Cultural Anthropology The Human

Challenge 14th Edition Haviland Test

Bank
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://testbankfan.com/product/cultural-anthropology-the-human-challenge-14th-editi
on-haviland-test-bank/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Anthropology The Human Challenge 14th Edition Haviland

Test Bank

https://testbankfan.com/product/anthropology-the-human-
challenge-14th-edition-haviland-test-bank/

PKG Cultural Anthropology 4th Edition Haviland Test

Bank

https://testbankfan.com/product/pkg-cultural-anthropology-4th-
edition-haviland-test-bank/

Cultural Anthropology Canadian Canadian 4th Edition

Haviland Test Bank

https://testbankfan.com/product/cultural-anthropology-canadian-
canadian-4th-edition-haviland-test-bank/

Evolution and Prehistory The Human Challenge 10th

Edition Haviland Test Bank

https://testbankfan.com/product/evolution-and-prehistory-the-
human-challenge-10th-edition-haviland-test-bank/
PKG Cultural Anthropology 4th Edition Haviland
Solutions Manual

https://testbankfan.com/product/pkg-cultural-anthropology-4th-
edition-haviland-solutions-manual/

Cultural Anthropology Canadian Canadian 4th Edition

Haviland Solutions Manual

https://testbankfan.com/product/cultural-anthropology-canadian-
canadian-4th-edition-haviland-solutions-manual/

Essence of Anthropology 4th Edition Haviland Test Bank

https://testbankfan.com/product/essence-of-anthropology-4th-
edition-haviland-test-bank/

Human Culture Highlights of Cultural Anthropology 3rd

Edition Ember Test Bank

https://testbankfan.com/product/human-culture-highlights-of-
cultural-anthropology-3rd-edition-ember-test-bank/

Cultural Anthropology Appreciating Cultural Diversity

15th Edition Kottak Test Bank

https://testbankfan.com/product/cultural-anthropology-
appreciating-cultural-diversity-15th-edition-kottak-test-bank/
Chapter 8 – Economic Systems

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. What do we call a system in which goods are produced, distributed, and consumed?
a. Economic
b. Political
c. Religious
d. Kinship
e. Industrial
ANS: A DIF: Factual REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup

2. When a man works hard in his garden in the Trobriand Islands to produce yams, he does this
to satisfy which of the following demands?
a. To have food for his household to eat
b. To gain prestige by giving yams away to his sister’s husbands
c. To prove to his wife that he can work as hard as she can
d. To give the yams to his wife so that she can trade them for goods that they don’t
produce themselves
e. To trade for fish
ANS: B DIF: Conceptual REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup

3. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. Yams are eaten at every meal once harvest season occurs.
b. A family gets all of its yams from the husband’s sister’s family.
c. Once harvested, yams are not usually eaten as daily food.
d. All men sponsor a yam competition as a puberty ritual.
e. Women are never allowed to handle or distribute yams.
ANS: C DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 1 MSC: New

4. Which of the following items is exchanged in the Trobriands during death rituals?
a. Cotton skirts
b. Banana leaf bundles
c. Wheat sheaves
d. Money
e. Sweet potatoes mounds
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 1 MSC: New

112
5. A typical Ju/’hoansi band requires about how many square miles of land?
a. 750
b. 500
c. 250
d. 100
e. 50
ANS: C DIF: Factual REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

6. Among food foragers such as the Ju/’hoansi,

a. land is defined as a territory with usable resources and flexible boundaries that
belongs to a band that has occupied it for a long time.
b. land is thought of as belonging to those who have bought it.
c. land is considered private property, however the owner wants to share in order to
be part of the band.
d. land is owned by the ancestors, and the living only use it.
e. land is leased by a corporation of strangers who support the survival of the
foraging lifestyle.
ANS: A DIF: Conceptual REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

7. Tools tend to be fewer and simpler among

a. mobile food foragers and pastoralists.
b. semi-permanent horticulturalists.
c. sedentary agriculturalists.
d. wealthy industrialists.
e. rice farmers.
ANS: A DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

113
 8. The following statements about land are made by people who belong to food-foraging,
horticultural, pastoralist, intensive agriculturalist, and industrial societies. Which statement is
most likely to be made by horticulturalists from a tributary system of land ownership in West
Africa?
a. “The land of my people is the land around Spirit Lake, where my ancestors
emerged and where we hold annual ceremonies.”
b. “I gave the land to my brother’s son, who distributed it among his sons, for which
they pay me ten days’ work a year. When the eldest son died, I gave his land to my
cousin, who needs more land for his growing family.”
c. “I paid ten grand for that parcel of land in the desert, and expect it to double in
value in the next five years.”
d. “In the summer, we go to our land in the mountains, and in the winter, we pass
through the land corridor to the east, using the water holes and meadows for grass
until we reach the summer pastures.”
e. “I inherited five acres of land from my mother, as well as the rights to use the
water from the river three days a week.”
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

9. When a tool is complex and difficult to make, it is usually considered to be owned by

a. the whole village in which it is used.
b. a single individual.
c. the state.
d. all those who touch it.
e. all relatives.
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

10. Which tool would you not expect to find among horticulturalists?
a. Digging stick
b. Carrying containers
c. Axe
d. Plow
e. Hoe
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

114
11. Which of the following situations represents a flexible/integrated pattern of gender division of
labor?
a. A pastoral nomadic camp in which the men spend most of the time with the herds,
and women remain in camp and make butter and clothing
b. An intensive agricultural society in which the men are out plowing the fields from
dawn until dusk while the women are making bread, gathering eggs, making
baskets, and other household work
c. A foraging society where both men and women contribute to daily food
consumption, share in responsibilities, and sometimes exchange duties
d. An industrial society in which a factory worker leaves for work at 7 a.m. and
returns home at 5:30 p.m., while his wife takes care of the children at home
e. A factory where both men and women work, although women are the managers
and men the line workers
ANS: C DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

12. Among the Ju/’hoansi,

a. children are expected to contribute to subsistence from the time they reach puberty
(around 14 or 15).
b. elderly people past the age of 60 are expected to contribute hunted or gathered
food to the group, as they are being taken care of by others now.
c. elderly people are a valuable source of knowledge and wisdom about hunting and
gathering and are consulted regularly.
d. elderly people are taken care of grudgingly because after the age of 60 they
contribute nothing to the group.
e. children are expected to set up their own separate households by the time they are
16.
ANS: C DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

13. In which society are we most likely to find exploitative child labor conditions?
a. Foraging
b. Horticultural
c. Agricultural
d. Pastoral
e. Industrial
ANS: E DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

115
14. Cooperative work groups are found
a. in all societies worldwide.
b. only in illiterate, nonindustrial societies.
c. only in extended households with married parents, children, and grandparents.
d. only in horticultural societies.
e. in agricultural societies, although there are special times where it occurs in
industrial societies.
ANS: A DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

15. In most societies, the basic unit of the cooperation is the

a. village.
b. household.
c. state.
d. religious group.
e. division of labor by gender.
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

16. There is a degree of task specialization in all societies. In the Danakil region of Eritrea, the
Afar men occasionally mine what mineral as a trade good?
a. Iron
b. Salt
c. Silver
d. Tin
e. Mercury
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

17. Anthropologist Amanda Stronza studied ecotourism in northern Bolivia. The local indigenous
leaders saw all of the following benefits in local ecotourism except:
a. creation of local employment opportunities.
b. development of new markets for local handicrafts.
c. desire to leave behind local cultural traditions and become more “Western.”
d. resources to construct new schools and health clinics.
e. development of a community identity.
ANS: C DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

116
18. What do we call the division of labor pattern in which men and women carry out their work
separately, while maintaining a socially and economically complementary balance?
a. Symmetrical pattern
b. Segregated patterns
c. Flexible/integrated pattern
d. Dual-sex configuration
e. Male-female oppositional labor
ANS: D DIF: Factual REF: Production and Its Resources
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

19. The mode of distribution called reciprocity refers to the exchange of goods and services
a. between people in hierarchical relationships.
b. for the purpose of maintaining social relationships and gaining prestige.
c. to make a profit.
d. to embarrass the person who gave the least.
e. of unequal value.
ANS: B DIF: Factual REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

20. When an Australian hunter gives away most of his meat to relatives without specifying what
is expected in return, he is exemplifying
a. generalized reciprocity.
b. negative reciprocity.
c. balanced reciprocity.
d. redistribution.
e. market exchange.
ANS: A DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

21. Balanced reciprocity

a. is part of a long-term process in which nothing is specified about what is expected
in return or when it is expected.
b. involves the expectation of a specific and immediate exchange.
c. usually occurs between members of different communities who may have a
hostile, distrustful relationship.
d. is exemplified by your stopping to give a stranger a lift, and replying, when he
thanks you, “Pass it on to the next stranger you meet who needs your help.”
e. does not occur in industrial societies.
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

117
22. “Buyer beware!” is the philosophy many North American business people use. What type of
reciprocal exchange does this philosophy imply?
a. Balanced
b. Negative
c. Generalized
d. Ambiguous
e. Deceptive
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

23. The Kula ring is a form of _____ that reinforces trade relations among a group of seafaring
Melanesians inhabiting a ring of islands off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea.
a. negative reciprocity
b. balanced reciprocity
c. market exchange
d. silent trade
e. generalized reciprocity
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

24. The Kula ring functions to do all of the following except:

a. distribute scarce resources over a broad ecological zone.
b. establish allies among potential enemies.
c. gain power through the ability to give and receive highly valued prestige items.
d. accumulate wealth in the hands of an upper-class elite.
e. foster a ritual of ceremonial exchange.
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: New

25. What is silent trade?

a. Exchange of goods only through various intermediaries so that the final consumer
does not know the producer
b. Exchange of goods and services between distant groups who are unable to have
direct contact
c. Exchange of goods between mutually distrusting ethnic groups that do not want
personal contact
d. A type of redistribution in which there is a display of wealth for social prestige
e. A mode of exchange in which goods flow into a central location and are then
redistributed without acknowledging ownership
ANS: C DIF: Factual REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: New

118
26. The U.S. system of paying income taxes every April is an example of
a. generalized reciprocity.
b. balanced reciprocity.
c. negative reciprocity.
d. redistribution.
e. market exchange.
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

27. For redistribution to be possible, a society must have

a. a cultural emphasis on generosity.
b. an egalitarian social order.
c. a centralized system of political organization.
d. an informal economy.
e. industrialization and urbanization.
ANS: C DIF: Conceptual REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

28. The display of wealth for social prestige is called

a. a leveling mechanism.
b. conspicuous consumption.
c. redistribution.
d. balanced reciprocity.
e. barter.
ANS: B DIF: Factual REF: Distribution and Exchange
OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup

29. The concept that by obligation wealthier members of the community give to less wealthy
members so that no one accumulates more wealth than anyone else is called
a. conspicuous consumption.
b. generalized reciprocity.
c. a leveling mechanism.
d. silent trade.
e. negative reciprocity.
ANS: C DIF: Factual REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism
OBJ: 4 MSC: Pickup

30. Leveling mechanisms are

a. more common in hunter-gatherer societies than in horticultural societies.
b. associated with one family becoming wealthier than others.
c. found in communities where property is not allowed to threaten egalitarian social
order.
d. more common in industrial societies than in agricultural societies.
e. no longer in existence.
ANS: C DIF: Applied REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism
OBJ: 4 MSC: Pickup

119
31. From an economist’s point of view, “market exchange” is defined by
a. the purchase of goods in a marketplace.
b. the buying and selling of goods and services whose value is determined by supply
and demand.
c. the role of middlemen who bring buyers and sellers together.
d. face-to-face bargaining for goods and/or services.
e. the role of large multinational corporations, using a formal stock exchange.
ANS: B DIF: Factual REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism
OBJ: 4 MSC: Pickup

32. Which of the following is the fundamental characteristic of the market in non-Western
societies?
a. It is located in a rural area close to where produce is grown
b. It is found only in towns where produce is grown, distributed, and consumed
c. It is an abstract concept, where goods are exchanged over the Internet
d. It is a traditional marketplace, where actual goods are exchanged
e. There is no concrete marketplace where actual goods are exchanged
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism
OBJ: 4 MSC: Pickup

33. Something used to make payments for other goods and services as well as to measure their
value is called
a. money.
b. credit.
c. prestige.
d. barter.
e. silent trade.
ANS: A DIF: Factual REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism
OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup

34. When Spanish invaded Mexico and Guatemala, they adopted the local practice of using
money. What item represented money in this area?
a. Coca leaves
b. Cacao
c. Feathers
d. Salt
e. Silver
ANS: B DIF: Applied
REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: Pickup

120
35. Which of the following is not a chemical found in chocolate?
a. Anandamide
b. Phenylethylamine
c. Tryptophan
d. Formaldehyde
e. Theobromine
ANS: D DIF: Applied
REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: Pickup

36. What do we call a network of producing and circulating marketable commodities, labor, and
services that for various reasons escapes government control?
a. Formal economy
b. Informal economy
c. Hidden economy
d. Silent trade
e. Redistribution
ANS: B DIF: Factual
REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: Pickup

37. Anthropologist Rosita Worl is a member of which Native American tribal group?
a. Creek
b. Haida
c. Tlingit
d. Assiniboine
e. Kootenai
ANS: C DIF: Factual
REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

38. Anthropologist Rosita Worl has been associated with each of the following except:
a. Board of Directors at Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of the American
Indian.
b. President of the Sealaska Heritage Institute.
c. founder of Alaska Native News.
d. faculty at University of Alaska Southeast.
e. author of Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.
ANS: E DIF: Applied
REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

121
 39. Every fall, a group of about 600 migrants travels to Maine to work on the apple harvest. They
are contacted by a labor recruiter in their home country and given temporary foreign farm
work visas. Often, they must change aspects of their physical appearance to be seen as more
“employable.” Where are they from?
a. Mexico
b. India
c. Bolivia
d. Jamaica
e. Australia
ANS: D DIF: Applied
REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

40. What is a remittance?

a. A type of farm work visa that is issued only seasonally and cannot be renewed
b. A form of transportation that the employee sends to bring workers to the U.S.
c. A portion of earnings that is sent back to families in another location
d. A percentage of earnings that is paid to the local job recruiter
e. A type of salary that is higher than minimum wage and paid as an enticement too
workers (a kind of monetary advance)
ANS: C DIF: Factual
REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

TRUE/FALSE

1. Anthropologists focus on culture as a way of explaining economic behavior.

ANS: T REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 1

MSC: New

2. Economic behavior can be analyzed in purely economic terms without ignoring crucial
noneconomic considerations.

ANS: F REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 1

MSC: Pickup

3. Raw materials, labor, and technology are the productive resources used by all societies.

ANS: T REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 2

MSC: Pickup

4. Among food foragers, tools may be given or loaned to others in exchange for the products
gained from their use.

ANS: T REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 2

MSC: New

122
 5. A division of labor by gender is found only in foraging and horticultural societies.

ANS: F REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 2

MSC: New

6. Food producers have less craft specialization than food foragers.

ANS: F REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 2

MSC: Pickup

7. Today, almost 215 million child laborers under the age of 14 work for income.

ANS: T REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 2

MSC: New

8. In 2011, more than 1 billion people were employed by the tourist industry worldwide.

ANS: F REF: Production and Its Resources OBJ: 2

MSC: New

9. Amanda Stronza is involved in doing applied anthropology among the Trobriands, where she
studies aspects of women’s work and task specialization.

ANS: F REF: Distribution and Exchange OBJ: 2

MSC: New

10. The Kula ring is a form of barter in which no actual trade takes place.

ANS: F REF: Distribution and Exchange OBJ: 3

MSC: Pickup

11. A customary practice such as hosting a birthday party is an example of negative reciprocity.

ANS: F REF: Distribution and Exchange OBJ: 3

MSC: New

12. The Inca Empire featured a highly efficient redistributive system.

ANS: T REF: Distribution and Exchange OBJ: 3

MSC: Pickup

13. Because these events were sponsored alternately by different ethnic groups, the potlatch was a
form of balanced reciprocity.

ANS: F REF: Distribution and Exchange OBJ: 3

MSC: New

123
 14. Leveling mechanisms are found in every society, although they are less common in smaller,
more traditional societies where there is less material need.

ANS: F REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism

OBJ: 4 MSC: New

15. Market exchange is defined as the exchange of goods through face-to-face bargaining in a
market place.

ANS: F REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism

OBJ: 5 MSC: Pickup

16. Among the Inca there was such a thing as “chocolate money.”

ANS: F REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: Pickup

17. The use of money for exchange has been traced back as far as 5,000 years ago in
Mesopotamia.

ANS: T REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism

OBJ: 5 MSC: New

18. Migrant workers often send remittances to their families back in their home village.

ANS: T REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: Pickup

19. Rosita Worl is a Native American anthropologist who now works to encourage traditional
communities to enter the global market and put aside their less profit-oriented economic
ventures.

ANS: F REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

20. In some countries, the informal economy generates as much as 40% of the GNP.

ANS: T REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

SHORT ANSWER

1. What is an economic system from an anthropological approach?

ANS: Will vary REF: Production and Its Resources MSC: New

2. Describe the variation that exists among nonindustrial societies in their organization of labor
by age.

ANS: Will vary REF: Production and Its Resources MSC: Pickup
124
 3. What is the women’s role in the Trobriand economy?

ANS: Will vary REF: Production and Its Resources MSC: New

4. What are the productive resources that all societies must organize according to culturally
appropriate rules?

ANS: Will vary REF: Production and Its Resources MSC: Pickup

5. How are land and water resources allocated differently in a foraging versus an agricultural
society?

ANS: Will vary REF: Production and Its Resources MSC: New

6. Define technology, and describe how it varies in societies with different economic systems.

ANS: Will vary REF: Production and Its Resources MSC: Pickup

7. Name and describe three different divisions of labor by gender.

ANS: Will vary REF: Production and Its Resources MSC: New

8. What are the benefits that some local communities acquire by engaging in global ecotourism?

ANS: Will vary REF: Distribution and Exchange MSC: New

9. Define three types of reciprocity, and give examples of each.

ANS: Will vary REF: Distribution and Exchange MSC: Pickup

10. Describe the economic and noneconomic functions of the Kula ring.

ANS: Will vary REF: Distribution and Exchange MSC: Pickup

11. What is meant by the term “conspicuous consumption”? Give an example.

ANS: Will vary REF: Distribution and Exchange MSC: New

12. Describe the conditions that are likely to produce an economic system of redistribution.

ANS: Will vary REF: Distribution and Exchange MSC: Pickup

13. Describe the potlatch.

ANS: Will vary REF: Distribution and Exchange MSC: Pickup

14. What is a leveling mechanism? Discuss and provide an example.

ANS: Will vary REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism MSC: Pickup
125
 15. Distinguish between market exchange and marketplace.

ANS: Will vary REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism MSC: Pickup

16. How did the introduction of money change the marketplace?

ANS: Will vary REF: Local Economies and Global Capitalism MSC: Pickup

17. What is an informal economy? Provide examples.

ANS: Will vary REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
MSC: Pickup

18. What is money, and what different kinds of money have existed historically? Discuss at least
one alternative example.

ANS: Will vary REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
MSC: New

19. What is a remittance?

ANS: Will vary REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
MSC: New

20. Economics has a powerful effect on society. What forms of social mobilization have resulted
when economic policies were considered detrimental to the community?

ANS: Will vary REF: Informal Economy and the Escape from State Bureaucracy
MSC: New

ESSAY

1. Why is understanding economic transactions essential to a full understanding of culture?

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

2. Discuss how anthropologists study economic systems. Give specific examples.

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

3. Compare and contrast the different ideas about the nature and control of land that exist among
food foragers, horticulturalists, pastoralists, intensive agriculturalists, and industrialists.

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

4. What are the social and economic benefits of cooperative labor? Consider various types of
economic systems in your answer.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

126
 5. Discuss the impact of modern technology on labor divisions based on gender.

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

6. Why is it a serious problem when North American corporate executives fail to recognize the
extent to which the economic systems of other peoples are embedded in their cultures?

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

7. Explain why the following statement is ethnocentric: “In all societies, the prevailing reality of
life has been the inadequacy of output to fill the wants and needs of people.”

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

8. Because trade can be essential in the quest for survival and is often undertaken for the sake of
luxury, people may go to great lengths to establish and maintain good trade relations. A
classic example of this is the Kula ring. What is the “Kula ring?” Describe this form of
exchange compare it to different types of exchange in your own society. Do we practice
anything similar to Kula?

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

9. Discuss the role that culture plays in defining the “wants and needs” of a people, using the
Trobriand Islanders as an example. How does North American culture function to define the
wants and needs of North Americans?

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

10. Discuss the effects of economic globalization on local cultures.

ANS: Will vary MSC: Pickup

11. What is task specialization, and how has it changed over the course of generations in your
own family? Compare your generation with that of your parents’ and grandparents.’

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

12. Leveling mechanisms are found in many traditional societies. What are these, and do you
believe we have any kind of “leveling”-type activities and exchanges in the U.S. today?
Discuss.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

13. What is the role of the informal economy in the U.S.? Use examples from your own
experiences in your local community to discuss this. What types of informal economy are you
familiar with?

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

127
14. How have local economies been affected by global capitalism? Give some examples from
your own community.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

15. How has technology affected the informal economy? Discuss the impact of Internet shopping
sites such as eBay on the global marketplace.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

16. As the global economy has spread, social protest has followed. Discuss recent examples of
protest at the local level against global capitalism.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

128
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “If a man would be alone,” says Emerson, “let him look at the
stars.”
Yet he cannot be alone with them; they are too friendly; they speak
too plainly a universal language, which, though he cannot translate
it, he feels in every fibre. There is nothing more absolutely common
to all men than the influence of the stars. No one ever gazed up at
them without feeling a change come over his spirit. Truly, “they
separate between him and what he touches.” They free him from the
bondage of time and space. There is no trouble that they cannot
assuage. And there is no time like the summer for becoming intimate
with them. One who has been touched by the magic of their love
could lie all the night long on a bed of pine-needles and fill his soul
with their beauty. The march of red Antares and his glittering retinue
across the meridian while the earth sleeps in solstitial calm—who
can describe that pageant?
Antares is the summer star, and with it and the Scorpion we will
begin. Not so bright as Arcturus or Vega, which are now high aloft, it
has a charm peculiar to itself, arising partly from its fervid color,
partly from its surroundings, and partly from its position, not too high
above the southern horizon, which renders observation of the star
comparatively easy. The color is so distinctive that one might think
that he could recognize Antares chromatically if it were suddenly
transported to some other region of the sky and placed amid a
strange environment. Sometimes a flash of its fiery rays, striking
sidewise into the eye as one is looking elsewhere, startles the
observer like a red meteor. It is well named Antares—“Anti-Mars.”
With the telescope the wonder of color is increased, for close by the
great star the glass reveals a smaller one of a vivid green, an all but
incredible combination of complementarily tinted suns. And these
suns are undoubtedly actually linked together into a system, so that,
if there are planets revolving around both or either, the inhabitants of
those planets may behold the spectacle of two suns, one crimson
and the other emerald! The large star is of the first magnitude, and
the small one of the seventh; angular distance 3″.7.
The companion of Antares is historically associated with the most
interesting of American astronomers, a man whose life was a
romance, Gen. O. M. Mitchel. When his long-cherished design of
setting up a great telescope in America was at last fulfilled, at
Cincinnati, in 1845, one of his first achievements was the discovery,
to the surprise of the astronomers of Europe, of the green star hiding
in the rays of Antares. At times it has been seen emerging from
behind the moon, after an occultation, ahead of its red comrade.
With a parallax of 0″.02, Newcomb estimated the luminosity of
Antares at nine hundred times that of our sun, and yet the
spectroscope indicates that it is a dying sun, fast approaching
extinction. In its younger days it may have been an orb of prodigious
splendor.
The constellation Scorpio, of which Antares is the leader, is one of
the best marked in the sky. The two small stars Sigma (σ) and Tau
(τ), standing like attendants on either side of Antares, lend a singular
aspect to the central part of the constellation. Antares is usually
represented as the heart of the imaginary scorpion. Below Tau a
curving row of stars dips to the southern horizon, and then rises,
farther eastward, terminating with a conspicuous pair in the uplifted
sting. West of Antares a nearly vertical row represents the head. Of
the stars in this row, Beta (β) is interesting as a fine and easily seen
double, the distance being about 13″. A higher magnifying power
shows that the larger star has another faint companion, distant only
0″.7. Nu (ν) is also telescopically interesting, for it consists of two
pairs of stars. Observe in Chart VII the strange way in which the
outlines of the constellation have been swung into loops in order to
include certain stars in Scorpio, recalling the crooked boundary
between Switzerland and Italy, by which each reserves particular
peaks of the Alps for itself.
East of Scorpio, where the Milky Way, falling in flakes and sheets
of silvery splendor upon the southeastern horizon, spreads abroad
like an overflowing river, lies Sagittarius, the “Archer,” often
represented in the old pictorial charts as a centaur. The stars
Lambda (λ), Delta (δ), and Epsilon (ε) form the bent bow. But
modern eyes recognize more easily a dipper, formed by the stars
Zeta (ζ), Tau (τ), Sigma (σ), Phi (φ), Lambda (λ), and Mu (μ). But the
star-clusters in Sagittarius are more interesting than the separate
stars. A little southwest of Mu is the famous cluster 8 M., of which
Barnard has made a photograph that is amazing beyond all
description. Other clusters are all about in this part of the sky. A good
opera-glass or field-glass is almost indispensable for one who would
enjoy the glory of this wondrous region. Its riches are almost
oppressive in their lavish abundance. Here one can have handfuls of
stars for the picking up, like sands of gold from the bed of Pactolus.
As the glittering incrustations that cover the roofs and walls of the
Mammoth Cave are often compared to the starry heavens, so,
reversing the image, Sagittarius is like a stupendous cavern of space
all ablaze and aglitter with millions of sparkling gems.
Above Scorpio and Sagittarius are the intertwined constellations of
Ophiuchus and Serpens. He who may wish to disentangle them is
referred to Astronomy with the Naked Eye. But the outlines can be
traced in Chart VII. The head of Serpens, like those of Hydra and
Draco, is plainly marked by a striking group of stars, in this case
resembling the figure called a “quincunx.” From this point just under
the “Northern Crown,” the serpent’s stars wind downward in beautiful
pairs and groups, crossing the meridian above Scorpio, and rising
again in the eastern part of the sky, above the little constellation of
Sobieski’s Shield, until they meet the borders of Aquila. Ophiuchus,
with his head high up toward Hercules, where it is marked by the
brightest star in that part of the sky, Alpha Ophiuchi, or Ras Alhague,
the “Head of the Serpent Charmer,” stands with legs braced wide
apart, grasping the serpent at the points marked by the stars Delta
(δ) and Epsilon (ε), and Tau (τ) and Nu (ν). It is Esculapius with his
Serpent, said the Greeks; it is St. Paul and the Viper of Melita, or
Moses and the Brazen Serpent, we don’t know which, said the
churchmen. I am not aware that in England they have ever been
tempted to call it St. George and the Dragon. Politics and national
pride have not meddled much with the stars, although there was
once an attempt to fix the name of Napoleon upon Orion. Ras
Alhague is described by R. H. Allen as sapphire in hue, while Alpha
Serpentis is yellowish. The star Lambda (λ) in Ophiuchus, also called
Marfik, the “Elbow,” is a beautiful binary, period 235 years, distance
apart 1″.2. The smaller star is smalt blue, a splendid telescopic
object.
 But, as in the case of Sagittarius, the greater wonders here are in
the form of star-clusters, and particularly nebulæ. Just above
Antares, in one of the feet of Ophiuchus, is a small star, Rho (to find
which the reader must consult a large star atlas, like Klein’s), around
which Barnard has discovered, by photography, a truly marvellous
nebula, a nebula which appears to obscure the stars like a cloud of
cosmic dust. Great black lanes extend from and around it, and even
the luminous parts of the nebula seem to absorb the light of the stars
behind, diminishing their brightness a whole magnitude or more
where they are veiled by it. This entire region of sky is most strange
to the photographic eye. An outlier of the nebula just mentioned
surrounds the star Nu (ν) in Scorpio, and its veiling effect upon the
stars is even more evident. There is a similar appearance around the
star Theta (θ) Ophiuchi, not far away. The sense of some appalling
mystery in this part of the firmament is heightened by what Barnard
says of a thing which has reappeared again and again on his
photographs during the past fifteen years, at a point which he
describes as lying very closely to R. A. xviii hours, 25 m., 31 s.; Decl.
S. 26°, 9′ (near the star Lambda (λ) in Sagittarius).
“It is a small, black hole in the sky. It is round and sharply defined.
Its measured diameter on the negative is 2′.6. On account of its
sharpness and smallness and its isolation, this is perhaps the most
remarkable of all the black holes with which I am acquainted. It lies
in an ordinary part of the Milky Way, and is not due to the presence
or absence of stars, but seems really to be a marking on the sky
itself” (Astrophysical Journal, January, 1910).
These things really transcend explanation (see Curiosities of the
Sky).
Above Ophiuchus and his Serpent, almost exactly overhead in the
latitude of 40° N., we see the quadrilateral figure marked out by four
of the principal stars of the constellation Hercules. The head of
Draco, described in Chapter I, is beyond it toward the north-
northeast. Hercules stands feet upward in the sky, his head,
indicated by the star Alpha, or Ras Algethi, the “Kneeler’s Head,”
being situated a few degrees west-northwest of Ras Alhague. Thus
the two giants have their heads together. But while the occupation of
Ophiuchus is plain, nobody, not even in ancient times, when the
constellation received its name, has ever been able to say what
Hercules is laboring at. When he was on the earth everybody
followed his deeds and understood, if they could not emulate, them.
He was as comprehensible as a modern pugilist. Now, however, that
he has been translated to the stars, his labors are of a more
mysterious nature, and, judging from his attitude, he finds them
harder than any he undertook for the benefit of mankind here below.
One is tempted to think that the powers he offended, when he boldly
entered the land of shades and snatched the wife of his friend, King
Admetus, from the hand of Death himself, are now taking an ample
vengeance.
Ras Algethi is a very beautiful double star, one red, the other
green or blue, and both, strangely enough, are variable in
brightness. Their distance apart is 4″.7. Their spectrum indicates that
they are advanced toward extinction many stages beyond our sun.
The star Zeta (ζ), one of those in the quadrilateral, is a closer
double, distance about 1″, and is binary, the period of revolution
being about thirty-five years.
And now for a great marvel. Let the eye range slowly from Eta (η)
directly toward Zeta (ζ). When one-third of the distance between the
two stars has been passed, a faint, glimmering speck will be
perceived. Perhaps you will need an opera-glass to make sure that
you see it. This is the “Great Cluster in Hercules.” You must go to the
southern hemisphere to find its match anywhere in the sky. It is a ball
of suns! Now you need a telescope. You must have one. You must
either buy or borrow it, or you must pay a visit to an observatory, for
this is a thing that no intelligent human being in these days can
afford not to see. Can it be possible that any man can know that
fifteen thousand suns are to be seen, burning in a compact globular
cluster, and not long to regard them with his own eyes? Of what use
is description in such a case? The language has not yet been
invented to depict such things. Human speech comes down to us
from the times when men did not need the tongue of the gods to tell
what they saw. When Galileo invented the telescope, and Herschel
multiplied its powers a thousandfold, they should have found a
language fitted to describe their discoveries. But if you cannot get a
look at the Hercules cluster through a powerful telescope,
photography comes to your aid. Look at one of the wonderful Lick or
Yerkes photographs of it, and pause long on what you see. Note the
crowding of those suns toward the centre, note the glittering spiral
lines formed by those which seem streaming and hurrying from all
sides to join the marvellous congregation—and then turn again to
that faint speck in the sky, which is all that the naked eye reveals of
the wonder, and reflect upon the meaning of space and the universe.
We now turn farther east, still keeping the eyes directed high in the
sky, and just at the edge of the Milky Way, with two minute stars
making a little triangle with it, we see Vega or Alpha Lyræ, the
astonishing brilliant that flashes on the strings of the heavenly Lyre.
At the Vernal Equinox it was just rising far over in the northeast; now
it is the unquestioned queen of that quarter of the sky. I like to think
of Emerson when looking at that star. There is a sentence of his
which reflects it like a mirror. When he strove to rouse the “sluggard
intellect of this continent,” to “look from under its iron lids,” he could
find no stronger image than that of poetry reviving here and leading
in a new age, “as the star in the constellation Harp, which now
flames in our zenith, astronomers announce, shall one day be the
Pole-star for a thousand years.”
Of the effect of the Precession of the Equinoxes, to which
Emerson refers, we have already spoken. But it is a long time in the
future that Vega will begin, or rather resume, its reign as the Star of
the North. And, curiously enough, when that time comes the northern
hemisphere will have its Summer Solstice when the sun is just
opposite to the place which it now occupies at that season, and
when Antares will be no more a summer star, but will flash its ruddy
light upon the snows of a winter longer and colder than the winters
that we know, while Orion will blaze above the summer landscapes.
This immense revolution, some have thought, may be the measure
of the “Great Year” of Plato, and if the chronology adopted for dating
the early remains of civilization recently uncovered in Crete is
correct, we have evidence that mankind has persisted through one
of these vast periods, and that nations flourished round the
Mediterranean when Vega was formerly the Pole-star.
The beauty of Vega, which has been admired and commented on
from the earliest times, is much enhanced when it is viewed with a
telescope. Then the blueness of its light becomes evident, and one
is the more astonished at the unquestionable fact that it outshines
the sun a hundred times. A sapphire sun, a hundred times more
brilliant than ours! The proper motion of the solar system, which
carries us through space about twelve miles per second, is bearing
us almost directly toward Vega, so that as future ages unroll the star
should become brighter and brighter with decrease of distance, until
eventually it may outshine every other orb in the firmament, and put
Sirius himself to shame by its overpowering splendor.
The little star Epsilon (ε), the northernmost one of the pair near
Vega, is a celebrated quadruple, easily seen as such with a
telescope of moderate power.
A little less than half way from Beta (β) to Gamma (γ) the
telescope discovers the wonderful “Ring Nebula,” a delicate circle of
nebulous light with a star in the centre. This star is more
conspicuous in photographs than in telescopic views. This object has
been regarded as a visual proof of the correctness of Laplace’s
theory of the origin of the solar system from nebulous rings
surrounding a central sun, but the Lick photographs show that the
ring in this case is of a strangely complex constitution. Beta is both a
binary and a variable star.
Buried in the Milky Way, east of Lyra, lies the great “Northern
Cross” in the constellation Cygnus. It is more perfect than the
famous “Southern Cross,” and much larger. The star Alpha (α), at
the head of the main beam of the cross, is also called Denib, the
“Tail,” as it is situated in the tail of the “Swan,” Cygnus. Its parallax is
undetermined, and Newcomb placed it in his “XM” class, described
under Spica in Chapter I. The Milky Way is exceedingly beautiful in
Cygnus. Note particularly the broad gaps and rifts in it. Around and
above the head of the cross there are dark spaces, which are
specially impressive when the eyes are partly averted from them.
Downward from Cygnus the stream of the galaxy is seen to be
partially split longitudinally. It resembles a broad river meandering, in
the droughts of the “dog days,” over flats and shallows, and
interrupted with long sand-bars. How can stars have been thrown
together into such forms? What whirls and eddies of the ether can
have made these pools of shining suns?
The star in the foot of the cross, Beta (β), or Albireo—a beautiful
name without signification, since Allen shows that it originated in a
blunder (see his Star Names and Their Meanings)—is one of the
most attractive objects in the heavens for those who are fortunate
enough to possess a telescope. The smallest glass easily shows it to
be double, and the combination is unrivalled for beauty, the larger
star being a pale topaz and the smaller a deep sapphire. Their
magnitudes are three and seven, and their distance apart about 34″.
I have separated them with a field-glass.
Cygnus contains one of the nearest stars in the sky, a twinkler not
too easily seen with the naked eye—a striking proof of the fact that
the mere faintness of a star is in itself no indication of excessive
distance. This is known as 61 Cygni, and will be found on Chart X. It
is a double, possible binary, easily separated with a small telescope,
the distance being about 21″. The distance of 61 Cygni is about
40,000,000,000,000 miles. It was long known as the second nearest
star in the sky, the nearest being Alpha Centauri in the southern
hemisphere; but at least one nearer one has more lately been
discovered, and it, too, is a very small star. The combined luminosity
of the two stars in 61 Cygni is only one-tenth that of the sun. Amid so
many giants it is reassuring to find a sun smaller than ours; it
restores our self-esteem to find that our solar hamlet is not the very
least in the empire of space.
Southeast of Cygnus, near the eastern shore of the starry river, is
Aquila, the “Eagle.” Its chief star, Altair, “Eagle,” recalls Antares, not
by its color, for it is not red but white, but by the singular
arrangement of two small stars standing one on either side of it.
Here, too, the Milky Way is very splendid, attaining astonishing
brightness lower down, in Scutum Sobieskii, “Sobieski’s Shield.” The
naming of this constellation was a posthumous reward to the heroic
king, John Sobieski, for saving Europe by the defeat of the Turks
under the walls of Vienna, after their victorious advance from
Constantinople, emphasized in the public mind by the appearance of
Halley’s Comet, had seemed to threaten a Moslem conquest. Twice
Halley’s Comet had alarmed Europe in connection with the Turks,
first in 1456, after they had taken Constantinople, and again in 1682
when they swept upon Vienna, so that it was a natural thought to
associate Sobieski’s victory with some “sign in the sky,” and a more
appropriate one could hardly have been found than the “shield,”
bossed with star-clusters, which Hevelius selected for the purpose.
The southern part of the constellation Aquila is sometimes called
Antinous. For the beautiful Oriental legend of the Spinning Damsel
and the Magpie Bridge connected with Aquila and Lyra, see
Astronomy with the Naked Eye. Newcomb gives Altair ten times the
luminosity of the sun.
The constellations Delphinus and Anser et Vulpecula will be dealt
with in the next chapter. In the mean time let us turn to the western
half of the sky.
Just west of the meridian, near the zenith, gleams the glorious
Northern Crown, Corona Borealis. The head of Serpens is right
underneath it. It is, perhaps, the most charming of all asterisms. It
could hardly be called anything else than a crown or a wreath. The
perfection of the figure is surprising. If its stars were larger it would
be the cynosure of the sky, but small as they are they produce an
effect of ensemble that could not have been exceeded if human
hands had arranged them there. The superior brightness of one of
them, Alpha “Gemma,” or “The Pearl,” adds greatly to the
effectiveness of the combination. It is the work of a master jeweller!
Yet, as I have elsewhere shown, this curious assemblage of stars is
but a passing phenomenon, for they are travelling in various
directions, with various speeds, and in the course of time the
Northern Crown will dissolve like a figure in the clouds. In Greek
mythology it was generally called the Crown of Ariadne. Just under
the star Epsilon (ε) is a wonderful variable, which in 1866 suddenly
blazed up to the second magnitude, and was for a time regarded as
a new star. Nothing is known of its periods of change. It is not now
visible to the naked eye.
West of Corona the most conspicuous object is Arcturus in
Boötes. This entire constellation is now well placed for observation.
But first a few words about Arcturus, a star of which one can never
tire, so steeped is it in the poetry and history of the most interesting
nations of the past. Like Alpha Centauri, Arcturus was used as a
“temple star” in both Egypt and Greece, and it was of much
importance as a prognosticator of the seasons. When a conspicuous
star was seen rising just ahead of the sun, it was said to rise
heliacally, and it served as a sentinel to announce the oncoming day.
To the priests this was important, because it warned them of the
moment when it was necessary to begin their preparations for the
sunrise ceremonies in the temples. To the husbandman such a
herald seemed specially connected with the particular season in
which it appeared. In this way Arcturus came to give its name to the
ancient Greek autumn. In Sophocles’ Œdipus the King there is a
passage which affords striking evidence of the popular knowledge of
Arcturus in this connection. When the herdsman from Mount
Cithæron is brought to prove that he had nurtured Œdipus as a child,
one of his former comrades, to recall the old man’s recollections,
reminds him that they had kept their flocks together “three whole
half-years from Spring to Arcturus” (meaning from Spring to Autumn,
since Arcturus then rose heliacally at the beginning of September).
Whatever might be the local names for Autumn, over all the Greek
world it was popularly known as the “time of Arcturus.”
Although the Revised Version has struck out Arcturus and
substituted “the Bear” in that famous passage in which the Almighty
answers Job “out of the whirlwind,” yet for lovers of the Bible this will
always be “Job’s Star,” always surrounded to the imagination with
the momentous circumstances suggested by that tremendous and
unanswerable demand:
“Canst thou call forth Arcturus and his sons?”
No scientific fact known about it—not its gigantic size, not its
inexplicable flight through space—can be so imposing as the
impressions conveyed in its choice by Jehovah to illustrate His
illimitable power. One likes to think that the Hebrew poet really did
mean to write “Arcturus,” for there is something sublime in the idea
of representing the Great Maker of All as calling one of His stars by
name.
Arcturus is sometimes referred to under the name of Arctophilax,
the “Bear-driver,” a name properly belonging to the constellation
Boötes. In modern astronomical history it will always be memorable
for the passage over it of the celebrated Comet of 1858, Donati’s
Comet. At one time the star was almost involved in the head of the
great comet, and yet it shone through the obstructing vapors with
virtually undiminished lustre. It was a spectacle, said Professor
Nichol, the like of which no one might see again though he should
spend on earth fifty lives. At the beginning the comet was a little
plume of fire, “shaped like a bird of paradise,” but it soon brightened
into a stupendous scimetar, brandished in the sunset, and when it
swept over Arcturus the whole astronomical world was watching to
see what would happen to the star.
Among the other stars of Boötes, Epsilon (ε) is specially worthy of
notice, being a remarkable binary of finely contrasted colors, orange
and sea-green. The distance is 2″.25, and the period of revolution
long but undetermined. Struve called this star “Pulcherrima,” on
account of its exceeding beauty.
Although Arcturus by its splendor belittles the rest of the
constellation, yet it requires no difficult exercise of the imagination to
see a giant form there, towering behind the Bear, and urging on his
dogs in the chase. The dogs are represented by Canes Venatici, of
the beauty of whose chief star, Cor Caroli, I have spoken in the
preceding chapter. In the upper part of Canes Venatici, about 3°
southwest of Benetnasch, is the celebrated “Whirlpool Nebula” of
Lord Rosse, which modern photographs show in a form so
suggestive of tremendous disruptive forces that cosmogonists are at
a loss to explain it.
We now drop down to Libra, the “Balance,” which lies just west of
Scorpio and east of Virgo. There is evidence that this constellation
originally represented the outstretched claws of the Scorpion. Yet as
an independent constellation it is very ancient. It has only two stars
of any considerable magnitude, Alpha (α) and Beta (β). The former
must have faded, for it is now the fainter. It lies almost on the ecliptic.
These stars are interesting on account of their curious names, which
themselves tend to prove that Libra once formed a part of Scorpio.
Alpha is Zubenelgenubi, the “Southern Claw,” and Beta
Zubeneschemali, the “Northern Claw.” These titles, as Allen shows,
have been derived through the Arabic from the Greek names current
in the time of Ptolemy. The first is yellowish-white, and the second
pale green. Any good eye detects the difference of color at a glance,
although the stars are about ten degrees apart. Zubenelgenubi is
widely double, separable with an opera-glass.
Along the western horizon we recognize our old friends Virgo,
Corvus, and Leo, while high in the northwest is Ursa Major, head
downward, and directly in the north Ursa Minor, standing on the end
of his tail, poised like an acrobat on Polaris. The head of Draco
shows finely east of the meridian, and low down in the northeast is
the “Laconian Key” of Cassiopeia. But that is for another evening.
 III
THE EVENING SKY AT THE AUTUMNAL
EQUINOX

“When descends on the Atlantic

The gigantic
Storm-wind of the Equinox,
Landward in his wrath he scourges
The toiling surges,
Laden with sea-weed from the rocks.”
Longfellow’s vivid lines reproduce the popular impression of the
character of the season when the descending sun again touches the
equator, giving the whole world once more days and nights of equal
length, before he dips to the south and leaves the northern
hemisphere to face the oncoming blasts of winter. There is no
superstition more deeply planted than that of the “equinoctial
storms.” There are such storms, it is true, but they by no means
always burst at the epoch of the Equinox. The readjustment of
atmospheric conditions goes on gradually, and there is often, just at
the equinoctial moment, a spell of serene weather that can hardly be
matched at any other season of the year. The atmosphere,
recovered from the excessive heats of summer, possesses a quality
of softness and “misty fruitfulness” that tranquillizes the spirit and
makes nature doubly charming. It is the late afternoon of the year,
when life, refreshed by the siestas of summer, resumes its activity,
and the heavens no less than the face of the earth greet the eye with
a smile of divine beauty.
To every season its flowers—and to every season its stars. The
gardens of the sky are not the same in autumn as in summer, either
in their arrangement or in the peculiarities of their bloom. There is
less parade of flaming beauty, but the richness of the coup d’œil is
not inferior. And just as in our September parterres some of the
summer beauties remain, though a little faded, to support with their
charms their stately successors, so in the skies of autumn a few of
the summer stars are yet seen, though somewhat robbed of their
pristine splendor as they sink toward the sunset. The garland of the
Milky Way has now been flung all across the firmament, from
northeast to southwest, and while Vega and Altair hang half-way
down the curtain of the west, recalling the glories of the solstice,
Capella appears rising in the northeast, and Cassiopeia, not less
beautiful in the sky than when she awoke the jealousy of the sea-
nymphs, is seen seated in her “shiny chair” east of the meridian in
the north. Between Cassiopeia and Capella flashes Perseus, with his
uplifted sword marked by a curve of stars embedded in the Milky
Way, and above Perseus stands Andromeda, upright, with her feet
toward her rescuer and her head touching the “Great Square of
Pegasus,” near the middle of the sky, east of the meridian. Cepheus,
the King, is on the meridian above the pole. Cassiopeia, Cepheus,
Andromeda, and Perseus constitute the “Royal Family” of the sky,
more enduring than the proud dynasties that by turns have ruled
terrestrial affairs.
 CHART III—THE AUTUMN EVENING SKY
Low down in the south, east of the meridian, glows Fomalhaut, the
“Fish’s Mouth,” the leading and the only bright star of Piscis
Austrinus, the “Southern Fish.” With this singular star we may begin
our description of the beauties of the autumn sky. Fomalhaut well
deserves the epithet singular, if for nothing else than on account of
its loneliness. In this respect it is more remarkable than Cor Hydræ,
which it resembles in its ruddy color. Fomalhaut is the characteristic
star of autumn in our latitudes, for the same reasons that cause
Antares to represent the summer. Like Antares, it startles the
wandering eye and fixes the attention, although, unlike the great star
of Scorpio, it has no brilliant entourage to emphasize its supremacy
over the quarter of the sky where it shines. It is one of the sailors’
stars. To me Fomalhaut is full of boyhood memories and impressions
gained when I learned the stars in the country, among the hills that
shut in the Schoharie before it pours out into the valley of the
Mohawk. Fortunately, Thomas Dick’s works and Burritt’s Geography
of the Heavens had a place in our house, and neither The Arabian
Nights nor The Swiss Family Robinson was able to dull my appetite
for them. In the course of time I knew all the great stars by name,
and found a wonderful pleasure in their acquaintance, although at
times they daunted me with their imposing associations with Egypt,
the Nile, Babylonia, and everything that is most ancient. I shall never
forget Fomalhaut flashing along in the south, just skipping the
hilltops on an autumn night. A great star is never so imposing nor so
mysterious as when it thus appears to be watching the earth.
How immensely would the interest of many travellers’ tales be
heightened if only they had known the names of the stars whose
appearance they have recorded. When you have the name of the
star that was seen, the season and the hour of the night are fixed at
once, and the whole scene is filled with new life. When an Alpine
climber, waiting in his lonely camp high on the mountain-side for the
coming of day, tells me, “I saw Sirius glancing at us over a lofty peak
far in the east,” I know immediately the approximate time of night
and the aspect of the heavens, and the narrative gains in vividness;
but if he says merely that he saw “a star” his stroke of description
misses. And, then, the names of many of the stars, by their oddity
and beauty, enrich the page and awake the imagination. They are, in
themselves, an incantation.
The lover of the stars is grateful for any reference to them by a
great writer, and yet he is often disappointed by the inadequacy of
descriptions that might easily have been made memorable if only
their authors had known the starry heavens a little better. How
disappointing, for instance, is this passage in R. H. Dana’s Two
Years before the Mast:
 “Wednesday, November 5th—The weather was fine during
the previous night, and we had a clear view of the Magellan
Clouds and of the Southern Cross. The Magellan Clouds
consist of three small nebulæ in the southern part of the
heavens—two bright, like the Milky Way, and one dark. They
are first seen just above the horizon after crossing the
southern tropic. When off Cape Horn they are nearly
overhead. The Cross is composed of four stars in that form,
and it is said to be the brightest constellation in the heavens.”
That is all, and the reader’s dissatisfaction is not confined to the
evidence of the writer’s lack of familiarity with the stars, but becomes
yet keener when he reflects upon the brilliant picture which Mr.
Dana’s powers of description should have enabled him to make of
those strange sights of the southern sky, which, in his day, were so
rarely seen by northern eyes.
On the equator above Fomalhaut, and close to the meridian,
appears a curious group of stars in the form of a letter Y. They mark
the hand and urn of Aquarius, the “Waterman.” A few degrees
westward from this figure shines the Alpha (α) of the constellation,
bearing the strange name Sadalmelik, the “King’s Luck,” or “Lucky
One.” It is situated in the Waterman’s right shoulder, while Beta (β),
some twelve degrees farther west, marks the left shoulder. Beta’s
distinctive name is Sadalsuud, the “Luckiest of the Lucky.” Several
other stars in this constellation have names implying good-fortune.
The Arabs saw the Y-shaped figure, already referred to, as a tent,
and the star Gamma (γ) in this group is called Sadachbiah, from an
Arabic phrase which Professor Whitney translates “Felicity of Tents.”
Upon this R. H. Allen remarks that the star probably got its name
from the fact that it rose with its companions in the morning twilight
of spring, “when, after the winter’s want and suffering, the nomads’
tents were raised on the freshening pastures, and the pleasant
weather set in.” The star Zeta (ζ), in this same figure, is a long-period
binary, probably 750 years, and a beautiful telescopic object, the
distance being a little more than 3″, while the two stars are nearly
equal, and very white, although one of them seems whiter than the
other.
 It will be observed that the outline of the constellation Aquarius is
very curious, somewhat resembling that of the State of Louisiana
tipped on its side. The broader part of it runs down toward
Fomalhaut, and the northern part extends westward, like an L added
to a house, between Equuleus and Capricornus. The latter, the
constellation of the “Goat,” is relatively small and compact. Its two
most interesting stars are Alpha (α), or Algedi, the “Goat,” and Beta
(β), or Dabih (signification uncertain), both in one of the horns of the
imaginary animal. Each of these stars is a wide double. The distance
between the Alphas is 373″, and that between the Betas 205″, the
latter being more than a tenth of the apparent diameter of the moon.
A good eye sees at once that Alpha is double; but the two stars in
Beta cannot be seen without a glass, because one of them is below
the sixth magnitude, the minimum visible for the naked eye. Each of
the stars in Beta is a telescopic double. The Goat heads westward,
and the stars Delta (δ) and Gamma (γ) are in his tail. This
constellation has given us our Tropic of Capricorn, because the
place of the winter solstice was once within its boundaries, although
now we find it far west, in Sagittarius.
Above the head of Capricornus we recognize our old acquaintance
Altair, in the Eagle, and east of this the singular little constellation of
Delphinus, the “Dolphin,” often called “Job’s Coffin,” a name for
which I have never been able to find any explanation. Like all small
constellations whose stars are comparatively close together, it
immediately attracts the eye. None of its stars exceeds the fourth
magnitude; but three of them, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma, are
telescopic doubles, the last named being particularly beautiful on
account of the contrast of colors, gold and green; distance 11″.
Directly north of Altair is the very small constellation of Sagitta, the
“Arrow,” interesting when viewed with an opera-glass for its row of
little stars from which, as from a maypole lying horizontally, depend
loops of still smaller stars looking like garlands. In ancient times this
was sometimes called “Cupid’s Arrow,” but they did not venture to
represent the little god himself. Above Sagitta are the small stars
constituting the double constellation of Vulpecula et Anser, the “Little
Fox and the Goose.”
 Simply pausing to recognize the presence of the Northern Cross,
we turn to the eastern side of the meridian, where we find Pegasus,
with his Great Square. This is one of the most conspicuous figures in
the sky. The star at the northeastern corner of the square is
Alpheratz, of which I have spoken in the Introduction, as belonging in
common to Andromeda and Pegasus. When we come to Cassiopeia
I shall point out a remarkable fact relating to Alpheratz and its twin,
Gamma Pegasi, about 15 degrees directly south. Every lover of the
“classics” of course feels a thrill of pleasure in seeing Pegasus in the
sky, “in wild flight and free.” One can spare many of the heroes for
the sake of giving him room. Shakespeare’s references to the
constellations are much less frequent and definite than one could
wish, but he has clearly mentioned one or two, and it may be that he
had the starry eidolon of the Winged Horse in his eye when he
wrote, in Troilus and Cressida:
“But let the ruffian Boreas once enrage
The gentle Thetis, and anon behold
The strong-ribbed bark through liquid mountains cut,
Bounding between the two moist elements
Like Perseus’ horse.”
The constellation extends far westward from the Square, and in
the imaginative sky pictures that illustrate old charts of the heavens
the star Epsilon (ε) is in the nose of Pegasus, as he stretches out his
neck to reach his foal, Equuleus. But the horse, with his feet toward
the north, is shown upside down, unless you turn your back to the
south when looking at him. The star Beta (β) is attractive on account
of its neighbors forming a striking triangle with it; but the space within
the Square is relatively vacant. Alpha (α) and Beta (β) are
respectively Markab, the “Saddle,” and Scheat (signification
uncertain).
South of the Square of Pegasus we see the western part of the
constellation of Pisces, whose small stars run in streams toward the
eastern horizon. Pisces furnishes one of the most remarkable
examples of this phenomenon, in which the stars are seen arrayed in
long, winding lines, like buttercups following a brook. Cetus is also
seen rising south of Pisces; but we shall deal with these
constellations later. Meanwhile we return to Alpheratz, at the
northeast corner of the Square of Pegasus. The name is derived
from an Arabic phrase meaning the “Horse’s Navel”; but the star is
now generally associated with Andromeda, and is, indeed, the Alpha
of that constellation, and shines on the maiden’s head. The star
Delta (δ), in Andromeda, marks her breast, and her extended arms
and chained hands are shown by rows and groups of small stars on
the north and south. Beta (β), or Mirach, is in her girdle, and the two
small stars northwest of it lead the eye to one of the most wonderful
objects in the sky—the Great Andromeda Nebula. You may detect it
as a misty speck with the naked eye; an opera-glass will show you
plainly that it is a little luminous cloud. In Chart X its position is
indicated by a little circle near the star Nu (ν). In a telescope it
appears of a spindle shape, with a bright axis, but the best views of it
are afforded by photography. On the photographic plate, exposed
continuously for hours to its rays, it gradually builds up its marvellous
form—the great central condensation, with the encircling spirals,
emerging in all their strange splendor. It resembles a whirlwind of
snow, and the appearance of swift motion and terrific force is
startling. Its spectrum, instead of being that characteristic of gases,
indicates that it consists principally of matter in a star-like state of
condensation, and some have imagined that it is an outside
universe, composed of stars too distant to be separately
distinguished, and arrayed in mighty spirals, which recall the form of
the Milky Way. The latest investigations show evidence, however,
that it is partly nebular in constitution. These things once known, the
contemplative eye is drawn to that misty speck as to a magnet.
The star Gamma (γ), or Almaack, the “Badger,” is in Andromeda’s
foot. It is a wonderful triple star, whose largest member is orange in
color, the second emerald-green, and the third blue. The two larger
stars are easily seen with an ordinary telescope, the distance
between them being about 10″, but the third is difficult, the distance
from the second being, in 1908, only 0″.45. The last two form a
binary, with a period of about fifty-four years. When they are nearest
to each other no telescope can separate them. The colors of the two
largest stars are very striking, and yet some eyes seem incapable of
appreciating them. This is also true of many separate stars in the sky