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 Assessment in Early
Childhood Education
Seventh edition

Sue C. Wortham
Professor Emerita
University of Texas at San Antonio

Belinda J. Hardin
Associate Professor
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wortham, Sue Clark

Assessment in early childhood education/Sue C. Wortham, Belinda Hardin.—Seventh edition.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-13-380291-7—ISBN 0-13-380291-4
1. Educational tests and measurements—United States. 2. Psychological tests for children—
United States. 3. Ability in children—United States—Testing. 4. Early childhood education—
United States—Evaluation. I. Hardin, Belinda June II. Title.
LB3060.217.W67 2016
372.21—dc23
2014040128

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-380291-4
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-380291-7
 Preface

Students preparing to become teachers of young children from infancy through the
early primary grades must be prepared to measure or evaluate children who are in
the period of development called early childhood. Tests and other types of assess-
ments designed for young children are different from those intended for children
in later grades in elementary school. Because infants and children under age 8 have
developmental needs different from those of older children, a textbook that in-
cludes discussion of assessment in the early childhood years must be written from a
developmental perspective.
In the second decade of the 21st century, early childhood educators have been
challenged in their efforts to assess very young children using the most important
strategies for their ongoing development. As a result, it is especially important that
future teachers and teachers who are struggling with these issues be fully informed
about the range of assessment possibilities and where they are the most beneficial
for young children.

traditional and Authentic Assessment Strategies

This book is written for future teachers and current teachers of young children. It
includes information about standardized tests and, more importantly, other types of
assessments that are appropriate for young children, such as screening tools, observa-
tions, checklists, and rating scales. Assessments designed by teachers are explained
both for preschool children and for kindergarten and primary-grade children who
are transitioning into literacy. With the ever-growing trend toward performance as-
sessment, portfolios, and other methods of reporting a child’s performance, chapters
describing these strategies have been expanded and enhanced. The approach of this
edition is the development of an assessment system that includes traditional as well
as authentic assessment strategies in a comprehensive plan. Thus, in this new edition,
we seek to inform the reader about all types of assessments and their appropriate use.

new to this edition

• Video links embedded in the Pearson eText make it possible for students to see
real-life examples of the content in each chapter.
• Formative and summative assessments for students in the Pearson eText include
“Checking Your Understanding” within major sections of each chapter so that
students can gauge their understanding as they read and study the material, end
of chapter “Review Questions” support student learning and knowledge reten-
tion, and end-of-chapter “Applying What You Have Learned” to provide practice
applying chapter concepts for deeper understanding.

iii
 iv • Chapter 5, Classroom Assessment and Documentation, is a new chapter and
Chapter 6, Observation, which used to be the focus of Chapter 5, is now ex-
Preface panded and covered in its own chapter to give sufficient coverage and guide-
lines to each of these important topics and skills. Chapter 6 also explains how
observation strategies are adapted for infants and toddlers, children with dis-
abilities, and English language learners (ELLs).
• New information is presented on the increasing importance of technology in
assessment, such as electronic portfolios and teacher use of social media to
share information on assessment.
• The impact of educational policies such as Common Core State Standards and
early learning standards for very young children and how they support mean-
ingful performance assessment are discussed.
• Updated information on standardized tests includes new tests and the deletion
of some outdated tests.

how to Assess Young Children

Earlier editions of this book were developed in response to the expressed needs
of teachers and graduate students who must understand and use current trends in
assessment and put them into perspective within the reality of public schools that
are required to focus intensively on standardized tests. Fortunately, commercial
publishers of curriculum kits and textbooks for public schools are increasingly in-
cluding performance assessments along with traditional assessments in their guides
for teachers. Portfolios are becoming common as well. Nevertheless, teachers still
need help in maintaining a balance between these new strategies and standardized
testing.
An important factor in the assessment of young children is when and how they
should be measured. This is a controversial issue. The strengths and weaknesses
of each type of assessment presented are discussed, as is research on the problems
surrounding testing and evaluation in early childhood. Because many sources in
the literature and other textbooks do not include the limitations in addition to the
merits of assessment techniques, this text provides an objective perspective on issues
surrounding the efficacy and effectiveness of assessment strategies.

organization
The book is divided into four parts. Part I provides an introduction to assessment
in early childhood in chapters 1 and 2. Part II is devoted to standardized tests and
how they are designed, used, and reported in chapters 3 and 4. Classroom assess-
ments are discussed in part III. Chapter 5 is a new chapter that focuses on classroom
assessment and documentation, while chapter 6 includes expanded information
on observation. Checklists, rating scales, and rubrics are covered in chapter 7, while
teacher-designed strategies and performance-based strategies are described in chap-
ters 8 and 9. Finally, part IV is devoted to the use of assessment systems and how all
the strategies discussed in the chapters leading to part IV can be incorporated into
an assessment system or comprehensive assessment plan. Chapter 10 focuses on
the portfolio as an assessment system or part of an assessment system. Chapter 11
addresses the relationship teachers should have with parents and how a partnership v
can be developed that will best serve the child’s learning and assessment. Included
in the relationship is how children’s progress can be reported to parents and how Preface
parents can contribute to the reporting process.

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the reviewers who provided valuable suggestions and feed-
back for this seventh edition, including Brianne Morettini, Rowan University; Ana
Pratt, University of Minnesota, Duluth; Anne M. Slanina, Slippery Rock University;
and Jill A. Smith, University of Houston, Clear Lake. Their comments were percep-
tive and their suggestions constructive. The reviewers were thoughtful in their ideas
for how the text could be improved.
It is also important to thank the staff at Pearson, who helped in the conceptual-
ization of important revisions as well as in the production process, including Megan
Moffo, program manager; Julie Peters, senior acquisitions editor; Krista Slavicek,
development editor; Mary Beth Finch, project manager; Andrea Hall, editorial assis-
tant; and Valerie Iglar-Mobley, who coordinated production at Integra.
 About the Authors

Sue Clark Wortham is Professor Emerita of Early Childhood and Elementary

Education at the University of Texas at San Antonio. Prior to beginning a teach-
ing career in higher education in 1979, she taught prekindergarten through
second grade in public schools, worked as a school district administrator, and
was a consultant at an education service center.
She has authored numerous texts, including Early Childhood Curriculum:
Developmental Bases for Learning and Teaching (5th ed., 2010), Pearson. She
coauthored Play and Child Development (4th ed., 2012) with Joe Frost and Stuart
Reifel, also published by Pearson. Organizational publications include Childhood
1892–2002, published by the Association for Childhood Education International,
and Playgrounds for Young Children: National Survey and Perspectives, coauthored
with Joe Frost, published by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Educa-
tion, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD).
In 1992, she served as a Fulbright Scholar in Chile. She was president of the
Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) from 1995 to 1997.
Since retirement, she has been very active in the development of the Global
Guidelines for Early Childhood Education and Care that resulted from an inter-
national symposium held in Ruschlikon, Switzerland, in 1999. Subsequently,
she has a leadership role in the development, validation, and implementation
of the ACEI Global Guidelines Assessment adapted from the original guidelines.
She edited Common Characteristics and Unique Qualities in Preschool Programs:
Global Perspectives in Early Childhood Education for Springer in 2013, which report-
ed on the use of the Global Guidelines Assessment in countries around the world.
Dr. Wortham has served as director of educational programs for World
Children’s Relief and Volunteer Organization, a small nongovernmental
organization (NGO), from 2001 to 2011. She engaged in training teachers and
principals in Haiti, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Sierra Leone.

BelINDa J. harDIN is an Associate Professor in the Department of Specialized Edu-

cation Services at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Dr. Hardin
completed her PhD in Early Childhood, Families, and Literacy at the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Prior to entering higher education in 2004,
she was a public school kindergarten and special education teacher, a Head Start
director, and the Director of the Special Projects Division at Chapel Hill Train-
ing-Outreach Project.
Her research includes cross-cultural studies investigating the effectiveness
of services for young children with and without disabilities in the United States
and other countries, particularly in Latin America. She is especially interested
in measures of program quality with global applicability and how they are in-
formed by sociocultural context. She served as the Co-Principal Investigator of
three national studies in the United States that investigated the reliability and
validity of Learning Accomplishment Profile assessment instruments, including

vi
a dual-language sample of 2,099 children (half English speakers and a half Span- vii
ish speakers) to norm the Learning Accomplishment Profile-Diagnostic Edition.
Additionally, Dr. Hardin completed studies investigating the referral, evaluation, about the
and placement of preschool children with disabilities who are English Language authors
Learners and is currently developing a family report questionnaire on preschool
language development in English and Spanish. Dr. Hardin has conducted re-
search and professional development activities with professionals and Spanish-
speaking families in North Carolina, Guatemala, and the Yucatan Peninsula of
Mexico. She was the Co-Principal Investigator of three international studies in-
vestigating the reliability and validity of the ACEI Global Guidelines Assessment
in multiple countries across the world. Dr. Hardin has served on the Board of
Directors for the Association of Childhood Education International and cur-
rently participates in two initiatives spearheaded by UNICEF to improve services
for young children in inclusive early childhood settings worldwide.
 Brief Contents

PReFACe iii
ABoUt the AUthoRS vi

PARt i Introduction to Assessment in Early Childhood

ChAPteR 1 An Overview of Assessment in Early Childhood 1
ChAPteR 2 How Infants and Young Children Should Be
Assessed 2 8

PARt ii Standardized Tests

ChAPteR 3 How Standardized Tests Are Used, Designed,
and Selected 5 4
ChAPteR 4 Using and Reporting Standardized Test Results 81

PARt iii Classroom Assessments

ChAPteR 5 Classroom Assessment and Documentation 1 1 0
ChAPteR 6 Observation 1 2 9
ChAPteR 7 Checklists, Rating Scales, and Rubrics 1 5 9
ChAPteR 8 Teacher-Designed Assessment Strategies 1 8 7
ChAPteR 9 Performance-Based Assessment Strategies 2 1 3

PARt iv Using Assessment Systems

ChAPteR 10 Portfolio Assessment 2 3 7
ChAPteR 11 Communicating with Families 267

GloSSARY 283
index 288

viii
 Contents

PReFACe iii
ABoUt the AUthoRS vi

PARt i Introduction to Assessment in Early

Childhood
ChAPteR 1

An Overview of Assessment in Early

Childhood 1
Understanding the Purposes of Assessment in Infancy and Early
Childhood 1
What Is Assessment? 2
Purposes of Assessment 2
The History of Tests and Measurements in Early Childhood 4
The Child Study Movement 4
Standardized Tests 5
Head Start and the War on Poverty 6
Legislation for Young Children with Disabilities 7
Issues and Trends in Assessment in Early Childhood Education 10
Issues in a New Century: The Accountability Era 11
Concerns about Assessing Infants and Toddlers 13
Concerns about Assessing Young Children in Early Childhood Settings 13
Concerns about Assessing Young Children with Cultural and Language Differences 14
Concerns about Assessing Young Children with Disabilities 16
Trends in a New Century 18
Summary 22

review QueStionS 22

applying what you’ve learned 23

SuggeSted activitieS 23

Key termS 23

Selected organizationS 23

referenceS 23

ix
 x ChAPteR 2
contents
How Infants and Young Children
Should Be Assessed 28
The Principles of Assessment that Should Be Used with Young
Children 29
General Principles for Assessment for All Students 29
Principles of Assessment for Young Children 32
How Infants and Young Children Are Assessed 34
Elements of a Comprehensive System of Assessment for
Children of All Ages 37
Components of an Assessment System for Infants and Toddlers 38
Elements of an Assessment System for Young Children 40
Using Assessment Results for Instruction and to Evaluate the
Instructional Program 43
Using Assessment Results to Plan for Instruction 43
Using Assessment Results to Report Progress 43
Using Assessment Results to Evaluate the Instructional Program 43
Environmental Assessment 44
How the Assessment Process Should Be Implemented During the School
Year with School-Age Children 45
Preassessment 45
Ongoing Assessment 45
Assessment at the End of Instructional Cycles 46
Challenges in Addressing and Assessing for Standards 46
Common Core Standards in Preschool Programs 48
Guidelines for Working with Young Children in an Assessment Setting 49
Summary 50

review QueStionS 50

applying what you’ve learned 51

Key termS 51

Selected organizationS 51

referenceS 51

PARt ii Standardized Tests

ChAPteR 3

How Standardized Tests Are Used,

Designed, and Selected 54
How Standardized Tests Are Used with Infants and Young
Children 55
Types of Standardized Tests 55
Tests for Infants 56
 Tests for Preschool Children 59 xi
Tests for School-Age Children 62
contents
Steps in Standardized Test Design 68
Specifying the Purpose of the Test 68
Determining Test Format 68
Developing Experimental Forms 69
Assembling the Test 69
Standardizing the Test 70
Developing the Test Manual 71
Differences Between Test Validity and Test Reliability 71
Factors that Affect Validity and Reliability 73
Standard Error of Measurement 73
Considerations in Selecting and Evaluating Standardized Tests 74
Summary 76

review QueStionS 77

applying what you’ve learned 77

Key termS 77

Selected organizationS 77

referenceS 77

ChAPteR 4

Using and Reporting Standardized

Test Results 81
Uses of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 82
Distinctions Between Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 82
Uses of Norm-Referenced Tests and Criterion-Referenced Tests with Infants 83
Uses of Norm-Referenced Tests with Preschool Children 84
Uses of Norm-Referenced Tests with School-Age Children 86
Uses of Criterion-Referenced Tests with Preschool Children 87
Uses of Criterion-Referenced Tests with School-Age Children 87
How Standardized Test Scores Are Interpreted 91
The Normal Curve 91
Standard Deviations 92
Percentile Ranks and Stanines 92
Z Scores and T Scores 93
How Standardized Test Results Are Reported 95
Individual Test Record 95
Norm-Referenced Scores 95
Class Reports 96
School and District Reports 97
How Standardized Test Scores Should Be Reported to Parents 98
Sharing Assessment Results with Parents of Children with Disabilities and/or
English Language Learners (ELLs) 99
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Standardized Tests with Young
Children 100
Advantages of Standardized Tests 100
 xii Disadvantages of Standardized Tests 102
Assessment of Students with Disabilities and/or English Language Learners (ELLs) 103
contents Misapplication of Test Results with Young Children 104
Summary 106

review QueStionS 106

applying what you’ve learned 107

Key termS 107

Selected organizationS 107

referenceS 107

PARt iii Classroom Assessments

ChAPteR 5

Classroom Assessment and

Documentation 110
Uses of Classroom Assessment Strategies 111
Placement Evaluation 111
Diagnostic Evaluation and Instructional Planning 112
Formative and Summative Evaluation 112
Advantages of Using Classroom Assessments 112
Disadvantages of Using Classroom Assessments 115
The Role of Documentation 116
The Influence of Reggio Emilia 116
Types of Documentation 118
Narratives 120
Observations of Progress and Performance 121
Child Self-Reflections 121
Results of Work and Play Activities 122
Individual Portfolios 123
Summary 125

review QueStionS 126

applying what you’ve learned 126

Key termS 126

Selected organizationS 127

referenceS 127

ChAPteR 6

Observation 129
Purposes of Observation 129
Understanding Children’s Behavior 130
Evaluating Children’s Development 130
Evaluating Learning Progress 136
 Types of Observation 138 xiii
Anecdotal Record 138
Running Record 139 contents
Time Sampling 142
Event Sampling 144
Checklists and Rating Scales 145
Observations and Technology 147
Benefits and Disadvantages of Using Technology for Observations 147
Observing Development 148
Physical Development 148
Social and Emotional Development 149
Cognitive Development 150
Language Development 152
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Observation for Assessment 153
Observation Guidelines 154
Determining the Observation Site 154
Observer Behaviors During the Observation Visit 154
Ethics During the Observation Visit 155
Avoiding Personal Bias 155
Summary 156

review QueStionS 156

applying what you’ve learned 157

Key termS 157

Selected organizationS 157

referenceS 157

ChAPteR 7

Checklists, Rating Scales,

and Rubrics 159
How Checklists Are Designed and Used with Young Children 160
Using Checklists with Infants, Toddlers, and Preschool Children 160
Using Checklists with School-Age Children 161
Using Checklists to Assess Children with Special Needs 162
How Checklists Are Designed 162
Identification of the Skills to Be Included 162
Separate Listing of Target Behaviors 163
Sequential Organization of the Checklist 164
Record Keeping 164
Checklists and Standards 164
Checklists as a Guide to Understanding Development 166
Checklists as a Guide to Developing Curriculum 166
Checklists as a Guide to Assessing Learning and Development 168
How Teachers Evaluate and Assess with Checklists 168
Evaluating Checklist Objectives by Observation 169
Evaluating Checklist Objectives with Learning Activities 169
Evaluating Checklist Objectives with Specific Tasks 169
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Checklists with Young Children 170
 xiv Advantages of Using Checklists 170
Disadvantages of Using Checklists 170
contents
Types of Rating Scales and How They Are Used with Young Children 171
Types of Rating Scales 171
Uses of Rating Scales 172
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Rating Scales with Young Children 174
Advantages of Using Rating Scales 174
Disadvantages of Using Rating Scales 176
Types of Rubrics and How They Are Designed and Used 177
Types of Rubrics 178
How Rubrics Are Designed and Used 181
Advantages of Using Rubrics 182
Disadvantages of Using Rubrics 182
Developing Quality Checklists, Rating Scales, and Rubrics 183
Checklists 183
Rating Scales 183
Rubrics 183
Consistency in Conducting and Scoring Assessments 184
Summary 184

review QueStionS 185

applying what you’ve learned 185

Key termS 185

Selected organizationS 185

referenceS 185

ChAPteR 8

Teacher-Designed Assessment
Strategies 187
Purposes of Teacher-Designed Assessments and Tests 188
Types of Assessments Used with Preschool and Primary-Grade
Children 190
Developing Quality Teacher-Designed Assessments 194
Concrete Tasks for Preschool 194
Tests for Primary-Grade Children 195
How Tests Are Designed and Used 195
Steps in Test Design 196
Determining Instructional Objectives 196
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Teacher-Designed Assessments 208
Summary 211

review QueStionS 211

applying what you’ve learned 211

Key termS 212

Selected organizationS 212

referenceS 212
ChAPteR 9 xv
Performance-Based Assessment contents

Strategies 213
Understanding Performance Assessment 213
Authentic Learning and Assessment 214
Interrelated Nature of Performance-Based Assessments 215
Purposes for Performance-Based Assessment 217
Types of Performance-Based Assessments 218
Interviews 218
Contracts 219
Directed Assignments 220
Games 221
Work Samples 222
Projects 223
Portfolios 223
Classification and Organization of Performance
Assessments 223
The Role of Observation 224
The Role of Documentation 225
The Role of Rubrics 226
Standards and Performance-Based Assessment 227
Connecting Standards to Authentic Learning 227
Connecting Standards to Performance Assessment 228
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Performance-Based
Assessment 230
Advantages of Using Performance-Based Assessment 230
Disadvantages of Using Performance-Based Assessment 231
Summary 234

review QueStionS 235

applying what you’ve learned 235

Key termS 235

Selected organizationS 235

referenceS 235

PARt iv Using Assessment Systems

ChAPteR 10

Portfolio Assessment 237

Understanding the Need for Alternative Assessment
and Reporting Systems 238
Using Alternative Assessments Appropriately: Limitations of Report Cards 238
Portfolio Assessments 241
Purposes for Portfolio Assessment 241
Types of Portfolios 242
 xvi Organizing Portfolios Using a Developmental Approach 243
Organizing Portfolios Using a Subject-Area Approach 245
contents
Setting Up and Using a Portfolio Assessment System 246
Steps in Getting Started 246
Collecting and Organizing Work 249
Selecting Portfolio Assessments 249
Analyzing Portfolio Assessments 249
Strategies for Developing Quality Portfolios 251
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Portfolios to Report
Student Progress 254
Reporting Progress Using Narrative Reports 256
Using Narrative Reports to Report Student Progress 256
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Narrative Reports 259
Model Assessment and Reporting Systems 260
Project Spectrum 260
The Work Sampling System 261
The Preschool Child Observation Record 262
Teacher-Designed Systems 262
Summary 263

review QueStionS 264

applying what you’ve learned 264

Key termS 264

Selected organizationS 264

referenceS 265

ChAPteR 11

Communicating with
Families 267
Family-Professional Partnerships that Promote Children’s
Development and Learning 268
Strategies for Establishing and Maintaining Family–Professional
Partnerships that Benefit Children 270
Establishing Relationships with Families 270
Using Professional Ethics in School-Family Partnerships 272
Assessment Roles of Families of Children with Disabilities 273
Involving All Parents in the Assessment Process 273
Conducting Effective Parent Conferences 275
Types of Parent Conferences 275
Preparing for Family Conferences 276
Conducting Family Conferences 277
Role of Parents in the Screening and Assessment Process 278
Summary 280

review QueStionS 281

 applying what you’ve learned 281
xvii
Key termS 281
contents
Selected organizationS 281

referenceS 281

GloSSARY 283
index 288
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1

An Overview
of Assessment in
Early Childhood

Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson

Chapter Objectives
As a result of reading this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explain the purposes of assessment in early childhood.
2. Describe the history of tests and measurements in early childhood.
3. Discuss issues and trends in assessing all young children.

Understanding the purposes of assessment

in Infancy and early Childhood
Not too long ago, resources on early childhood assessment were limited to
occasional articles in journals, chapters in textbooks on teaching in early childhood
programs, and a few small textbooks that were used as secondary texts in an early
childhood education course. Very few teacher preparation programs offered a course
devoted to assessment in early childhood. Now, in the 21st century, assessment
of very young children has experienced a period of rapid growth and expansion.
1
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