A, are in excellent agreement. JRRREEY Fig. 34 ‘The results obtained are similar to X-ray diffraction experiments. This experiments shows that the electrons behave like matter-waves as suggested by De-Broglie. Incident beam 36 G.P. Thomson Experiment ‘The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig, 3.5. To Vacuum Pump 50,000 V To Vacuum” Pump. Photographic «- Plate or screen Fig. 35 The apparatus is evacuated with the help of evacuation pumps. The electrons from the filament Fave accelerated through a potential difference of 50,000 volts by applying a positive potential tothe ovlinder D. The energy of each electron is 50,000.e This beam of electrons is incident on & thin told foil G and aftr passing through the foi, iis incident on a photographic plate P. The pattern cbiained in the photographie plate consists of concentric circular rings of varying intensity.APPENDIX A = t fect spectral line emitted by the excited atoms is split up into a doublet or a triplet when the lear sing atoms are placed in a magnetic fie, This effect of the sping of a spectral line under the ney itn magnetic field is known as normal Zeemaniaffect, to 7, produce Zeeman effect, the source of light such as a sodium lamp or a mercury ac or gas 0 Pena Geissler tube is placed between the poles of a powerful electro-magnet (Fig. 1.(a)]. The scams from the source is examined by means of a spectroscope of high resolving power. In ligt cto view the light parallel tothe magnetic field, ahold is dried in one of the pole-pieces along sfeais of the magnet a to NW FiodH |__| Spectroscope Ti Tigeu sneer (iil) |--- == & (a) (b) Fig.1. Normal Zeeman Effect (i) No field (ii) Perpendicular to the field iii) Parallel to the field When no magnetic field is applied, the spectroscope is focussed on one of the lines in the spec- trum of the source of light. When a magnetic field is applied, it is observed : |. ‘That when the light is viewed in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field, three com- Ponent lines are observed. One of the lines is in the same position as the original line and the other ‘wo lines are in the two sides of the original line. The outer two lines, when observed by means of a 253 at‘Atomic and Nuclear Physics 254 i ine. This effect nicol prism as an analyser, are polarized at right angles 1° the undisplaced line. This effect is known as transverse Zeeman effect. ' oi 2. When the light is viewed in a direction’ parallel to} the direction of the field, there is no line in 1es are found to be cir the position of the original line, only Wo ‘outer lines are present- ‘These lin« ircu. i sman effect. larly polarized in opposite directions. The effect is known as fongitudinal Zeeman eff ; tained on Lorentz electron (Neon Consider an electron moy. ‘The normal Zeeman effect is exp! ). The centripetal force is. F ot tn ing in a circular orbit of radius r with a velocity 0 (Fig. 2) n additional force external magnetic field is applied, a tothe direction of acts which is directed perpendicular i motion ofthe electron. This force is also perpenclicu- lar to the direction of the magnetic field and is along the radius, When this force acts inwards along the ra dius, the velocity of the electron increases. When foreeacts outwards along the radius, the velocity of the electron decreases. Suppose , tis foree due to the mag- netic field = F, and let the velocity ofthe electron be increased to v, by application of the magnetic field. Then, R, = Bev,. Suppose, this force is directed to- Fig. 2. wards the centre, total force along the radius. 2 = F+R= M+ Bey, r Total force = r 2 2 me _— mv 2 ML, M+ Bev, ; ; 1 (0 But, ro and v, = 70, where a and c, are the respective angular velocities. From equation (i) aa? mero, _ mot = + Bere, : - 1 Ci) Retna! = Bera ot-u? = 2% m @-wo+0 = 2% m ono et : m (@, + @) (@, + ©) is approximately equal to 20, : H mo, 2m 2 w = 0428 2mr spoon giv, and vate the frequencies, then, «o, = 2nv,, «0 = 2m freque Tl a= ney v nv, = nv+ £8 2m vs v4 eB. = : run (iin when the electron moves in the opposite directi i i | s tion, oypasite direction andthe velocity decreases oy. In tea neck 380) pian ‘Total force =F-F, But, =ro mas ae mre} mra? = ~Berw, (4. 0,40 = 20, approx.) (iv) From (ii) and (iv) we get eB ‘Av (in each case) = Fam lv) “This shows the two lines are displaced equally on the two sides of the original line, (vi) recess i In general 4° = Gun andi) ‘Alternative Treatment, Consider an electron moving ina circular orbit of radius r with a veloc- ity. 2 2 The centripetal force F= "= mrs". Hanenteral field B is applied, the change in the force, dF = = Bev=+ Berw Ai) F = mw ‘ Differentiating, dF = 2mrodo Adi) Equating (i) and (ii) Bera = 2mradoAlso o Differentiating do = Substituting the value of dio in equation (iii) © _ 44nedh m ~ 3B Bh” dy = Bh 4nm eB Wo tom eB % 4am eB 1% am The quantity £ liv) ~(v) (vi) (vii) (viii) is known as normal Zeeman separation. Knowing the values of n and B, ‘= tm an be calculated, The value of - calculated from the measurements of Zeeman effect = 1.757 X 10" experiment. This experiment establish Cikg and it is in agreement with the value of £ of the electron obtained from Thomson's ied that the electron in the atom is responsible for the emission of spec- tral lines. Example 1. What is Bohr Solution. Bohr magneton = ch Be am * Here € = 16x10% magneton ? Calculate its value. (Delhi)257 h m 6.624 x 104 Js 9.1% 10" kg 19 p = :Ox10? x6.624x 4 3.142x9.1x 107! B = 9.27x 10™ SI units, 2, The experimental value of Bohr magneton is 9.21 x 10 SI units and Planck's le at = 66x10 joule-second. Calculate the value of © of an electron (Gujarat) ons — B = 9.21 10™ SI units solution h = 6.6% 10™ Joule second eh B= oa € _ mB _ 4x22x921x10% - mh 7x66 x10 = 1,755 x10" CiKg. = he twa component lines whic 2 3. Calculate the wavelength separation between al he normal Zeeman effect. The magnetic field used is 04 weber/m’, the specific : mbs/kg a hi : 1,76 X10" coulombs/kg and d= 6000 A. 2 [Delhi hl ae 1" / ee Here 2 = 600A = 6000 x 10"!° m a or