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 Chapter 7

Drug Use and Drug Addiction

Overview: This chapter focuses on the factors that influence the use and abuse of drugs. If the
internal and external causes and consequences of a given behavior were the same for all people,
then the difficulty of the task of providing an explanation and understanding of that behavior
would be significantly reduced. However, like many other human behaviors, individual
differences in the causes and consequences of the use of drugs render the task of explaining this
behavior an extremely difficult one, especially when the serious social, health, and economic
consequences are taken into consideration. This chapter attempts to shed some light on the
individual differences in the motivation to use drugs by discussing the biological, learned, and
cognitive factors that play a role in this behavior. Some of the main ideas in this chapter are:
(1) That a more effective approach to the problem of drug usage would be to focus on the initial
motivational causes of the behavior, in order to prevent a problem from developing, than to focus
on after-the-fact treatment, where significant irreversible damage may have already occurred.
(2) That, like it or not, some people try drugs and quit, others use drugs in moderation without
any noticeable interference in their daily adaptive functioning, while the excessive use of drugs
by still others is clearly maladaptive, destroying their ability to cope with the demands of every-
day life. (3) That such individual differences in drug use and abuse imply that factors beyond the
physical effects of the drug come into play to determine whether a person is likely to become a
user as opposed to an abuser of drugs. (4) That the major motivation for using drugs is to
regulate mood. (5) That individual differences in biological dispositions that influence mood can
give some people a greater tendency to use/abuse drugs than others. (6) That the paths available
to regulate mood are often under the control of the context such that, in a given context, the same
individual differences in biological dispositions can affect: a.) the individual’s ability to learn the
coping skills necessary to take advantage of alternate paths to that of drug use to regulate their
moods, and b.) their perception of their own ability to control their mood and behavior in that
context. And, finally, (7) the fact that learning and cognition play a role in determining who is
likely to become a drug user/abuser suggests that people can learn to self-regulate their behavior
in order to quit using drugs or to prevent the excessive use of drugs.

The following is a summary of the contents of this chapter:

I. Where to Start the Discussion of Drug Use: In the pages that introduce this chapter, it is
pointed out that, from an evolutionary perspective, drug use is not an adaptation to some
environmental problem, but, instead, is an example of the reward system being co-opted by a
behavior other than the adaptive behavior for which it was designed. Since the activation of the
reward system produces feelings of pleasure, this perspective lays the foundation for one of the
major themes of the chapter, which is that the primary motive for using drugs is to regulate mood
(that is, to experience pleasure or to reduce feelings of unpleasantness). This theme is further
elaborated upon in the discussion of basic terms and concepts where it is pointed out that the
distinction between psychoactive and non-psychoactive drugs is important because psychoactive
drugs alter mood and/or consciousness while non-psychoactive drugs do not, and that
psychoactive drugs that alter mood are the drugs that are most likely to be abused. Solomon’s
opponent process model is also discussed as a model that some have used to show how the

116
repeated usage of a given dosage level of a drug can lead to the development of tolerance,
withdrawal symptoms, dependency, and craving.

II. Why People Become Addicted: In this section, Kolb’s Approach/Avoidance Motivation
Model of Drug Use is discussed; this model holds that people take drugs for different reasons
and that the reason for taking a drug can affect the likelihood that the person will abuse it: some
people (hedonist) take drugs to enhance pleasure (approach motive) while others
(psychoneurotics) take drugs to alleviate or escape from negative moods (avoidance motive), and
since avoidance motivation is the more powerful form of motivation due to its implications for
survival, people who take drugs due to avoidance motivation are more likely to abuse drugs than
those who take drugs due to approach motivation. In this connection, a study on the use of
alcohol is described which provides some support for this motivation model but also reveals an
important cognitive factor (the expectancy of the effect of the drug on a person’s mood) that
appears to influence both the decision to initially take a given drug and the continued usage of
that drug.

III. The Initial Motivation to Use Drugs: This section elaborates on the biological, learned, and
cognitive factors that motivate people to take drugs and that can influence the continued usage of
drugs. It describes how individual differences in biological temperament can interact with
learning (development of coping-skills), the context (support systems: family and peers), and
cognition (perception of self-control) to produce individual differences in the likelihood that a
person will be motivated to use drugs.

IV. Why Drugs Are Addictive: This section provides an in-depth discussion of the biological,
learned, and cognitive factors that can lead to addictive behavior patterns for such drugs as
heroin, morphine, cocaine, amphetamines, cannabis, LSD, Ecstacy, nicotine, and alcohol.
Differences in the psychological and health effects as well as in the tendency to abuse these
different drugs are discussed. The important concepts of context-induced mood states and
context-constraints on the paths to pleasure, as well as the concept of the self-regulation of mood
and behavior as a means of moderating or quitting drug use, are also covered in detail.

Outline:
Evolutionary Considerations
Some Basic Terms and Concepts
Drug Addiction: The World Health Organization Definition
Substance Abuse
Psychoactive Drugs
Dependency
Tolerance
Solomon’s Opponent-Process Model of Tolerance
Withdrawal
Craving
Summary
Why People Become Addicted
Approach and Avoidant Motivation

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 Practical Application 7-1: Factors That Influence Drug Use
A Motivation Model
The Initial Motivation to Use Drugs
The Biological Component
Mood Temperament
Activity Temperament
Novelty-Seeking Temperament
The Learning Component
The Cognitive Component
Summary
Why Drugs are Addictive
Heroin and Morphine
Biological Component
Endorphins: Natural Opioids of the Brain
Psychological and Social Needs and the Power of Opioids
Expectations and the Power of Opioids
The Learning Component
The Power of Reinforcement: Short-Circuiting of Biological Drives
The Vietnam War Study
The Cognitive Component
Giving Up an Addiction
Beliefs About Self-Control
Summary
Stimulants: Cocaine and Amphetamines
The Biological Component
The Dopamine System Plus Norepinephrine
The Learned Component
The Cognitive Component
Expectations
Relapse
Summary
The Hallucinogenics: Cannabis and LSD
The Biological Component
Cannabis (Marijuana, Hashish)
Dopamine Plus Anandamide
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
Dopamine Plus Serotonin
The Learned Component
The Cognitive Component
Memory and Attention Deficits
Ecstacy (Adam, XTC)
Summary
Health Considerations: Treating People with Persistent Pain
Nicotine
The Biological Component
The Learned Component

118
 The Cognitive Component
Summary
Alcohol
The Biological Component
Expectations and the Effects of Alcohol
Depression and Alcohol
Alcohol and the Disinhibition Effect
The Learned Component
Situational Factors
Multiple Determinants of Alcohol Use
Alcoholism in France and Italy
Family Environment
Cultural Factors
Treating Alcoholism
The Cognitive Component
Alcohol and Myopia
Beliefs About Control
Taking Control by Cutting Down
Beliefs About Self-Control
Practical Application 7-2: How People Quit Addictions
Summary

Main Points:

1. Because drug addiction is usually preceded by drug abuse, the current strategy for
studying addiction is to identify the factors that lead to drug abuse.

2. Dependency refers to the need to take drugs to maintain normal feelings of well-being.

3. Tolerance refers to the fact that people need to take increasing amounts of a drug to
achieve the same feelings of well-being.

4. Activation of the dopaminergic system appears to be the motivation behind most,

if not all, drug use.

5. The discovery of opiate receptors in the brain has led researchers to suggest that
the use of opiates is a means of tapping into certain naturally occurring reward and
survival mechanisms.

124
6. Considerable evidence points to the idea that humans, as well as animals, only become
addicted to drugs such as heroin if basic psychological and social needs are not being met.

7. Researchers have argued that social acceptability often plays an important role in the
addiction process, especially to such drugs as heroin.

119
8. Beliefs about control play an important role in one’s ability to recover from an addiction
such as heroin.

9. Amphetamines do not produce tolerance or withdrawal, but they can become habit-forming.

10. Research indicates that the hallucinations produced by LSD work via the
serotonin-containing neurons in the raphe nuclei.

11. Adolescents who have experimented with marijuana but who have not become users
tend to be well-adjusted.

12. In low doses, alcohol stimulates the central nervous system. In moderate doses, it
depresses activity of the brain by direct action on the brain. This leads to a
disinhibition effect.

13. The link between alcohol and depression can be explained by the tendency of alcohol to
produce depression through the depletion of dopamine and norepinephrine stores.

14. The different rates of alcohol addiction in France and Italy illustrate the idea that drinking
can be conditioned to a wide range of stimuli.

15. That people’s reactions to drugs vary with the situation and with the drug taker’s culture
raises serious questions about the disease model of addiction.

16. Beliefs about control and ability to change play an important role in determining whether
a person becomes addicted.

17. Factors influencing drug use include commitment to other activities, social class, peer and
parental influences, culture and ethnicity, attitudes toward moderation, degree of
achievement motivation and fear of failure, and commitment to the values of society.

18. There is considerable evidence that when people quit on their own, they are more likely
to succeed.

120
Concepts, Terms and Theories:
Acetylcholine Nicotine
Activity Temperament Non-Psychoactive Drugs
Alcohol and Myopia Novelty-Seeking Temperament
Amphetamines Nucleus Accumbens
Anandamide Opiate-Like Peptide Neurotransmitters
Apomorphine Opioid System
Approach/Avoidance Conflict Optimal Stimulation Theory
Approach/Avoidance Gradients Periaqueductal Gray Area
Beta-Endorphin/Dynorphin Pituitary Gland
Cannabis (Marijuana, Hashish) Placebo
Cerebellum Positive/Negative Withdrawal Symptoms
Cholinergic Pre-Consummatory Phase
Cirrhosis Prefrontal Cortex
Cocaine Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)
Consummatory Phase Psychoactive Drugs
Context-Controlled Drug Use Response-Instigating Effects
Craving Response-Reinforcing Effects
Dependency Reuptake/Degradation Mechanisms
Disinhibition Effect of Alcohol Self-Controle as a Limited Resource
Dopaminergic System Self-Medicate
Drug Addiction Serotonergic Neurons
Drug Efficacy Short-Circuit Biological Drives
Ecstasy (MDMA, Adam, XTC) Solomon’s Opponent Process Model
Endorphins (Endogenous Morphine) Stimulants
Expectancy Substance Abuse
Experimental Neurosis Substance P
Hallucinogenics To Co-Opt a System
Heroin Tolerance
High Preferred Intoxication Levels Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
Kolb’s Approach/Avoidance Model
Limbic System
Lipophilic
Low Preferred Intoxication Levels
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
Maturing Out
Met-Enkephalin/Leu-Enkephalin
Methadone
Monoamine Oxidase
Mood-Induced Re-Addiction
Mood Temperament
Morphine
Myopic Information Processing Model
Natural Opioids of the Brain

121
Classroom Activities/ Demonstrations/ Discussions:

1. Ask the class to think of examples of a brain system having been co-opted by some
behavior that it was not designed to promote, and to decide whether that behavior is
adaptive, maladaptive, or irrelevant to adaptation. For example, is chewing gum an example
of a system being co-opted and what is its relevance adaptation. Or, is learning to run a maze
when saccharin is the reinforcer an example of co-opting; or eating junk-food, doodling, or
listening to music examples of co-opting.

2. Have the class discuss the prevention approach as opposed to the treatment approach to
drug use. Would either approach be more effective than the other? Is either approach more
economically or politically feasible than the other?

3. Discuss the role of self-regulation and drug use (see Practical Application 7-2: How People
Quit Addictions). Are there factors such as temperament that could influence the
effectiveness of self-regulation as a means of quitting or moderating the use of drugs?

Weblinks:

1. Try http://www.pbs.org/wnet/closetohome/science/html. This is an excellent companion site

for the topics discussed in this chapter (differences between users, abusers, and addicts;
dependence; craving, etc.). It contains excellent text discussing alcohol, cocaine,
stimulants, opiates, nicotine, and marijuana and excellent animations illustrating how
these drugs are ingested and operate in the brain. Note: the effect of alcohol on the
effectiveness of GABA is shown in a short film clip and discussed as the mechanisms by
which alcohol has its inhibitory effect on the cortex, resulting in a disinhibition of other
systems (limbic) to produce some of the behaviors associated with the use of alcohol.

2. Try http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/medicate.cfm for excellent discussions and downloads

on psychotherapeutic drugs and how they work.

3. Try http://www.thebody.com/pinf/drugbkix.html for a discussion of psychoactive drugs and

HIV.

4. For additional reading try http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/chap08.htm to discuss

drugs that increase arousal and drugs that decrease arousal.

5. For instructor or student access to free abstracts and links to full text articles,
PubMed, the National Library of Medicine website is an excellent site for access to
current articles related to the topics of this chapter and the remaining chapters
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.org). Search by authors, journals,
or topic at this site.

122
Questions:

1. A brain system (circuit) evolved to promote an adaptive behavior (behavior A) in our

ancestors, but today behavior B can be used to co-opt this brain system. This implies
that (p. 176)
A. behavior B is likely to be adaptive.
B. behavior B is likely to be maladaptive.
* C. behavior B could be either adaptive or maladaptive.
D. none of these.

Conceptual

2. The main underlying system of drug use and abuse is the (p. 176)
* A. dopaminergic system.
B. amygdala system
C. serotonergic system.
D. hypothalamic system.

Factual

3. According to evolutionary psychologists, the dopaminergic system likely emerged

to motivate (p. 176)
A. running.
B. procreation.
* C. hunting.
D. drug taking.

Factual

4. Substance abuse (p. 177)

A. refers to the tendency to use drugs indiscriminately without regard for others.
* B. refers to the tendency to use substances to excess.
C. refers to the physical effects caused by using drugs excessively.
D. refers to all of these.

Factual

5. Psychoactive drugs as opposed to nonpsychoactive drugs (p. 177-178)

A. affect moods.
* B. affect moods and/or consciousness.
C. produce a tolerance effect.
D. are more likely to lead to health problems.

Factual

123
 6. The concept of ‘psychoactive drugs’ is viewed as important in drug abuse
literature (p. 178)
A. because such drugs only affect the mind but do not affect the body.
B. because such drugs tend to produce psychological dependency but not
physical dependency.
* C. because people tend to abuse psychoactive drugs but not nonpsychoactive drugs.
D. all of these.

Factual

W7. Dependency refers to (p. 178)

A. the tendency for an individual to use increasing amounts of a particular drug in
order to obtain the same psychological effect.
* B. the tendency for an individual to use a drug to maintain a state of well-being that is
lacking when the drug is withdrawn.
C. the tendency for an individual to seek out new and different drugs.
D. a condition that occurs when an individual uses "hard drugs."

Factual

8. Tolerance refers to (p. 178)

A. the development of an overpowering desire or need to continue taking a drug
and to obtain it by any means.
B. the appearance of a characteristic abstinence syndrome in the individual from whom
the drug is withdrawn.
C. the tendency for an individual to develop a physiological need for a particular
drug.
* D. the tendency for an individual to use increasing amounts of a particular drug in
order to obtain the same psychological effect.

Factual

9. Evidence indicates that tolerance to many—if not all—drugs is (p. 178)

A. caused by the psychological changes that the drugs produce.
B. caused by the behavioral changes that the drugs produce.
C. caused by changes in cognitive structures, such as changes in the expectancy of the
effects of drusgs.
* D. caused by the physiological changes that the drugs produce.

Factual

124
 10. According to Solomon's opponent process model, if an individual repeatedly takes
a drug, the opponent process will (p. 178)
A. weaken.
B. remain the same.
* C. strengthen.
D. reduce aversive withdrawal symptoms.

Factual

W11. Tolerance, according to the opponent-process model, is caused by (p. 178-179)

A. the strengthening of the initial process.
* B. the strengthening of the opponent process.
C. habituation.
D. sensitization.

Factual

12. Today is graduation day. At the ceremony, Vanessa felt great; she was so happy to
finally receive her degree. However, on the way to her car after the ceremony,
Vanessa begin to feel somewhat sad. That Vanessa would experience such a mood
swing is predictable according to (p. 178)
* A. Solomon’s opponent process model.
B. Kolb’s approach/avoidance motivation theory.
C. social learning theory.
D. Steele and Joseph’s myopic information-processing model.

Application

13. Withdrawal refers to (p. 179)

A. physiological symptoms that follow the cessation of drug use.
B. psychological symptoms that follow the cessation of drug use.
C. the positive feelings that follow drug use.
* D. physiological and psychological symptoms that follow the cessation of drug use.
E. none of these.

Factual

14. Craving refers to (p. 179)

A. the desire to ingest a drug.
B. the preoccupation with obtaining a drug.
C. the desire to cease taking a drug.
* D. both the desire to ingest the drug and the preoccupation with the drug.

Factual

125
 15. The evidence indicates that (p. 180)
* A. people can learn to use drugs moderately.
B. once a person uses a drug they lose control.
C. most people like high levels of intoxication.
D. most people like low levels of intoxication.

Conceptual

16. Which of the following statements is false? (p. 180)

A. Most people can learn to control their drug intake.
* B. It has been demonstrated that when people are given a drug for the first time they
lose control.
C. Considerable evidence indicates that people who are inclined to seek high levels of
intoxication have a history of doing so.
D. People limit their drug use in one situation but not in another.

Conceptual

17. Relapse after a "drying out" period is thought to be caused by (p. 180)
A. withdrawal symptoms.
* B. activation of memories.
C. the opponent process.
D. withdrawal symptoms and activation of memories.

Conceptual

W18. A person who takes drugs to avoid a noxious or aversive situation corresponds to
____________ in Kolb's drug user types. (p. 181)
A. hedonist
B. social drinker
C. abuser
* D. psychoneurotic

Factual

19. In Kolb’s model of drug use, a _______ is more likely to become a drug abuser.
(p. 181)
A. male
B. female
C. hedonist
* D. psychoneurotic

Conceptual

126
20. According to Kolb’s model of drug use (p. 181)
A. people who take drugs to enhance a positive mood are more likely to become
abusers than people who take them to alleviate a negative mood.
* B. people who take drugs to enhance a positive mood are less likely to become
abusers than people who take them to alleviate a negative mood.
C. regardless of the reason for taking some drugs, people are highly likely to
become abusers if the drug has powerful euphoric effects.
D. a person’s mood when they take a drug has nothing to do with whether they
become abusers or not.

Conceptual

21. In Kolb’s model, the key to predicting whether a person who takes a drug is likely
to end up abusing that drug is (p. 181)
A. the chemical composition of the drug.
B. the power of the drug to produce euphoric effects.
C. the power of the drug to produce hallucinogenic effects.
* D. the person’s reason for taking the drug.

Conceptual

22. The model of drinking to enhance and drinking to cope indicates that people are
more likely to become addicted to alcohol if they (p. 181)
A. drink to enhance.
* B. drink to cope.
C. drink to get highly intoxicated.
D. drink to improve physical performance.

Factual

23. The model of drinking to enhance and drinking to cope indicates that people
who drink to cope do so mainly to (p. 181)
A. avoid coping.
B. alleviate negative emotions.
* C. reduce tension.
D. take risks.

Factual

127
 24. The model of drinking to enhance and drinking to cope indicates that alcohol use
(p. 181)
* A. is positively related to drinking problems.
B. is negatively related to drinking problems.
C. is unrelated to drinking problems.
D. is the only thing that contributes to drinking problems.

Conceptual

25. Alcohol use and cigarette smoking is positively related to ( p. 183)

A. activity temperament.
B. novelty seeking temperament.
* C. mood temperament.
D. cognitive temperament.

Factual

26. Which of the following is the more likely explanation for both quitting after
initially trying a drug and the ‘maturing-out process’ of drug use? (p. 182)
A. the development of tolerance
B. a change in biological temperament
* C. failure of drugs to fulfill the users expectations
D. physiological changes that occur during adulthood

Conceptual

W27. People who use drugs to increase arousal tend to possess (p. 183-184)
* A. an activity temperament.
B. a novelty seeking temperament.
C. a mood temperament.
D. a cognitive temperament.

Conceptual

28. Individuals with a high activity temperament tend to use drugs to (p. 183-184)
* A. increase arousal.
B. reduce arousal.
C. reduce anxiety.
D. relax.

Factual

128
 29. Which of the following biological temperaments is likely to use stimulants in
an attempt to combat their ‘chronic state of underarousal’? (p. 183-184)
A. mood temperament
* B. activity temperament
C. novelty-seeking temperament
D. difficult/negative temperament

Conceptual

30. Which of the following biological temperaments is thought to find drug use highly
reinforcing because their low level of the enzyme monoamine oxidase allows
them to experience greater affect than do people with high levels of monoamine
oxidase? (p. 184-185)
A. mood temperament
B. activity temperament
* C. novelty-seeking temperament
D. difficult/negative temperament

Conceptual

31. People with a novelty seeking temperament are (p. 184-185)

A. less likely to use drugs.
* B. more likely to use drugs.
C. inclined to only use alcohol and cigarettes.
D. inclined to use marijuana but not other drugs.

Factual

32. Sensation seekers are inclined to use drugs to (p. 184-185)

A. reduce arousal.
B. lessen feelings of anxiety.
* C. satisfy their need for varied and novel experiences.
D. satisfy their need for predictability and control.

Factual

W33. Children who have the self-perception of lacking self-control are likely to be
characterized as having (p. 185)
A. a negative mood temperament.
B. an activity temperament.
C. poor self-control.
* D. all of these.

Conceptual

129
34. The main effects of heroin are caused by (p. 187)
A. dopamine plus norepinephrine.
B. dopamine plus serotonin.
* C. dopamine plus opioids.
D. dopamine plus anandamide.

Factual

35. It has been found that it is very difficult to make animals addicts. This line of
research suggests, among other things, that (p. 187-188)
A. expectations play a role in addiction.
B. beliefs and self-image play a role in addiction.
* C. psychological and social needs play a role in addiction.
D. none of these.

Conceptual

36. Which of the following natural neurotransmitter substances is thought to normally

lock on to ‘opiate receptor sites’ in the nervous system? (p. 187)
A. substance P.
B. dopamine.
C. norepinephrine.
* D. endorphins.

Factual

37. The pain reduction produced by heroin and morphine locking on to receptor
sites is thought to be due to the blocking of (p. 187)
* A. substance P.
B. dopamine.
C. norepinephrine.
D. endorphins.

Factual

38. The tendency to experience withdrawal symptoms from the use of heroin and
the magnitude of those withdrawal symptoms (p. 188).
A. is caused by the properties of the drug.
B. is caused by the length of addiction.
* C. is determined to a large degree by knowing that heroin can produce
withdrawal symptoms.
D. is due to how often the drug has been used.

Factual

130
W39. The short-circuiting of biological drives refers to the idea that (p. 188-189)
A. heroin makes people unaware of biological needs such as hunger, fatigue,
and anxiety.
B. heroin increases the threshold for detecting biological drives such as
hunger, fatigue, and anxiety.
* C. heroin reduces the discomforts associated with various drives such as
hunger, fatigue, and anxiety.
D. heroin causes people to confuse one biological drive for another.

Factual

40. The Vietnam study shows that _________play(s) a key role in the tendency to relapse.
(p. 189)
A. counseling
* B. context
C. length of abstinence
D. personality traits

Conceptual

41. In order to give up addictions, such as a heroin addiction, people

need to (p. 190-191)
A. identify activities that can be satisfying.
B. learn how to manage negative emotions.
C. decide they have a choice.
* D. all of these.

Conceptual

42. The success rate for giving up an addiction is (p. 191)

A. lower for self-initiated.
B. higher for other-initiated.
* C. higher for self-initiated.
D. lower for self-initiated and higher for other-initiated.

Factual

43. The main effects of cocaine and amphetamines are caused by the (p. 192)
* A. dopamine plus norepinephrine.
B. dopamine plus serotonin.
C. dopamine plus opioids.
D. dopamine plus anandamide.

Factual

131
 44. Cocaine (p. 192)
A. stimulates output of dopamine at the synapses.
* B. blocks the reuptake of dopamine/norepinephrine at the synapses.
C. activates receptors in the brain that are sensitive to cocaine.
D. inhibits activity of the hypothalamus.

Factual

45. Research evidence indicates the (p. 192-193)

A. norepinephrine response can be conditioned.
B. norepinephrine response cannot be conditioned.
* C. dopamine response can be conditioned.
D. dopamine response cannot be conditioned.

Factual

W46. To a large degree the experience of amphetamine and cocaine users

depends on (p. 193)
A. whether or not they use other drugs.
B. whether or not they are tired.
C. whether or not they have used the drug before.
* D. their expectations.

Factual

47. Relapse to such drugs as cocaine and amphetamines appears to be largely

caused by (p. 193)
* A. our memory of the drug effects.
B. withdrawal effects.
C. dependency feelings.
D. the presence of dangers and threats.

Factual

48. Cannabis produces (p. 194)

A. increases in arousal (heart rate/blood pressure).
B. decreases in arousal (heart rate/blood pressure).
* C. increases in arousal and distortions in time and space.
D. decreases in arousal and distortions in time and space.

Factual

132
49. The main effects of marijuana are caused by the (p. 194)
A. dopamine plus norepinephrine.
B. dopamine plus serotonin.
C. dopamine plus opioids.
* D. dopamine plus anandamide.

Factual

50. The main effects of LSD are caused by the (p. 194)
A. dopamine plus norepinephrine.
* B. dopamine plus serotonin.
C. dopamine plus opioids.
D. dopamine plus anandamide.

Factual

51. LSD is thought to indirectly ‘disinhibit activity’ in neurons in the visual and
several other areas in the brain by (p. 194)
* A. depressing activity in the raphe nuclei.
B. depressing activity in the locus coeruleus.
C. exciting activity in the raphe nuclei.
D. exciting activity in the locus coeruleus.

Factual

52. Cannabis has been shown to produce (p. 195)

A. attention deficits.
B. memory deficits.
C. cognitive deficits.
* D. all of these.

Factual

53. Cannabis has been shown to (p. 195)

* A. be an effective pain killer.
B. be highly addictive.
C. cause lasting damage to the serotonergic neurons.
D. be the drug of choice by the working class.

Factual

133
 54. Which of the following psychoactive drugs with amphetamine-like and
hallucinogenic properties has caused considerable concern over the drug’s
potential for causing brain damage? (p. 195)
A. LSD
B. cannabis
C. alcohol
* D. Ecstacy

Factual

W55. The main effects of nicotine are caused by the (p. 196)
A. dopamine plus norepinephrine.
B. dopamine plus serotonin.
* C. dopamine plus opioid overproduction.
D. dopamine plus anandamide.

Factual

56. Nicotine is a (p. 196)

A. stimulant in high doses.
* B. relaxant in high doses.
C. pain killer.
D. stimulant and pain killer in high doses.

Factual

57. The euphoric effects of alcohol are caused by the (p. 197)
A. dopamine plus norepinephrine.
B. dopamine plus serotonin.
* C. dopamine plus opioids.
D. dopamine plus anandamide.

Factual

58. The socially adverse behavioral effects of alcohol (e.g., aggression)

appear to be caused by (p. 197)
A. decreased activity of the cerebellum.
B. increased levels of glucose in the blood.
C. suppression of the cortex.
* D. expectations.

Conceptual

134
 59. Research evidence indicates that (p. 198)
* A. alcohol abuse causes depression.
B. depression causes alcohol abuse.
C. there is no relationship between alcohol abuse and depression.
D. sensation seekers are prone to alcohol abuse as well as depression.

Factual

60. Laboratory studies have shown that alcohol in an approach-avoidance conflict will
(p. 198-199)
A. reduce the tendency to approach a positive goal object.
B. facilitate the tendency to approach a positive goal object.
* C. reduce the tendency to avoid a negative or noxious goal object.
D. facilitate the tendency to avoid a negative or noxious goal object.

Factual

61. Congers argued that in approach-avoidance conflict situations alcohol

produces increased persistence in approaching the goal object by (p. 199)
A. increasing the approach gradient.
B. increasing the avoidance gradient.
C. reducing the approach gradient.
* D. reducing the avoidance gradient.

Factual

62. It has been suggested that alcohol causes myopia. Myopia in this context refers to
the tendency to (p. 200)
A. become aggressive.
* B. ignore certain pieces of information.
C. focus on the past.
D. focus on the future.

Factual

W63. Evidence suggests that "loss of control" when drinking alcohol is caused by
(p. 201-202)
A. the disease that alcohol produces.
* B. beliefs about what alcohol does.
C. being in a situation where alcohol consumption is condoned.
D. the disinhibition effects of alcohol.

Factual

135
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 My good Lord Sinnatus,
I once was at the hunting of a lion.
Roused by the clamour of the chase he woke,
Came to the front of the wood—his monarch mane
Bristled about his quick ears—he stood there
Staring upon the hunter. A score of dogs
Gnaw’d at his ankles: at the last he felt
The trouble of his feet, put forth one paw,
Slew four, and knew it not, and so remain’d
Staring upon the hunter: and this Rome
Will crush you if you wrestle with her; then
Save for some slight report in her own Senate
Scarce know what she has done.
(Aside.) Would I could move him,
Provoke him any way! (Aloud.) The Lady Camma,
Wise I am sure as she is beautiful,
Will close with me that to submit at once
Is better than a wholly-hopeless war,
Our gallant citizens murder’d all in vain,
Son, husband, brother gash’d to death in vain,
And the small state more cruelly trampled on
Than had she never moved.

Camma.

Sir, I had once

A boy who died a babe; but were he living
And grown to man and Sinnatus will’d it, I
Would set him in the front rank of the fight
With scarce a pang. (Rises.) Sir, if a state submit
At once, she may be blotted out at once
And swallow’d in the conqueror’s chronicle.
Whereas in wars of freedom and defence
The glory and grief of battle won or lost
Solders a race together—yea—tho’ they fail,
The names of those who fought and fell are like
A bank’d-up fire that flashes out again
From century to century, and at last
May lead them on to victory—I hope so—
Like phantoms of the Gods.

Sinnatus.

Well spoken, wife.

Synorix (bowing).

Madam, so well I yield.

Sinnatus.

I should not wonder

If Synorix, who has dwelt three years in Rome
And wrought his worst against his native land,
Returns with this Antonius.

Synorix.

What is Synorix?

Sinnatus.

Galatian, and not know? This Synorix

Was Tetrarch here, and tyrant also—did
Dishonour to our wives.

Synorix.

Perhaps you judge him

With feeble charity: being as you tell me
Tetrarch, there might be willing wives enough
To feel dishonour, honour.

Camma.

Do not say so.

I know of no such wives in all Galatia.
There may be courtesans for aught I know
Whose life is one dishonour.

Enter Attendant.

Attendant (aside).

My lord, the men!

Sinnatus (aside).

Our anti-Roman faction?

Attendant (aside).

Ay, my lord.

Synorix (overhearing).

(Aside.) I have enough—their anti-Roman faction.

Sinnatus (aloud).

Some friends of mine would speak with me without.

You, Strato, make good cheer till I return.

[Exit.

Synorix.

I have much to say, no time to say it in.

First, lady, know myself am that Galatian
Who sent the cup.

Camma.

I thank you from my heart.

 Synorix.

Then that I serve with Rome to serve Galatia.

That is my secret: keep it, or you sell me
To torment and to death.

[Coming closer.

For your ear only—

I love you—for your love to the great Goddess.
The Romans sent me here a spy upon you,
To draw you and your husband to your doom.
I’d sooner die than do it.

[Takes out paper given him by

Antonius.

This paper sign’d

Antonius—will you take it, read it? there!

Camma.

(Reads) “You are to seize on Sinnatus,—if——”

Synorix.

(Snatches paper.) No more.

What follows is for no wife’s eyes. O Camma,
Rome has a glimpse of this conspiracy;
Rome never yet hath spar’d conspirator.
Horrible! flaying, scourging, crucifying——

Camma.

I am tender enough. Why do you practise on me?

Synorix.

Why should I practise on you? How you wrong me!

I am sure of being every way malign’d.
And if you should betray me to your husband——

Camma.

Will you betray him by this order?

Synorix.

See,
I tear it all to pieces, never dream’d
Of acting on it.

[Tears the paper.

Camma.

I owe you thanks for ever.

Synorix.

Hath Sinnatus never told you of this plot?

Camma.

What plot?

Synorix.

A child’s sand-castle on the beach

For the next wave—all seen,—all calculated,
All known by Rome. No chance for Sinnatus.

Camma.

Why, said you not as much to my brave Sinnatus?

Synorix.
Brave—ay—too brave, too over-confident,
Too like to ruin himself, and you, and me!
Who else, with this black thunderbolt of Rome
Above him, would have chased the stag to-day
In the full face of all the Roman camp?
A miracle that they let him home again,
Not caught, maim’d, blinded him.

[Camma shudders.

(Aside.) I have made her tremble.

(Aloud.) I know they mean to torture him to death.
I dare not tell him how I came to know it;
I durst not trust him with—my serving Rome
To serve Galatia: you heard him on the letter.
Not say as much? I all but said as much.
I am sure I told him that his plot was folly.
I say it to you—you are wiser—Rome knows all,
But you know not the savagery of Rome.

Camma.

O—have you power with Rome? use it for him!

Synorix.

Alas! I have no such power with Rome. All that

Lies with Antonius.

[As if struck by a sudden thought.

Comes over to her.

He will pass to-morrow

In the gray dawn before the Temple doors.
You have beauty,—O great beauty,—and Antonius,
So gracious toward women, never yet
Flung back a woman’s prayer. Plead to him,
I am sure you will prevail.
 Camma.

Still—I should tell

My husband.

Synorix.

Will he let you plead for him

To a Roman?

Camma.

I fear not.

Synorix.

Then do not tell him.

Or tell him, if you will, when you return,
When you have charm’d our general into mercy,
And all is safe again. O dearest lady,

[Murmurs of “Synorix! Synorix!” heard

outside.

Think,—torture,—death,—and come.

Camma.

I will, I will.
And I will not betray you.

Synorix (aside).

(As Sinnatus enters.) Stand apart.

Enter Sinnatus and Attendant.

Sinnatus.
Thou art that Synorix! One whom thou hast wrong’d
Without there, knew thee with Antonius.
They howl for thee, to rend thee head from limb.

Synorix.

I am much malign’d. I thought to serve Galatia.

Sinnatus.

Serve thyself first, villain! They shall not harm

My guest within my house. There! (points to door) there! this
door
Opens upon the forest! Out, begone!
Henceforth I am thy mortal enemy.

Synorix.

However I thank thee (draws his sword); thou hast saved my

life.

[Exit.

Sinnatus.

(To Attendant.) Return and tell them Synorix is not here.

[Exit Attendant.

What did that villain Synorix say to you?

Camma.

Is he—that—Synorix?

Sinnatus.

Wherefore should you doubt it?

One of the men there knew him.
 Camma.

Only one,
And he perhaps mistaken in the face.

Sinnatus.

Come, come, could he deny it? What did he say?

Camma.

What should he say?

Sinnatus.

What should he say, my wife!

He should say this, that being Tetrarch once
His own true people cast him from their doors
Like a base coin.

Camma.

Not kindly to them?

Sinnatus.

Kindly?
O the most kindly Prince in all the world!
Would clap his honest citizens on the back,
Bandy their own rude jests with them, be curious
About the welfare of their babes, their wives,
O ay—their wives—their wives. What should he say?
He should say nothing to my wife if I
Were by to throttle him! He steep’d himself
In all the lust of Rome. How should you guess
What manner of beast it is?

Camma.
 Yet he seem’d kindly,
And said he loathed the cruelties that Rome
Wrought on her vassals.

Sinnatus.

Did he, honest man?

Camma.

And you, that seldom brook the stranger here,

Have let him hunt the stag with you to-day.

Sinnatus.

I warrant you now, he said he struck the stag.

Camma.

Why no, he never touch’d upon the stag.

Sinnatus.

Why so I said, my arrow. Well, to sleep.

[Goes to close door.

Camma.

Nay, close not yet the door upon a night

That looks half day.

Sinnatus.

True; and my friends may spy him

And slay him as he runs.

Camma.
 He is gone already.
Oh look,—yon grove upon the mountain,—white
In the sweet moon as with a lovelier snow!
But what a blotch of blackness underneath!
Sinnatus, you remember—yea, you must,
That there three years ago—the vast vine-bowers
Ran to the summit of the trees, and dropt
Their streamers earthward, which a breeze of May
Took ever and anon, and open’d out
The purple zone of hill and heaven; there
You told your love; and like the swaying vines—
Yea,—with our eyes,—our hearts, our prophet hopes
Let in the happy distance, and that all
But cloudless heaven which we have found together
In our three married years! You kiss’d me there
For the first time. Sinnatus, kiss me now.

Sinnatus.

First kiss. (Kisses her.) There then. You talk almost as if it

Might be the last.

Camma.

Will you not eat a little?

Sinnatus.

No, no, we found a goat-herd’s hut and shared

His fruits and milk. Liar! You will believe
Now that he never struck the stag—a brave one
Which you shall see to-morrow.

Camma.

I rise to-morrow
In the gray dawn, and take this holy cup
To lodge it in the shrine of Artemis.
 Sinnatus.

Good!

Camma.

If I be not back in half an hour,

Come after me.

Sinnatus.

What! is there danger?

Camma.

Nay,
None that I know: ’tis but a step from here
To the Temple.

Sinnatus.

All my brain is full of sleep.

Wake me before you go, I’ll after you—
After me now!

[Closes door and exit.

Camma (drawing curtains).

Your shadow. Synorix—

His face was not malignant, and he said
That men malign’d him. Shall I go? Shall I go?
Death, torture—
“He never yet flung back a woman’s prayer”—
I go, but I will have my dagger with me.

[Exit.

Scene III.—Same as Scene I. Dawn.

 Music and Singing in the Temple.

Enter Synorix watchfully, after him Publius and Soldiers.

Synorix.

Publius!

Publius.

Here!

Synorix.

Do you remember what

I told you?

Publius.

When you cry “Rome, Rome,” to seize

On whomsoever may be talking with you,
Or man, or woman, as traitors unto Rome.

Synorix.

Right. Back again. How many of you are there?

Publius.

Some half a score.

[Exeunt Soldiers and Publius.

Synorix.

I have my guard about me.

I need not fear the crowd that hunted me
Across the woods, last night. I hardly gain’d
The camp at midnight. Will she come to me
Now that she knows me Synorix? Not if Sinnatus
Has told her all the truth about me. Well,
I cannot help the mould that I was cast in.
I fling all that upon my fate, my star.
I know that I am genial, I would be
Happy, and make all others happy so
They did not thwart me. Nay, she will not come.
Yet if she be a true and loving wife
She may, perchance, to save this husband. Ay!
See, see, my white bird stepping toward the snare.
Why now I count it all but miracle,
That this brave heart of mine should shake me so,
As helplessly as some unbearded boy’s
When first he meets his maiden in a bower.

Enter Camma (with cup).

Synorix.

The lark first takes the sunlight on his wing,

But you, twin sister of the morning star,
Forelead the sun.

Camma.

Where is Antonius?

Synorix.

Not here as yet. You are too early for him.

[She crosses towards Temple.

Synorix.

Nay, whither go you now?

Camma.
 To lodge this cup
Within the holy shrine of Artemis,
And so return.

Synorix.

To find Antonius here.

[She goes into the Temple, he looks

after her.

The loveliest life that ever drew the light

From heaven to brood upon her, and enrich
Earth with her shadow! I trust she will return.
These Romans dare not violate the Temple.
No, I must lure my game into the camp.
A woman I could live and die for. What!
Die for a woman, what new faith is this?
I am not mad, not sick, not old enough
To doat on one alone. Yes, mad for her,
Camma the stately, Camma the great-hearted,
So mad, I fear some strange and evil chance
Coming upon me, for by the Gods I seem
Strange to myself.

Re-enter Camma.

Camma.

Where is Antonius?

Synorix.

Where? As I said before, you are still too early.

Camma.

Too early to be here alone with thee;

For whether men malign thy name, or no,
It bears an evil savour among women.
Where is Antonius? (Loud.)

Synorix.

Madam, as you know

The camp is half a league without the city;
If you will walk with me we needs must meet
Antonius coming, or at least shall find him
There in the camp.

Camma.

No, not one step with thee.

Where is Antonius? (Louder.)

Synorix (advancing towards her).

Then for your own sake,

Lady, I say it with all gentleness,
And for the sake of Sinnatus your husband,
I must compel you.

Camma (drawing her dagger).

Stay!—too near is death.

Synorix (disarming her).

Is it not easy to disarm a woman?

Enter Sinnatus (seizes him from behind by the throat).

Synorix (throttled and scarce audible).

Rome! Rome!

Sinnatus.
 Adulterous dog!

Synorix (stabbing him with Camma’s dagger).

What! will you have it?

[Camma utters a cry and runs to

Sinnatus.

Sinnatus (falls backward).

I have it in my heart—to the Temple—fly—

For my sake—or they seize on thee. Remember!
Away—farewell!

[Dies.

Camma (runs up the steps into the Temple, looking back).

Farewell!

Synorix (seeing her escape).

The women of the Temple drag her in.

Publius! Publius! No,
Antonius would not suffer me to break
Into the sanctuary. She hath escaped.

[Looking down at Sinnatus.

“Adulterous dog!” that red-faced rage at me!

Then with one quick short stab—eternal peace.
So end all passions. Then what use in passions?
To warm the cold bounds of our dying life
And, lest we freeze in mortal apathy,
Employ us, heat us, quicken us, help us, keep us
From seeing all too near that urn, those ashes
Which all must be. Well used, they serve us well.
I heard a saying in Egypt, that ambition
Is like the sea wave, which the more you drink,
The more you thirst—yea—drink too much, as men
Have done on rafts of wreck—it drives you mad.
I will be no such wreck, am no such gamester
As, having won the stake, would dare the chance
Of double, or losing all. The Roman Senate,
For I have always play’d into their hands,
Means me the crown. And Camma for my bride—
The people love her—if I win her love,
They too will cleave to me, as one with her.
There then I rest, Rome’s tributary king.

[Looking down on Sinnatus.

Why did I strike him?—having proof enough

Against the man, I surely should have left
That stroke to Rome. He saved my life too. Did he?
It seem’d so. I have play’d the sudden fool.
And that sets her against me—for the moment.
Camma—well, well, I never found the woman
I could not force or wheedle to my will.
She will be glad at last to wear my crown.
And I will make Galatia prosperous too,
And we will chirp among our vines, and smile
At bygone things till that (pointing to Sinnatus) eternal peace.
Rome! Rome!

Enter Publius and Soldiers.

Twice I cried Rome. Why came ye not before?

Publius.

Why come we now? Whom shall we seize upon?

Synorix (pointing to the body of Sinnatus).

The body of that dead traitor Sinnatus.

Bear him away.

Music and Singing in Temple.

END OF ACT I.
 ACT II.
Scene.—Interior of the Temple of Artemis.

Small gold gates on platform in front of the veil before the colossal
statue of the Goddess, and in the centre of the Temple a tripod
altar, on which is a lighted lamp. Lamps (lighted) suspended
between each pillar. Tripods, vases, garlands of flowers, etc.,
about stage. Altar at back close to Goddess, with two cups.
Solemn music. Priestesses decorating the Temple.

Enter a Priestess.

Priestess.

Phœbe, that man from Synorix, who has been

So oft to see the Priestess, waits once more
Before the Temple.

Phœbe.

We will let her know.

[Signs to one of the Priestesses, who

goes out.

Since Camma fled from Synorix to our Temple,

And for her beauty, stateliness, and power,
Was chosen Priestess here, have you not mark’d
Her eyes were ever on the marble floor?
To-day they are fixt and bright—they look straight out.
Hath she made up her mind to marry him?

Priestess.

To marry him who stabb’d her Sinnatus.