TECTONICS, VOL. 31, TC3008, doi:10.

1029/2011TC003089, 2012

Kinematic evolution of Andean fold-thrust structures along

the boundary between the Eastern Cordillera and
Middle Magdalena Valley basin, Colombia
Javier Sánchez,1 Brian K. Horton,1,2 Eliseo Tesón,3 Andrés Mora,3 Richard A. Ketcham,1
and Daniel F. Stockli1
Received 21 December 2011; revised 1 March 2012; accepted 20 March 2012; published 17 May 2012.
[1] Surface and subsurface data support a kinematic reconstruction of Cenozoic fold-thrust
deformation along the Eastern Cordillera-Magdalena Valley transition in Colombia. The
La Salina fault (LSF) marks the boundary between west-vergent Eastern Cordillera
structures and hinterland deposits of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. Apatite fission
track and (U-Th)/He thermochronological results for the west-directed LSF reveal initial
hanging wall exhumation during middle Eocene–early Oligocene (45–30 Ma)
shortening, renewed exhumation in the early middle Miocene (18–12 Ma), and
accelerated late Miocene-Pliocene (12–3 Ma) exhumation. Vitrinite reflectance data
suggest maximum burial of 4–6 km, helping constrain Cenozoic basin architecture.
Mapping of the LSF reveals hanging wall Cretaceous–Eocene rocks in a broad
anticline-syncline pair with limited faulting and footwall Eocene–Quaternary basin fill in a
complex series of tight thrust-related folds. Limited displacement along the westernmost
(frontal) thrust suggests that shortening is largely accommodated by east-directed thrusting
within a broader triangle zone of a passive-roof duplex (and probable minor strike-slip
deformation). In the preferred kinematic restoration, the most recent phase of shortening to
transpressional deformation represents out-of-sequence reactivation of the LSF
consistent with irregular crosscutting relationships among footwall structures. Earliest
exhumation by 45–30 Ma in the Eastern Cordillera fold-thrust belt is correlated with
increased sedimentary lithic fragments and high compositional maturity in sandstones of
the adjacent Magdalena Valley basin. Exhumation since 15 Ma coincided with
decreased compositional maturity and elevated accumulation rates for the Real Group.
The compositional provenance shifts are attributed to westward advance of fold-thrust
deformation into the proximal (eastern) segments of the Magdalena Valley basin.
Citation: Sánchez, J., B. K. Horton, E. Tesón, A. Mora, R. A. Ketcham, and D. F. Stockli (2012), Kinematic evolution of
Andean fold-thrust structures along the boundary between the Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley basin, Colombia,
Tectonics, 31, TC3008, doi:10.1029/2011TC003089.

1. Introduction timing and magnitude of exhumation [Shagam et al., 1984;

[2] Although previous efforts have addressed deformation
of the Eastern Cordillera (EC) fold-thrust belt in Colombia,
disagreement persists over potential relationships between
the generation and growth of Andean structures and the
1
Department of Geological Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences,
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.
2
Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of
Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.
3
Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo, Ecopetrol, Bucaramanga,
Colombia.
Corresponding author: B. K. Horton, Department of Geological
Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin,
1 University Station C9000, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
(horton@jsg.utexas.edu)
Copyright 2012 by the American Geophysical Union.
0278-7407/12/2011TC003089
Toro, 1990; Mora et al., 2006; Parra et al., 2009a; Horton
et al., 2010a]. The adjacent hinterland basin to the west, the
Middle Magdalena Valley basin (MMVB), contains an
important record of EC exhumation. Many studies have pro-
posed exhumation scenarios based on sedimentologic, petro-
graphic, and isotopic analyses of basin fill [Gómez et al.,
2005a; Caballero, 2010; Caballero et al., 2010; Nie et al.,
2010, 2012; Moreno et al., 2011; Saylor et al., 2011]. Other
investigations have used field mapping and structural analyses
along the EC-MMVB boundary to establish relationships
between structures and sedimentary units [Acosta et al., 2004;
Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004; Gómez et al., 2005a, 2005b; Sassi
et al., 2007]. More recent approaches have demonstrated the
utility of low-temperature thermochronology of both bedrock
and detrital materials in assessing exhumation of the axial to
easternmost EC [Parra et al., 2009b; Horton et al., 2010b;

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Figure 1. (a) Regional tectonic map of northwestern South America (BSF: Bucaramanga-Santa Marta
fault; PCB: Panama-Choco block). (b) Map of the Colombian Andes showing topography (color shading),
tectonic provinces (WC: Western Cordillera; CC: Central Cordillera; MMVB: Middle Magdalena Valley
basin; EC: Eastern Cordillera) and major structures (AA: Arcabuco anticline; BF: Boyaca fault; BP:
Bogota plateau; GF: Guaycaramo fault; GS: Guaduas syncline; IF: Ibague fault; LB: Llanos basin; LSF:
La Salina fault; NS: Nuevo Mundo syncline; PF: Palestina fault; SeF: Servita fault; SM: Santander massif;
SoF: Soapaga fault; SuF: Suarez fault; U.S.: Usme syncline; VA: Villeta anticlinorium).

Mora et al., 2010a; Moretti et al., 2010; Bande et al., 2012;
Saylor et al., 2012].
[3] Integration of these techniques proves beneficial for
assessing not only structural style, fault timing, and defor-
mation rates, but also evolving basin configuration during
shortening, uplift, and exhumation. For EC fold-thrust
deformation, different workers have interpreted variable
influence of preexisting Mesozoic normal faults [Casero
et al., 1997; Branquet et al., 2002; Kammer and Sánchez,
2006; Mora et al., 2009, 2010b], strike-slip structures
[Acosta et al., 2007; Sassi et al., 2007], and generating
contrasting estimates of 50 km to >200 km of total E-W
shortening [e.g., Dengo and Covey, 1993; Cooper et al.,
1995; Roeder and Chamberlain, 1995; Mora et al., 2006;
Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006]. The EC is also characterized
by thin- and thick-skinned geometries, basement-involved
and basement-detached deformation, and contrasting fold-
thrust vergence with common backthrusting, tectonic wedg-
ing, passive-roof duplexing, and triangle-zone deformation
[Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004; Toro et al., 2004; Mora et al.,
2006, 2010b]. Further critical to understanding construc-
tion of the EC are thermochronological exhumation records
[Parra et al., 2009b; Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009; Mora
et al., 2010a; Saylor et al., 2012] along with results on
the evolving architecture of Cenozoic sedimentary basins
[Corredor, 2003; Gómez et al., 2005a, 2005b; Bayona
et al., 2008; Horton et al., 2010a; Saylor et al., 2011;
Bande et al., 2012].
[4] The purpose of this study is to evaluate the structural
transition in the northern Andes (Figure 1) from the W-
directed thrust system defining the W flank of the EC to the
hinterland fill of the MMVB in order to constrain the kine-
matic evolution of this segment of the fold-thrust belt and its
connection to the exhumation history of the EC. Construc-
tion of sequentially restored structural cross sections, based
on field mapping and interpretation of 2-D seismic data of
the eastern MMVB, help document the evolving geometry
of the fold-thrust belt. The 4300 km2 study area contains
the western foothills of the EC and part of the adjacent
MMVB (Figure 2). A substantial difference in elevation and

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Figure 2. (a) Geological map and (b) generalized Jurassic–Pliocene stratigraphic column for the bound-
ary between the Middle Magdalena Valley basin and Eastern Cordillera at 6–6.5 N (modified from Rolon
[2004]). Map shows location of 2D seismic lines and wells (white dots) used in the study relative to the
main structures (OA: Opon anticline; OS: Opon syncline; CF: Cimitarra fault).

relief between these two provinces defines the trace of the
principal thrust structure, the E-dipping La Salina fault
(LSF) (Figures 1 and 2).
2. Regional Geologic Framework
[5] Tectonic interactions among the South American,
Caribbean, and Nazca plates, including subduction, obduc-
tion, terrane accretion, and modern oblique transpression,
controlled the Cenozoic evolution of the northern Andes (see
Figure S1 in the auxiliary material) [Etayo-Serna et al.,
1983; McCourt et al., 1984; Kellogg, 1984; Duque-Caro,
1990; Trenkamp et al., 2002].1 The northern Andean oro-
gen is composed of three NNE-trending ranges separated by
intermontane hinterland basins (Figure 1a).
[6] 1. The Western Cordillera (WC) contains oceanic
fragments of Pacific affinity accreted to South America dur-
ing the Paleogene [Cooper et al., 1995; Cediel et al., 2003].
These terranes may be derived in part from arc equivalents of
the Antilles Caribbean plateau [Pindell and Tabbutt, 1995;
Spikings et al., 2001, 2005; Mann et al., 2006].
[7] 2. The Central Cordillera (CC), a Mesozoic-Cenozoic
magmatic arc, was affected by latest Cretaceous-Paleogene
1
Auxiliary materials are available in the HTML. doi:10.1029/
2011TC003089.
shortening during accretion of the Western Cordillera.
Studies of provenance, sedimentary facies, and limited
thermochronological data indicate exhumation and positive
topography in the Central Cordillera since latest Cretaceous
time [Gómez et al., 2003; Parra et al., 2009a].
[8] 3. The Eastern Cordillera (EC) is a bivergent fold-
thrust belt about 200 km wide [Dengo and Covey, 1993;
Cooper et al., 1995] that overprints a broad rift system
developed during Jurassic-Cretaceous extension [Sarmiento,
2001; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006]. In the hinterland
between the CC and WC, the Magdalena Valley of Colombia
is a NNE-trending intermontane basin (Figure 1b) subdivided
into the Lower, Middle and Upper Magdalena Valley. The
Middle Magdalena Valley basin (MMVB), the focus of this
study, is bounded to the west by poorly known thrust struc-
tures and the Palestina fault and to the south by the Ibague
right-lateral strike-slip fault [Cediel et al., 2003; Montes
et al., 2003, 2005; Acosta et al., 2007]. The eastern basin
margin is defined by the EC-bounding LSF and, farther
north, the Bucaramanga-Santa Marta left-lateral fault system
bounding the Santander massif (Figure 1).
[9] Basin fill of the MMVB (Figures 2b and 3) consists of
Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous (Berriasian) fluvial clastic/vol-
canic rocks (Girón and Arcabuco-Los Santos Formations),
Lower Cretaceous calcareous and siliciclastic shallow-
marine strata (Basal Lime Group: Cumbre, Rosablanca, Paja,

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Figure 3. Jurassic–Pliocene time-stratigraphic chart showing different lithostratigraphic units of the

study region, including characteristic lithologies and depositional environments. Samples of this study
are displayed relative to the main structures (AA: Arcabuco anticline; BF: Boyaca fault; CA: Cobardes
anticline; LSF: La Salina fault; PF: Palestina fault; SuF: Suarez fault). Stratigraphic data compiled from
Cooper et al. [1995], Sarmiento [2001], Cediel et al. [2003], Bayona et al. [2003, 2008], Rolon [2004],
Gómez et al. [2005a, 2005b], Caballero et al. [2010], and Mora et al. [2010a].

and Tablazo Formations), Albian–Maastrichtian shallow-
to-deep marine strata (Simití and La Luna Formations), and
Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene shallow-marine to nonmarine
siliciclastic rocks (Umir and Lisama Formations) [Villamil,
1999; Rolon, 2004]. In the southern MMVB, coarser facies
in the uppermost Cretaceous-Paleocene succession are asso-
ciated with fluvial to alluvial fan deposition (Cimarrona, Seca,
and Hoyon Formations) [Gómez et al., 2003]. Cenozoic flu-
vial/lacustrine rocks (La Paz, Esmeraldas, Mugrosa, Col-
orado, and Real Formations) deposited during construction
of the CC and EC [Dengo and Covey, 1993; Cooper et al.,
1995; Rolon, 2004; Nie et al., 2010; Moreno et al., 2011;
Horton, 2012] consist of interbedded sandstone, conglom-
erate, and mudstone [Gómez et al., 2003, 2005a]. Without
constraints on paleoelevation through time, the magnitude
of surface uplift associated with basin evolution remains
elusive [e.g., Saylor et al., 2009].
[10] The Magdalena Valley basin has evolved in connec-
tion with the eastward advance of Andean orogenesis that
began in the Late Cretaceous. The MMVB succession con-
sists of an eastward-thickening wedge with 2–10 km of
Mesozoic-Cenozoic strata deposited on Proterozoic to lower
Paleozoic basement [Cediel et al., 2003]. Along the W
margin, a regional angular unconformity recorded a major
period of late Paleocene-early Eocene erosion [Schamel,
1991; Rolon, 2004; Gómez et al., 2003, 2005a; Horton,
2012]. This depositional gap merges with conformable
strata in the eastern part of the basin [Pardo-Trujillo et al.,
2003], recording exhumation due to eastward advance of
deformation from the Central Cordillera to the eastern

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TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA
MMVB (Figure 3). Additional minor unconformities record
the local growth of several structures in the eastern MMVB
[Gómez et al., 2003, 2005a; Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004;
Parra et al., 2012].
3. Structural Geology
3.1. Structural Background
[11] Diverse interpretations of EC structural styles have
resulted in discrepancies on the geometry, kinematic history,
and total shortening of this bivergent orogen. Basement-
involved faulting of several structural highs has been asso-
ciated with inversion of the principal normal faults of a
Mesozoic rift basin, including the main reverse fault systems
along both the W and E margins of the EC [Colletta et al.,
1990; Cooper et al., 1995; Mora et al., 2006, 2008]. Alter-
natively, several detachment levels within the Cretaceous
section support a thin-skinned style of shortening [Dengo
and Covey, 1993; Corredor, 2003; Restrepo-Pace et al.,
2004; Cortés et al., 2006]. Erosion may further influence
the morphology and kinematics of thrust belts [Horton,
1999; Hilley and Strecker, 2004; Mora et al., 2008]. The
competing models differ principally in the geometry and
magnitude of shortening attributed to the various structures
(Figure S2). Dengo and Covey [1993] proposed thin-skinned
Miocene thrusting overprinted by Pliocene basement-
involved faulting, with 150 km of total shortening. In
contrast, others suggest that thin-skinned deformation was a
late Miocene and younger process along the outer flanks of
the EC adjacent to the major reverse-fault inversion struc-
tures, resulting in total shortening of 58 to 105 km
[Colletta et al., 1990; Cooper et al., 1995; Cortés et al.,
2006; Mora et al., 2006, 2010b; E. Tesón et al., Relation-
ship of Mesozoic graben development, stress, shortening
magnitude, and structural style in the Eastern Cordillera of
the Colombian Andes, submitted to Thick-Skin-Dominated
Orogens: From Initial Inversion to Full Accretion, edited by
M. Nemcok, A. Mora, and J. Cosgrove, Geological Society
Special Publication, 2011]. Roeder and Chamberlain [1995]
formulated an extreme end-member model based on litho-
spheric-scale ramp-flat thrusting to obtain 230 km of
shortening.
[12] Along the EC-MMVB boundary, a broad negative
gravity anomaly is associated with crustal thickening in the
EC adjacent to 10 km-thick fill of the MMVB [Toro,
1990]. Additional gravity models for the westernmost EC
show asymmetric anomalies potentially representing a relict
Jurassic basin and basement high along with a more-
complete Cretaceous section linked to possible thrust repe-
tition by the LSF [Dengo and Covey, 1993]. These models
indicate a basement-involved structural style for the W flank
of the EC, which could coexist with a thin-skinned style
where the Cretaceous cover is thicker.
3.2. Methods
[13] Targeted field mapping and documentation of
mesoscale structures (Figures 1 and 2) was performed using
existing geologic maps and radar images with 30 m spatial
resolution. Subsurface structure was assessed through
mapping and construction of cross sections using 49 2-D
seismic reflection profiles and data from 8 wells provided
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TC3008
by Ecopetrol. Key interpreted horizons include Upper
Cretaceous to upper Miocene units, including the Umir,
Lisama, La Paz, Esmeraldas, Mugrosa, Colorado, and Real
Formations.
[14] Four cross sections constructed on seismic profiles
were subjected to time-depth conversions using velocities
provided by check shot logs from wells and root mean
squared (RMS) migration velocities from seismic profiles
(see Table S1 in the auxiliary material). These results were
then integrated with surface data to generate structural sec-
tions. Geometric restoration using line-length balancing
techniques [e.g., Dahlstrom, 1969; Hossack, 1979] and a
fault-parallel flow algorithm [Suppe, 1983] enabled evalua-
tion of several admissible sections in order to obtain the
most appropriate structural model.
3.3. Surface and Subsurface Results
[15] The W-directed LSF separates the MMVB footwall
from the EC hanging wall (Figure 2). Whereas the LSF
footwall is characterized by a complex series of tight fault-
related folds, the hanging wall displays gentler folding and
little surface expression of significant faulting (Figure S3).
The footwall exposes steep (50–80 ) to overturned Cenozoic
strata in the faulted Opon anticline and tightly overturned
Opon syncline, both of which plunge 10 NE. Farther
south, a footwall syncline with a steep E flank (50–70 )
exposes the Paleocene Lisama Formation to upper Miocene
Real Group. The immediate hanging wall consists of the
symmetric De Armas syncline with 30 limbs of Paleocene-
Eocene strata. However, the broader EC is dominated by
a thick Jurassic–Cretaceous section exposed in two large-
wavelength structures. The Los Cobardes and Portones
anticlines, plunging to the south and north, respectively,
show an en echelon relay map pattern (Figure 2) potentially
associated with an inherited rift configuration [Schamel, 1991;
Bayona et al., 2003; Kammer and Sánchez, 2006; Mora
et al., 2006].
[16] Subsurface mapping of the LSF suggests an E-dipping
hanging wall ramp linked to a lower flat beneath the De
Armas syncline (Figure 4). Although seismic resolution is
limited, a deeper ramp is interpreted to cut basement. The
symmetric De Armas syncline is considered the product of
W-flank uplift along the W-directed LSF and E-flank uplift
as part of a fault-bend fold above a deeper flat-ramp geom-
etry, in addition to E-directed backthrusts detached in shal-
low Cretaceous levels (Figure 4).
[17] In the LSF footwall, subsurface data show the tight
Opon syncline flanked by the main strand of the LSF and a
footwall triangle zone (Figure 4a). The triangle zone is
constituted by a W-directed splay of the LSF cut by an E-
directed back thrust that may form the carapace of a broader
passive-roof duplex involving deeper Cretaceous and base-
ment rocks. Additional footwall structures are identified to
the south and west (Figures 2 and 4). To the south, the
oblique, NW-striking, SW-directed Cimitarra fault repre-
sents the southern termination of the tight Opon anticline
and syncline structures. To the west, the buried “frontal”
thrust defines the westernmost W-directed structure in the
MMVB. Both footwall structures appear to exhibit Creta-
ceous detachment levels to the north and ramp geometries to
the south.
TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA TC3008

Figure 4

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[18] Four seismic sections were converted to depth to define
spatial variations in subsurface geometries (Figures 4a, 4b,
S4a, and S4b). The characteristic structures in the area are best
expressed along the two central sections (Figures 4a and 4b).
The main strand of the LSF generally shows 4 dip segments
for the 3 northern sections: an upper segment dipping 35 , a
<10 detachment, a 30 dip through the Cretaceous section,
and a lower 40 dip segment through the pre-Cretaceous
section. In contrast, the southern section shows a simpler listric
geometry revealed by decreasing dip (55 to 30 ) with depth.
3.4. Cross Sections and Restorations
[19] Cross sections constructed from field and subsurface
data (Figures 5a, 5b, S5a, and S5b) show the W-directed
LSF accommodating significant displacement (16–17 km).
From west to east, the principal structures include the frontal
thrust, the LSF system (including the footwall Opon anti-
cline-syncline pair and hanging wall De Armas syncline),
and the broad Los Cobardes and Portones anticlines.
[20] The frontal thrust cuts the Pliocene MMVB section
but displays limited displacement (200–300 m), implying
that creation of significant structural relief and exhumation
of Cretaceous-Cenozoic fill along the MMVB-EC boundary
was accommodated by some other mechanism. Possible
solutions include (1) greater displacement along other buried
W- or E-directed thrusts, (2) a large-scale fault-propagation
fold with shortening by thrust displacement at lower levels
accommodated by folding in upper levels, or (3) a strike-slip
to transpressional flower structure with diminished dis-
placement on the most external splay faults. Our preferred
interpretation based on field and seismic observations is a
passive-roof duplex (or tectonic wedge) system beneath the
LSF, where shortening at depth along the main W-directed
thrust system is taken up by E-directed backthrusting near
the surface. This interpretation consists of two backthrusts:
an upper back thrust (UB) detached in the Oligocene section
and a lower back thrust (LB) in the Upper Cretaceous sec-
tion, with the UB feeding slip into the Opon anticline-syn-
cline pair (Figures 5a and S5a). Nevertheless, we emphasize
that a potentially significant degree of oblique shortening is
possible for selected areas, including cases such as the
transverse NW-striking Cimitarra fault in the LSF footwall
(Figure 2a), which may explain the modest inconsistency in
area conservation (Figure 5b).
[21] The LSF hanging wall consists of a relatively intact
EC block with structural relief substantially higher (by
12 km) than the adjacent MMVB footwall. The De
Armas syncline (AS) is situated between the LSF and E-
directed backthrusts mainly detached in the Upper Creta-
ceous Umir and La Luna Formations. To the east, the
regionally continuous Los Cobardes anticline (CA) shows
modest asymmetry in which its E limb is steeper than the
W limb, possibly suggestive of east vergence.
[22] For the southern cross section (Figure S5b), south-
ward termination of the hanging wall De Armas syncline
(Figure 2) suggests a geometric change in which the LSF
lacks a flat in the Cretaceous section and consists of a ramp
cutting basement. In the footwall, the steep E flank of a
syncline is controlled by a passive-roof duplex; to the west,
the frontal thrust has a limited displacement and generates a
subtle anticline.
[23] The Los Cobardes and Portones anticlines in the LSF
hanging wall are cored by Jurassic rocks, suggesting either a
Jurassic detachment level, which would require substantial
shortening, or basement-involved faulting suggestive of
limited shortening and possible inversion of Mesozoic rift
structures [Cooper et al., 1995; Sarmiento, 2001; Mora et al.,
2006, 2008]. Evidence for inversion includes: (1) coarse-
grained, fault-proximal alluvial-fan and fluvial/lacustrine
facies of the Jurassic Girón Formation [Sarmiento-Rojas
et al., 2006; Kammer and Sánchez, 2006]; (2) a relay
zone between the Los Cobardes and Portones anticlines
potentially due to an inherited en echelon basement rift
configuration; (3) correlation of high topography with
pre-Cretaceous exposures, indicating significant basement
uplift possibly facilitated by reactivation of pre-existing
faults with low frictional resistance [Zhou et al., 2006].
[24] Restoration of four line-length balanced cross sec-
tions (Figures 5 and S5) reveals similar shortening values of
22–31 km (22–28%). Our cross sections suggest approxi-
mately E-W shortening accommodated by W-directed
translation on a forethrust (LSF) and kinematically linked E-
directed backthrusting (LB, UB). This tectonic wedging can
be restored by considering an E-directed back thrust (or roof
thrust) as a passive fault that originates at the upper tip of an
active W-directed fault, creating an intact block bounded by
two oppositely verging faults (Figure 6). This system
evolves with the generation of a second back thrust
(Figure 6d) and finally an out-of-sequence forethrust
(Figure 6f), resulting in a triangle zone geometry. Support
for this interpretation comes from irregular crosscutting
relationships among the LSF, some footwall structures, and
upper Miocene-Quaternary basin fill (Figure 2a), suggesting
out-of-sequence deformation and complex westward
advance of the deformation front.
4. Thermochronology
[25] Recent thermochronological and geochronological
results better define the timing of EC deformation. New fission
track data for apatite (AFT) and zircon (ZFT), and U-Th/He
results for apatite (AHe) and zircon (ZHe) help link exhuma-
tion in the fold-thrust belt to thrusting in the western EC and
proximal (eastern) MMVB. New and published vitrinite
reflectance (Ro) data provide estimates of maximum paleo-
temperature and burial depth that further help constrain the
generation of shortening-related structures in the EC thrust-
belt and MMVB hinterland.
4.1. Methods
[26] New results consist of 20 AFT, 8 AHe, 5 zircon ZHe,
2 ZFT, and 7 Ro analyses across the LSF region. Several

Figure 4. Structural cross sections and corresponding seismic data for (a) N-Opon and (b) S-Opon sections (locations
shown in Figure 2). Sections integrate surface and subsurface information to illustrate the main features: principal fault dis-
placement (16–17 km) along the LSF; minor deformation along the frontal thrust (FT) accommodated by a passive roof
duplex in the LSF footwall; basement-involved deformation; and possible inverted structures (Los Cobardes (CA) and Por-
tones (PA) anticlines) to the east. Strata color scheme matches Figure 2b.

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Figure 5. Restoration of the structural cross sections (Figure 4) for (a) N-Opon and (b) S-Opon sections,
including values of horizontal shortening. The S-Opon section (b) shows an inconsistency in area conser-
vation (pink area) possibly associated with oblique shortening along the transverse Cimitarra fault
(Figure 2a).

samples were analyzed using multiple techniques (Figure 7),
thus enhancing the exhumation record for particular locali-
ties and horizons. Fission track, (U-Th)/He, and Ro analyses
were performed at Apatite to Zircon Inc., the University of
Kansas, and the Ecopetrol, respectively.
[27] AFT and ZFT results were generated using the LA-
ICP-MS method [Donelick et al., 2005], then classified as
single- or multikinetic population based on their individual
grain age distributions according to the chi-square (c2) test:
P[c2] > 5% supports a single population, but a P[c2] < 5%
suggests multiple populations. The age dispersion of a multi-
population sample indicates that the annealing properties of
the grain were not sufficiently homogeneous or there was
differing inheritance. Because pooled ages of multipopulation
samples are not reliable, in such cases, sample grains were
divided into separate populations based on similarities in the
etching parameter Dpar. For each sample, the age of the pop-
ulation passing the c2 test that encompasses the maximum
number of grains is considered to represent the sample age.

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TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA
Figure 6. (a–f) Simple forward model depicting the process
of tectonic wedging, where most shortening is accommo-
dated by passive backthrusts (including possible generation
of passive-roof duplex structures), ending with later develop-
ment of a triangle zone due to out-of-sequence thrusting.
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[28] AHe and ZHe analyses were conducted on 4 grains
per sample and are reported as sample mean ages with 1s
standard deviation. We discarded a small number of analyses
with a relatively low alpha ejection correction (Ft < 0.6)
[Farley et al., 1996] or an age inconsistent with the geo-
logical context or AFT cooling constraints.
[29] Ro analyses on randomly oriented vitrinite (Rorand)
were converted to maximum reflectance values (Romax)
[Zhang and Davis, 1993] then to paleotemperatures [Sweeney
and Burnham, 1990] assuming a normal heating rate of
1 C/Myr. Then, based on a geothermal gradient calculated
from paleotemperature trends, maximum burial depths were
obtained and integrated with thermal modeling and kine-
matic restorations.
[30] Past positions of the partial annealing zone (PAZ) for
AFT and partial retention zone (PRZ) for AHe can be
inferred by comparing cooling and depositional ages, eval-
uating the burial depth based on Ro data, reviewing AFT
track-length variations and age distributions relative to
stratigraphic position [Brandon et al., 1998; O’Sullivan and
Wallace, 2002], as well as thermal modeling [Ketcham et al.,
2007]. It is possible to identify: (1) thermally reset samples
(maximum temperature exceeding the total annealing or
diffusion temperature for AFT or AHe, respectively), which
record the last major exhumation event from beneath the
PAZ or PRZ; (2) partially reset samples (slightly cooler or
equal to the total annealing or diffusion temperature), which
are most informative for thermal history inversion modeling;
and (3) non-reset samples (cooler than the lower temperature
boundaries of the PAZ or PRZ), which reflect detrital
provenance and/or sediment source information.
[31] To establish exhumation patterns, 8 samples were
modeled with the AFT annealing model of Ketcham et al.
[2007], AHe diffusivity model of Flowers et al. [2009],
and ZHe diffusion parameters of Reiners et al. [2004] using
HeFTy software [Ketcham, 2005]. Model results enable us
to interpret the ages provided by the partially reset samples
and develop a thermal history that integrates different ther-
mochronometers and Ro data.
4.2. Results
4.2.1. Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro)
[32] LSF hanging wall samples from Lower Cretaceous–
Paleocene units show increased Ro index, maximum paleo-
temperature, and burial depth with lower stratigraphic positions.
The geothermal gradient calculated for hanging wall units
(Lisama, Umir, La Luna) is 30 C/km, with paleotemperatures
of 120–200 C and maximum burial depths of 4–6 km. A
Lower Cretaceous (Paja Formation) sample departs consid-
erably from Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene samples, suggest-
ing the sample may have been in a different block that
underwent less burial. Ro data from MMVB well samples of
Eocene La Paz to Miocene Colorado in the LSF footwall
enable calculation of a paleotemperature of 50–115 C, a
geothermal gradient of 25 C/km (using the linear paleo-
temperature:thickness relationship); and maximum burial
depth of 1.2–3.7 km (Table S2 and Figure S6).
4.2.2. Low-Temperature Thermochronology
[33] LSF hanging wall samples generally show cooling
ages significantly younger than depositional ages (Figure 8
and Tables 1, 2, and 3), indicating fully reset samples situ-
ated beneath the isotherms of total annealing and total
TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA TC3008

Figure 7. Geologic map showing location of thermochronological and vitrinite reflectance samples
along the boundary between the Middle Magdalena Valley basin and Eastern Cordillera. Enlarged map
area shows color- and symbol-coded samples for vitrinite, and AHe and ZHe thermochronology, and sand-
stone petrography.

diffusion (for AFT and AHe, respectively) prior to cooling.
Six samples (15, 14, QA-05-19, 28, 29, 30) have AFT ages
between 20 and 5 Ma, which can be associated with one or
more Neogene cooling episodes. One sample (31) from the
base of the Eocene La Paz Formation shows a cooling age of
35 Ma close to the depositional age. This indicates a par-
tially reset AFT age and a PAZ in the hanging wall, con-
sistent with Ro data for a sample (27) at this level indicating
a maximum paleotemperature of 110 C. This suggestion
of an early cooling event may be explored with thermal
modeling. Overall, hanging wall cooling ages reported by
AFT and AHe are relatively close to each other (2–8 Myr
age difference), implying relatively rapid cooling.
[34] LSF footwall samples (17, 18) show AFT cooling ages
for the Eocene Esmeraldas and Oligocene Mugrosa Forma-
tions close to depositional ages (Figure 8 and Table 1), sug-
gesting these samples may be partially reset and represent a
PAZ. Six samples (16, 20, 22, 23, 24, 26) for the overlying
section (Colorado, Real, and Mesa) show ages older than
depositional ages, consistent with non-reset samples. Accor-
ding to the Ro paleotemperatures, the PAZ for AFT should
be in the Oligocene-Eocene section. AHe cooling ages of
footwall samples appear younger than depositional ages
below the middle Real Group, providing evidence of <6 Ma
cooling, consistent with the hanging wall cooling record.
AHe cooling ages above the middle Real approach deposi-
tional ages, which may indicate a PRZ in the Real Group
situated above the footwall PAZ.
[35] The high dispersion of the Miocene Real Dpar values
(Figure 8) could indicate more than one source for apatite
grains. Beneath the Miocene section, Dpar values are gener-
ally smaller, indicating a possible difference in source rock.
Fast and slow annealing apatites (≤1.75 mm and ≥1.75 mm,
respectively) within the Upper Cretaceous–Oligocene section
may cause the dispersion in AFT ages; thus, thermal model-
ing is required to better constrain cooling. AFT mean track

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TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA TC3008

Figure 8. Plot of AHe ages, AFT ages, and corresponding Dpar and track length data according to strati-
graphic level in the footwall and hanging wall of the La Salina fault (LSF). The relationships between
depositional ages (dotted line) and thermochronometer ages suggest a possible partial annealing zone
(PAZ) for AFT in both blocks and a partial retention zone (PRZ) for AHe in the footwall. Elevated Dpar
values in the Miocene section may indicate a different provenance (see text for details). Mean track length
data show an upsection increase in the footwall, consistent with interpretation of a basal PAZ.

lengths increase upsection, consistent with a transition from a
PAZ in the Oligocene-Eocene section to an overlying non-
reset interval.
[36] ZHe results for the LSF hanging wall reveal cooling
ages significantly older than depositional ages, indicating
these are non-reset samples bearing detrital ages (Figure 9
and Table 3). Similarly, Ro values show maximum paleo-
temperatures less than ZHe closure temperatures (180 C)
and ZFT data (sample 112) show cooling ages older than
depositional ages (Table S3). Results for a Jurassic sand-
stone (sample 114) with poor apatite recovery tentatively
suggest an AFT cooling age of 6.7  1.6 Ma for the
Cobardes anticline (Table 1).
4.2.3. Thermal Modeling
[37] Four samples from the LSF hanging wall were modeled
integrating AFT results (ages, track lengths, Dpar values),
AHe, ZHe, and Ro information, according to the available data
for each sample. Additional geological constraints include the
sample’s depositional age, stratigraphic burial record (which
delimits the heating rate, normally 1–5 C/Myr), a broad pre-
depositional history guided by the ZHe cooling age, and
present surface temperature of 20 C (Figure 10 and Table S4).
[38] Among hanging wall samples, Upper Cretaceous Umir
Formation sample 14 (Figure 10a) indicates exhumation from
depths below the AFT total annealing isotherm. This reset
sample shows initial cooling at 12–6 Ma and rapid cooling of
13–25 C/Myr. Umir sample 28 (Figure 10b) shows an onset of
exhumation at 15–7 Ma and a cooling rate of 8–17 C/Myr.
Paleocene Lisama sample 29 (Figure 10d) from the E flank of
the De Armas syncline indicates a reset AFT sample with 23–
8 Ma cooling at 5–12 C/Myr. A possibly partially reset
Paleocene Lisama sample 31 (Figure 10c) from the W flank of
the De Armas syncline shows initial AFT cooling at 43–35 Ma
and slow cooling of 2–3 C/Myr.
[39] Among footwall samples, Oligocene Mugrosa sam-
ple 17 (Figure 10e) from the E flank of the Opon syncline
was exhumed from depths above the AFT total annealing
isotherm; this partially reset sample records initial cooling
at 18–10 Ma at a rate of 5–8 C/Myr. Eocene Esmeraldas
Formation sample 18 (Figure 10f) along the W flank of the
Opon syncline is partially reset and shows 11–3 Ma cooling
at 6–20 C/Myr. Miocene Colorado sample 20 (Figure 10h)
from the W flank of the faulted Opon anticline indicates
slow cooling with possible earliest cooling constrained to
16–3 Ma at a rate of 3–16 C/Myr. Results from Miocene
Colorado sample 26 (Figure 10g), from a different fault
block (W flank of Opon syncline) than sample 20, indicate

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 TC3008

Table 1. Results for Apatite Fission Track (AFT) Thermochronology Analyzed With Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)a
Pooled Age
Area LAICPMS Track After
Number Stratigraphic Analyzed Fission Mean Constraining
d
of Longitude Latitude Elevation Age Dparb Dperc Ns (W) S (PW)e 1s S(PW) Track Length Dpar
43 238
Sample Grains ( W) ( N) (m) Unit (Ma) (mm) (mm) (tracks) (cm2) (cm2) (cm2) x MSf 1sx MS Ca U P(g2)g Age(Ma) (mm) Populationsh

24 40 73.9371 6.3927 143 lower Mesa 4–5 2.31 0.64 202 1.09E-03 8.23E-01 2.64E-02 170,003 0.3161 3.34E+02 2.64E+02 0 20.8+/ 1.7 13.82 22.5+/ 6.1
16 40 73.8121 6.4605 314 middle Real 7–10 2.4 0.65 264 7.90E-04 4.74E-01 1.28E-02 159,333 0.3 2.60E+02 1.06E+02 0.0001 44.2+/ 3.1 12.04 48.9+/ 4.3
22 40 73.9218 6.3817 202 middle Real 7–10 2.25 0.62 463 1.34E-03 1.13E+00 3.24E-02 166,259 0.3104 3.06E+02 1.61E+03 0 34.1+/ 2.0 13.38 35.9+/ 2.2
23 40 73.9248 6.3813 195 middle Real 7–10 2.77 0.86 198 1.37E-03 8.47E-01 2.12E-02 168,131 0.3132 2.90E+02 1.66E+02 0 19.6+/ 1.5 14.23 13.8+/ 1.9
26 37 73.841818 6.451608 177 upper Colorado 15–17 1.74 0.41 110 4.70E-04 3.71E-01 1.03E-02 172,471 0.3431 8.52E+01 2.27E+01 0.0057 25.5+/ 2.6 13.53 25.4+/ 2.9
18 20 73.885163 6.384694 134 upper Esmeralda 30–33 1.76 0.39 62 1.95E-04 1.70E-01 4.71E-03 162,375 0.3046 2.60E+02 1.85E+02 0.7072 29.5+/ 3.9 11.28 29.5+/ 3.9
20 38 73.898721 6.383939 239 upper Colorado 15–17 1.91 0.42 381 4.24E-04 7.44E-01 1.45E-02 164,294 0.3075 2.79E+02 2.22E+02 0 41.9+/ 2.4 11.95 41.8+/ 7.9
17 39 73.864651 6.369856 393 lower Mugrosa 29–30 2.38 0.71 47 4.31E-04 1.36E-01 2.66E-03 161,018 0.3026 2.44E+02 3.50E+03 0.3129 27.8+/ 4.1 11.66 27.8+/ 4.1
29 39 73.784065 6.382611 1105 middle Lisama 57–60 1.57 0.51 71 5.72E-04 6.46E-01 1.99E-02 175,025 0.3486 1.16E+02 1.58E+03 0 9.61+/ 1.19 13.31 8.82+/ 1.23
30 40 73.789809 6.375733 1146 lower La Paz? 40–45 1.91 0.5 216 9.92E-04 9.09E-01 2.46E-02 176,227 0.3512 9.54E+01 2.57E+01 0.0007 20.9+/ 1.6 13.48 13.4+/ 1.7
31 40 73.859758 6.356064 650 upper Lisama? 40–45 2.16 0.6 154 1.21E-03 3.41E-01 5.99E-03 177,308 0.3536 1.19E+02 2.07E+01 0.1683 39.9+/ 3.4 11.8 39.9+/ 3.4
28 40 73.751994 6.400875 692 middle Umir 65–79 1.81 0.54 50 9.62E-04 3.24E-01 6.35E-03 173,823 0.346 9.45E+01 2.31E+01 0.5695 13.4+/ 1.9 13.96 13.4+/ 1.9
14 36 73.79371 6.250189 980 middle Umir 65–79 1.85 0.42 63 6.72E-04 9.03E-01 2.19E-02 156,245 0.2954 2.27E+02 7.72E+01 0.8163 5.45+/ 0.71 13.41 5.45+/ 0.71

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QA-05-19 20 73 47′24.01 6 19′40.65 775 upper Umir 65–79 1.92 170 Published in Mora et al. [2010a] Published in Mora et al. 3.05E+01 14.1+/ 1.2 9.6 14.1+/ 1.2
[2010a]
15 25 73.761825 6.288113 631 middle Umir 69–73 1.73 0.49 8 9.22E-05 1.03E-01 4.38E-03 157,438 0.2972 2.13E+02 4.39E+01 1 6.12+/ 2.18 11.44 6.12+/ 2.18
27 3 73.826943 6.459811 189 lower Real 12–15 1.84 0.3 4 2.67E-05 2.39E-02 1.85E-03 173,177 0.3446 7.96E+01 6.64E+00 0.1707 14.4+/ 7.3 12.65 14.4+/ 7.3
13 1 73.862898 6.410917 161 middle Colorado 17–20 0 0 0 9.60E-06 2.15E-03 2.15E-04 155,332 0.294 1.65E+02 5.19E+00 n.a. 0.000+/ 53.699
21 2 73.906866 6.381971 1105 lower Real 15-Dec 1.92 0.43 2 1.47E-05 8.05E-03 6.78E-04 165,277 0.309 2.33E+02 1.77E+01 0.7856 20.5+/ 14.6 20.5+/ 14.6
19 5 73.901145 6.379346 980 upper Colorado 17–20 1.81 0.35 4 3.01E-05 3.48E-02 2.38E-03 163,241 0.3059 1.91E+02 1.61E+02 0.2312 9.37+/ 4.73 11.96 9.37+/ 4.73
25 1 73.873419 6.413896 153 middle Mugrosa 26–29 1.71 0.71 6 9.71E-06 3.84E-02 3.84E-03 171,885 0.3418 7.48E+01 5.02E-01 n.a. 13.4+/ 5.6 13.4
114 2 73.487076 6.272908 2043 Arcabuco/Giron 140–150 1.74 0.47 19 1.94E-05 2.01E-02 1.99E-04 0.029 6.7+/ 1.6 11.65 6.7+/ 1.6
a
All errors are 1s.
b
Dpar = mean maximum diameter of fission track etch figures parallel to the crystallographic c axis.
c
Dper = mean maximum diameter of fission track etch figures perpendicular to the crystallographic c axis.
d
Ns = number of spontaneous fission tracks counted over area W (area analyzed).
e
S(PW) = Sum of PW for all grains evaluated; P = (238U/43Ca) for an apatite grain; W = area over which NS and P are evaluated.
f
x MS = calibration factor based on LA-ICP-MS of fission track age standards.
SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA

g
Chi-square probability P(c2) > 5% are considered to represent a single population of ages.
h
Ages after dividing age population, in the cases of samples with P(c2) < 5%, using Dpar parameter.
TC3008
TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA TC3008

Table 2. Results for (U-Th)/He in Apatite (AHe) Thermochronology

Longitude Latitude Elevation Stratigraphic Age 8% U Th Sm He Mass
Sample ( W) ( N) (m) Unit Age (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Th/U (ncc/mg) (mg) Fta
24 73.937143 6.39265 143 lower Mesa 4–5 5.2 0.3 9.6 24.9 61.7 2.6 0.26 1 0.57
5.3 0.3 8.2 15.4 57 1.9 0.24 2.5 0.68
6.8 0.9 17.4 81.1 57.7 4.7 0.8 2.1 0.64
8 0.5 6.6 15.5 57.5 2.4 0.32 2.8 0.69
16 73.812135 6.46049 314 middle Real 7–10 4.5 0.3 15.7 24.3 36.9 1.6 0.36 2.5 0.68
4.6 0.3 20.8 28 49 1.3 0.46 2.1 0.67
4.3 0.3 22.9 58.8 79.4 2.6 0.62 5.2 0.71
2 0.1 2.5 11.5 62 4.6 0.05 6.2 0.75
22 73.92178 6.381677 202 middle Real 7–10 10.4 1.9 124.9 1.9 108.4 0 6.15 8.8 0.8
9.3 0.6 3.8 2.6 25.4 0.7 0.16 2.6 0.7
9.9 0.6 6.6 2.7 18.5 0.4 0.27 2.3 0.69
6.3 0.4 3.5 4.5 60.2 1.3 0.12 2.6 0.67
23 73.924817 6.381271 195 middle Real 7–10 9.5 0.6 6.5 11.9 35.2 1.8 0.3 1.3 0.61
9.3 0.6 4.5 7 57.1 1.6 0.21 1.5 0.62
9.3 0.6 9.7 14.7 31.6 1.5 0.45 2.6 0.67
5.9 0.4 6.6 9.9 26.3 1.5 0.19 1.9 0.66
18 73.885163 6.384694 134 upper Esmeralda 30–33 n/a n/a 0.5 2 0.7 4.4 150.4 2 0.63
3.1 0.2 23.5 119 202.5 5.1 0.59 2.5 0.67
3.4 13.3 13.1 50.3 162.5 3.9 0.74 5.4 0.75
3.3 0.2 14.5 76.3 148 5.3 0.39 1.9 0.64
17 73.864651 6.369856 393 lower Mugrosa 29–30 4.9 0.3 3.3 15.2 37.7 4.6 0.12 1.6 0.63
2.1 0.1 12.8 51.2 37.9 4 0.17 1.2 0.59
9.9 0.6 4 17.8 82.9 4.4 0.32 2.8 0.68
5.4 0.3 3.8 20.1 64.5 5.2 0.18 2.7 0.68
29 73.784065 6.382611 1105 middle Lisama 57–60 8 0.5 12.7 20 137.3 1.6 0.48 1.2 0.59
6.6 0.4 14.9 35.6 64.3 2.4 0.56 2.5 0.67
7.1 0.4 5 7.6 27.5 1.5 0.18 2.1 0.66
6 0.4 6.3 22 83.9 3.5 0.26 2 0.65
30 73.789809 6.375733 1146 lower La Paz? 40–45 6.2 0.4 5.1 14.2 37.2 2.8 0.19 2.2 0.66
5.2 0.3 2.1 3.3 26.2 1.5 0.07 6.9 0.77
5.3 0.3 59.6 90 43 1.5 1.6 2.8 0.68
5.1 0.3 16 34.4 47.5 2.2 0.47 3.6 0.7
a
Alpha ejection correction [Farley, 2000].

insufficient burial to reach the lower isotherm of the AFT
PAZ and show poorly constrained cooling below 60 C.
5. Sandstone Petrography
[40] Detrital modal signatures are largely a function of the
tectonic setting of sediment source regions [Dickinson and
Suczek, 1979; Ingersoll et al., 1984; Garzanti et al., 2007].
Secondary factors include climate, relief, transport mecha-
nism, depositional environment, diagenesis, and drainage
size [Folk, 1980; Ingersoll et al., 1993]. Both the W and E
flanks of the MMVB were established as major sources of
sediment [Gómez et al., 2005a; Caballero, 2010; Caballero
et al., 2010; Moreno et al., 2011]. The western source is the

Table 3. Results for (U-Th)/He in Zircon (ZHe) Thermochronology

Longitude Latitude Elevation Stratigraphic Age 8% U Th Sm He Mass
Sample ( W) ( N) (m) Unit Age (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Th/U (ncc/mg) (mg) Ft
29 73.784065 6.382611 1105 middle Lisama 57–60 2.2 0.2 5737.6 4027 1675.7 0.7 56.79 3.3 0.73
94.9 7.6 139.6 53.9 0.8 0.4 53 1.7 0.68
64.3 5.1 90.8 30.5 1.6 0.3 23.58 2.1 0.69
62.2 5 75.1 7.9 0.1 0.1 18.63 2.7 0.72
30 73.789809 6.375733 1146 lower La Paz? 40–45 38.3 3.1 547.5 149.9 0.5 0.3 94.99 6.5 0.79
24.2 1.9 424.4 113.5 0.7 0.3 47.05 8.3 0.8
84 6.7 221.9 75.2 0.6 0.3 82.91 4.8 0.76
51.9 4.2 80.2 50.4 1.4 0.6 19.81 6 0.77
31 73.859758 6.356064 650 upper Lisama? 40–45 472.1 37.8 16.3 10 0.4 0.6 42.37 30 0.86
78.4 6.3 108.9 36.3 0.6 0.3 43.11 29.3 0.86
91.8 7.3 81.6 28.5 0.5 0.4 38.74 42.3 0.88
46 3.7 137.7 47.9 0.8 0.3 31.73 25.1 0.86
28 73.751994 6.400875 692 middle Umir 65–79 192.8 15.4 359.9 160.8 8 0.4 297.69 3.1 0.71
61.5 4.9 179.5 80.9 5.5 0.5 50.64 6.1 0.77
198.1 15.9 205 92.1 5.1 0.4 188.23 5.4 0.77
18.4 1.5 215.3 107 5.2 0.5 18 4.9 0.76
14 73.79371 6.250189 980 middle Umir 65–79 195.5 15.6 54.5 25.3 2.4 0.5 52.73 12.8 0.82
488 39 103.5 50 0.8 0.5 251.62 8 0.8
352.1 28.2 85.7 42.6 3.1 0.5 151.33 13 0.81
175.5 14 157.2 28 0.7 0.2 126.5 9.5 0.81

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TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA TC3008

Figure 9. (a) Topographic profile, (b) structural cross section, and (c) thermochronological transect
showing AHe, ZHe, AFT, and ZFT results and vitrinite reflectance (Ro) data (profile and sample locations
shown in Figures 2, 4a, and 7). Clustering of thermochronometer ages and their relationship to deposi-
tional ages (black line) show that AFT samples are reset in the LSF hanging wall and possibly partially
reset in most of the footwall, AHe ages are generally reset in the footwall but possibly partially reset in
the west (upper Real Group, Mesa Formation), and ZHe and ZFT ages are not reset and therefore represent
detrital ages.

CC, a range constructed since the Late Cretaceous [Villamil,
1999; Gómez et al., 2005b] with magmatic arc character-
istics and minor metamorphic assemblages [McCourt et al.,
1984]. Significant proportions of volcanic and possibly
metamorphic (mainly schist and metapelite) fragments are
expected in sediment from the CC. Any sedimentary cover in
the CC (up to 7–13 km) was likely eroded during Paleocene-
early Eocene time [Gómez et al., 2005a]. In contrast, the
eastern source area is the EC fold-thrust belt initially con-
structed during middle-late Eocene to early Oligocene
shortening [Nie et al., 2010], potentially supplying recycled
sedimentary material from an extensive Mesozoic basin
system [Caballero, 2010; Caballero et al., 2010; Moreno et al.,
2011]. Basement highs in the MMVB (La Cira-Infantas
high) and EC (Santander massif) could also be important
sources of metamorphic fragments (schist, quarzite, gneiss).
Our provenance study aims to evaluate detrital signals that
indicate the initiation of EC-derived sedimentation and rel-
ative contribution from EC and CC sources.
5.1. Methods
[41] Standard petrographic thin sections were prepared
from 34 medium-grained Cenozoic sandstone samples col-
lected mainly from the LSF footwall (Figure 7). Each thin
section was injected with blue dye and stained for plagio-
clase and potassium feldspar. Modal compositional data
were collected following the Gazzi-Dickinson method
[Ingersoll et al., 1984] in which at least 450 points per thin
section were counted. Matrix was not counted and an
attempt was made to distinguish the original mineral from
authigenic minerals. Possible diagenetic loss of feldspar is
difficult to assess and cannot be reliably evaluated with this

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Figure 10. HeFTy thermal modeling results incorporating AFT, Ro, and AHe data for samples from the
La Salina fault system. Hanging wall samples: (a, b, c) E flank of the De Armas syncline; (d) W flank of the
De Armas syncline. Footwall samples: (e) E flank of the Opon syncline; (f, h) W flank of the Opon syncline;
(g) W flank of the Opon anticline. Modeled time-temperature paths must pass through and connect succes-
sive time-temperatures constraints (boxes) with alphanumeric labels depicting the number of times each
path segment was halved to allow variations in heating or cooling rate (1–4) and the degree of change in
rates (G: gradual; I: intermediate; E: episodic). The inversion model for each sample shows the best fit solu-
tion (black line) and portions of time-temperature paths yielding “good” (purple) and “acceptable” (green)
fits. In addition, other parameters and outputs of the model are shown: measured and modeled AFT age,
track-length, AHe age and Ro% values, number of AFT ages and lengths, goodness of fit (GOF) between
measured and modeled data [Ketcham, 2005], and the age of the oldest fission track not fully annealed.

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TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA
Table 4. Sandstone Point Count Parametersa
Ternary Plot Variable 1
Q-F-Lf Q = Qm + Qp + Qpt
Qt-F-L Qt = Qm + Qp + Qpt + C
Qm-F-Lt Qm
Lm-Lv-Ls Lm
a
Q (quartz), Qm (monocrystalline quartz), Qp (polycrystalline quartz), Qpt (polycrystalline quartz with tectonic fabric), Qt (total quartz), F (feldspar),
P (plagioclase felspar), K (potassium feldpar), L (lithic fragments), Lv (volcanic lithic fragments), Lvf (felsic volcanic grains), Lvl (lathwork and vitric
volcanic grains), Lm (metamorphic lithic fragments), Ls (sedimentary lithic fragments), Lsh (shale/mudrock grains), C (chert grains), Lt (total lithic
fragments).
method [Milliken, 1988]. Petrographic counting parameters
defined for this study (Table 4) were used to generate the
modal point-count data (Table S5). Using compositional
data, the sandstone classifications and provenance interpreta-
tions for each unit were based on various ternary diagrams,
including Q-F-Lf [Folk, 1980] along with Qt-F-L and Qm-F-
Lt plots [Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Dickinson et al., 1983;
Garzanti et al., 2007].
5.2. Results
[42] The Eocene La Paz Formation (4 samples) contains
an average composition of Q73F12Lf15 (Figure 11a), defin-
ing a feldspathic litharenite to sublitharenite composition
[Folk, 1980]. Total lithic fragments (Lt)—defined as the
sum of metamorphic (Lm), volcanic (Lv), and sedimentary
(Ls) lithic fragments—show limited variations. La Paz
sandstones from the LSF hanging wall (Lm27Lv70Ls3)
display higher proportions of Lv to Lm relative to the
footwall (Lm48Lv41Ls11). Compositional proportions accor-
ding to Dickinson and Suczek [1979] are Qt73F11L16 and
Qm60F12Lt28.
[43] The upper Eocene-lower Oligocene Esmeraldas For-
mation (4 samples) has an average composition of Q79F9Lf12
(with mean values of Qt77F9L14 and Qm68F9Lt23), which
straddles the subarkose, lithic arkose, and sublitharenite
fields (Figure 11a). The proportion of Lm varies from the
northern (Lm71Lv23Ls6) to southern footwall (Lm85Lv10Ls5),
but remains uniformly higher than the La Paz Formation.
[44] The Oligocene Mugrosa Formation (5 samples) has a
sublitharenite average composition of Q88F4Lf8, with mean
values of Qt88F4L8 and Qm77F4Lt19 (Figure 11a). The amount
of feldspar in this unit is very low (Qm95P2K3). Relative to
underlying units, the Mugrosa also has a higher proportion of
polycrystalline quartz (Qp) and Ls (60% of Lt). However,
an internal shift is expressed between the lower Mugrosa
(Lm6Lv15Ls79) and middle Mugrosa (Lm56Lv12Ls32).
[45] The lower-middle Miocene Colorado Formation
(10 samples) shows subarkose and sublitharenite compositions
with mean values of Q80F6Lf14, Qt80F6L14, and Qm76F6Lt22
(Figure 11a). Whereas Ls is abundant (Lm2Lv31Ls67) in the
LSF footwall syncline, samples farther west show higher
Lm in lower levels (Lm64Lv8Ls28) with greater Ls in upper
levels (Lm2Lv34Ls64). Mudstones and siltstones dominate the
Ls fraction, and there is a notable presence of foraminiferal
Ls in some lower Miocene Colorado and upper Miocene
Real samples.
[46] The upper Miocene Real Group (9 samples) consists
of litharenites and feldspathic litharenites, with mean values
of Q55F8Lf36, Qt55F8L37, and Qm45F8Lt47 (Figure 11a).
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Variable 2 Variable 3
F = P + K + Lvf Lf = Lvl + Lm + Lsh + C [Folk, 1980]
F=P+K L = Lvf + Lvl + Lm + Lsh
F=P+K Lt = Lvf + Lvl + Lm + Lsh + C + Qp + Qpt
Lv = Lvf + Lvl Ls = Lsh + C
Relative to underlying units, the Real Group shows a sharp
decrease in quartz accompanied by increased Lt, with similar
proportions of metamorphic, volcanic, and sedimentary
fragments (Lm33Lv34Ls33). Most Real samples, especially
in upper levels, are rich in amphibole. All samples show
similar amounts of Qp, which is slightly lower than under-
lying units.
[47] Samples of the Pliocene Mesa Formation (2 samples)
are feldspathic litharenites with mean values of Q41F25Lf34,
Qt41F23L36, and Qm33F23Lt44 (Figure 11a). This unit shows
particularly high proportions of feldspar, dominantly plagio-
clase (Qm59P33K8), and volcanic fragments (Lm12Lv69Ls19).
5.3. Interpretation
[48] Sandstone compositional data presented in ternary
diagrams (Figure 11) and a stratigraphic profile (Figure 12)
show compositional changes associated with Cenozoic shifts
in provenance.
[49] 1. A marked increase in Ls in the uppermost Esmer-
aldas and Mugrosa Formations can be related to initial or
enhanced sediment supply from the EC. This shift suggests
that relative uplift of the EC was underway by late Eocene-
early Oligocene time. The low amount of Ls in the underly-
ing lower-middle Esmeraldas and La Paz suggests limited
contributions from sedimentary sources during early middle
Eocene sedimentation, consistent with crystalline (igneous/
metamorphic) CC sources and/or sporadic supply from
MMVB basement blocks such as the La Cira high [Moreno
et al., 2011]. Foraminiferal fragments in lower Miocene
Colorado and upper Miocene Real samples indicate unroof-
ing of marine Cretaceous rocks of the EC, likely during LSF
motion.
[50] 2. Increased compositional maturity in the Oligocene
Mugrosa and lower-middle Miocene Colorado Formations
may represent sediment recycling from the EC, with attri-
tion of unstable lithic fragments and feldspar. Low pro-
portions of Lv and Lm also may indicate a reduced supply
from the CC or MMVB basement highs concurrent with
increased EC contributions. Increased Ls agrees with facies
relationships and paleocurrent data from the Nuevo Mundo
syncline 90 km to the north [Caballero, 2010; Caballero
et al., 2010; Moreno et al., 2011].
[51] 3. A pronounced decrease in compositional maturity
from the lower-middle Miocene Colorado to upper Miocene
Real Group may indicate increased proximity of the EC
source or recycling of the easternmost MMVB during LSF
motion. A coeval rise in sedimentation rates may further be
associated with enhanced Miocene-Pliocene shortening and
accommodation in the basin due to loading along its margins.
TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA TC3008

[52] 4. The high proportion of Lv and feldspar during the

past 5 Myr suggests a possible renewed volcaniclastic
supply from the CC that overprints the records of earlier EC
and MMVB provenance. This trend agrees with reports of
volcaniclastic sections correlative to this period in the Upper
Magdalena Valley basin [Wellman, 1970; Gómez et al.,
2003].
[53] Overall, Cenozoic units correspond to the recycled
orogen provenance suite according to compositional fields
defined by Dickinson and Suczek [1979] and Dickinson et al.
[1983]. However, the upper Miocene-Pliocene Mesa For-
mation straddles the dissected arc and recycled orogen fields
(Figure 11b and 11c), consistent with derivation from sedi-
mentary and crystalline sources associated with orogenesis.
A volcanic arc provenance attributable to the CC is most
pronounced for the Mesa and Real, but also characterizes the
La Paz, with limited proportions in the Esmeraldas, Mugrosa
and Colorado Formations. Although weathering and dia-
genesis affected sandstone compositions to some degree
by degrading unstable lithic fragments and feldspars (thus
enriching quartz content), we consider the major trends to
reflect changes in provenance due to the evolving composi-
tion of contributing source regions and adjustments in
drainage patterns induced by tectonic processes.

6. Kinematic Restorations
[54] The timing of deformation can be well constrained in
fold-thrust belts when pre-, syn- and post-tectonic strata are
preserved [e.g., Nemcok et al., 2005]. Where absent,

Figure 11. Ternary diagrams depicting the modal sandstone

compositions for 34 sandstone samples: (a) Q-F-Lf [Folk, Figure 12. Plot of major modal sandstone petrographic
1980], (b) Qt-F-L, and (c) Qm-F-Lt [Dickinson et al., 1983]. components according to stratigraphic level.

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TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA
alternative approaches are required. Provenance studies may
reveal changes in rock exposure generated by thrusting [e.g.,
Lonergan and Mange-Rajetzky, 1994; Qayyum et al., 2001;
Nie et al., 2012]. Thermochronological techniques enable
estimates of the timing and duration of deformation [e.g.,
Sinclair and Allen, 1992], with rates of fault displacement
constrained by tracking exhumational cooling paths of
samples over a fault ramp [e.g., Huerta and Rodgers, 2006].
In addition, Ro data help define pre-thrusting temperature
and aid reconstruction of thrust sheet geometry prior to
faulting [e.g., Ohmori et al., 1997].
[55] New structural, thermochronological, and provenance
results of this study offer temporal constraints that make it
possible to reconstruct the evolving configuration of differ-
ent structures and estimated rates of thrusting [e.g.,
McQuarrie et al., 2005; Mora et al., 2008, 2010a, 2010b]. A
sequentially restored cross section integrates the various data
sets and suggests a viable scenario that chronicles shortening
along the EC-MMVB boundary.
6.1. Methods
[56] From our structural restorations (Figures 5 and S5),
we selected a cross section lacking major oblique shortening.
Thermochronological, Ro, and sandstone petrographic data
were projected onto this section (Figure 9) and the restora-
tion was modified to match constraints on paleotemperature
and thrust sequence. Exhumation patterns were defined in
both the footwall and hanging wall of the LSF. Ro data were
used to establish the pre-deformational geometry of the
hanging wall and to calculate overburden thickness. Thermal
modeling was employed to help define the timing and
sequence of thrusting. Sandstone compositions provided
evidence about exhumation of structural blocks, in support
of thermochronological results.
6.2. Results
[57] Exhumation patterns inferred from thermal model-
ing of eight samples (Figure 10) indicate early exhumation
(43–35 Ma) in the LSF hanging wall in the W forelimb of
the De Armas syncline (AS) (Figures 9 and 10c) and an AFT
PAZ situated in the Paleocene section. However, the E
backlimb of the AS (Figures 10b and 10d) shows later
exhumation (15–8 Ma) and deeper burial in which the
Paleocene section was beneath the PAZ. Scarce, low-quality
AFT and ZFT samples for the Los Cobardes anticline (CA)
(Figure 9) show that Jurassic rocks (sample 112) were not
beneath the ZFT closure temperature (250 C). These rela-
tionships may suggest exhumation and initial growth of the
CA by Paleocene-Eocene time, thus precluding a thick
overburden. AFT results for the CA (sample 114) suggest
progressive exhumation and growth of the anticline with the
Jurassic section cooling below the AFT closure temperature
(120 C) at 6.7  1.6 Ma (Figure 9).
[58] LSF footwall exhumation patterns display slight dif-
ferences on the flanks of the Opon syncline (OS) (Figure 9).
Whereas 18–10 Ma cooling affected the Oligocene section
in the E backlimb adjacent to the LSF (Figure 10e), younger
(11–3 Ma) cooling of the upper Eocene section in the fore-
limb indicates shallower burial (Figure 10f). However, the
Miocene section in the OS shows modest cooling that did
not reach the lower temperature of the PAZ (Figures 10g).
The equivalent Miocene section farther west on the W flank
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TC3008
of the Opon anticline, a lower structural block (Figures 10h),
shows deeper burial and initial cooling at 16–3 Ma.
[59] A proposed model (Figure 13) explaining these
exhumation patterns, Ro temperature constraints, and sand-
stone compositional results considers the structural evolution
of the western EC and its link to footwall deformation in the
MMVB. An incrementally restored cross section provides a
sequential eight-stage reconstruction (Figure 13).
[60] 1. Latest Cretaceous (65 Ma). This stage shows the
pre-shortening geometry of a Mesozoic rift basin containing
a >5 km thick Cretaceous succession. A Lower Cretaceous
Ro sample in the east (sample 30) recorded a maximum
burial depth of 6 km, comparable to a 5.4 km depth
recorded by a significantly younger Upper Cretaceous hori-
zon in the west (sample 24). These results suggest a reduced
sedimentary overburden in the east. We infer that the east-
ernmost section represented an elevated block within the rift
system, consistent with regional interpretations for the Late
Cretaceous basin configuration [Cooper et al., 1995;
Villamil, 1999, Gómez et al., 2003; 2005b]. Although direct
evidence of the LSF as an ancestral normal fault is not
observed, a Jurassic-cored hanging wall anticline farther
south (Figure S4b) is associated with an inversion structure.
[61] 2. Paleocene–middle Eocene (65–45 Ma). Limited
shortening of 2 km (2%) is compatible with Ro temperature
estimates for the LSF hanging wall, which help constrain
maximum burial depths of 3–4 km (110–130 C) for the
Paleocene section in the western hanging wall, 4–5 km (160–
180 C) for the Upper Cretaceous section in the central hanging
wall and 5–6 km (180–220 C) for the Lower Cretaceous sec-
tion in the eastern hanging wall. Thermochronological and Ro
data indicate an eroded section about 3.5–4 km thick that
originally capped the Paleocene in the frontal W edge of the
LSF hanging wall.
[62] 3. Middle Eocene-Oligocene (45–30 Ma). Partially
reset AFT results (sample 31; Figure 10c) indicate a possible
middle Eocene-Oligocene onset of cooling, likely controlled
by initial thrust displacement along the LSF, producing rock
uplift in the frontal hanging wall. Additionally, a marked
increase of sedimentary fragments in the Oligocene Mugrosa
Formation suggests major sediment delivery from the EC.
To the east, the Los Cobardes anticline may have been
growing by this time, as suggested by a non-reset ZFT sig-
nature (sample 112), implying insufficient overburden to
induce thermal resetting.
[63] 4. Oligocene–middle Miocene (30–15 Ma). Possible
LSF thrusting and splay faulting could control the differen-
tial exhumation patterns observed in the Opon syncline,
where the W forelimb showed less overburden thickness
during the Oligocene-late Miocene and a late onset of
exhumation (8–3 Ma) for the upper Eocene Esmeraldas
Formation (sample 18; Figure 10f). In contrast, the E back-
limb recorded a greater Oligocene-lower Miocene overbur-
den and an early initiation of exhumation (18–10 Ma) for the
Oligocene Mugrosa Formation (sample 17; Figure 10e).
Greater burial of the E flank of the Opon syncline could be
explained by propagation of a W-vergent LSF splay that
precluded deep burial of the leading edge; however, sedi-
mentation may have exceeded the fault propagation rate
until late Miocene time. Earlier exhumation of the E flank
could be associated with LSF displacement, suggesting that
TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA TC3008

Figure 13. Kinematic restoration depicting Late Cretaceous to Pliocene deformation for the N-Open
section (Figures 4a and 5a), including the sequential activation of various faults (thick red lines) associated
with the La Salina fault (LSF). Results from thermochronological samples (orange dots) and vitrinite reflec-
tance (black dots) provide evidence to constrain deformation timing (see text for details). Approximate time
frames and cumulative shortening values for the different stages are listed in the lower left.

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TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA
the tightly overturned E flank of the Opon syncline may
have been influenced by footwall drag due to LSF thrusting.
[64] 5. Middle–late Miocene (15–10 Ma). An exhumation
difference across the LSF is inferred from a footwall thermal
model of the lower Colorado Formation, which displays
limited burial (60–70 C, presumably reaching the upper
PAZ) (sample 20; Figure 10h), in contrast to the non-reset
(<50 C) hanging wall Colorado (sample 26; Figure 10g).
Growth of the E backlimb of the Opon syncline also
may have occurred by this time (cooling of sample 17;
Figure 10e). In the LSF hanging wall, exhumation of the E
backlimb of the De Armas syncline (samples 28 and 29;
Figures 10b and 10d) may imply E-directed backthrusting
linked to displacement on a deeper W-directed thrust, with
thrust-front propagation accommodated by tectonic wedging
in the Cretaceous section.
[65] 6. Latest Miocene (10–6 Ma). Exhumation (sample
20; Figure 10h) could be associated with an E-directed back
thrust observed in surface mapping and seismic profiles to
affect the Oligocene-Miocene section of the LSF footwall.
This back thrust accommodated westward advance of the
thrust front into the MMVB, causing recycling of the Mio-
cene section on the W flank of the Opon anticline, with
decreased compositional maturity of basin fill.
[66] 7. Latest Miocene-Pliocene (6–3 Ma). Continued
shortening induced exhumation of the Los Cobardes anti-
cline in the easternmost hanging wall at 6 Ma (AFT age for
sample 114). Cooling also continued in the LSF hanging
wall (sample 14 at 12–6 Ma; Figure 10a) and in the MMVB
(sample 18 at 8–3 Ma; Figure 10f). These thermal records
represent exhumational cooling during rock uplift, possibly
associated with inversion and passive-roof duplexing of pre-
Cretaceous to Neogene rocks along the W margin of the EC.
[67] 8. Pliocene (3–0 Ma). Deformation culminated with
accelerated shortening (>2 km/Myr) and cumulative short-
ening of 27 km (25%). Plio-Quaternary shortening may
have been accommodated of out-of-sequence LSF motion
producing final structural relief (12 km). However, west-
ward propagation along existing faults likely continued,
in addition to cutting of the Pliocene section by the small-
displacement frontal thrust.
[68] To summarize, calculated shortening rates for the
kinematic restoration (Figure 13a) show a pronounced late
Miocene (7 Ma) increase in the rate of deformation to 1.5–
2 km/Myr (Figure 13b), in agreement with a reported late
Miocene-Pliocene climax of Andean deformation [Cooper
et al., 1995; Dengo and Covey, 1993; Cediel et al., 2003;
Villamil, 1999; Mora et al., 2008]. Rates of Late Cretaceous
to middle Miocene shortening reveal slowest deformation
(0.1 km/Myr) during the Oligocene-middle Miocene and
moderate shortening (0.5 km/Myr) during the Eocene
(Figure 13), which coincides with the proposed initiation of
exhumation and rock uplift along the W margin of the EC.
7. Discussion
[69] Integration of structural studies, basin analysis, and
low-temperature thermochronology helps define the history
of Cenozoic fold-thrust deformation and clastic sedimenta-
tion along the EC-MMVB transition. Below we consider
new evidence on the timing, style, and kinematics of defor-
mation in the northern Andes.
20 of 24
TC3008
7.1. Geometry and Structural Style
[70] Analyses of surface and subsurface geometries allow
assessment of fold-thrust vergence patterns, degree of base-
ment involvement, and the role of reactivation (inversion) of
Mesozoic normal faults during Cenozoic shortening. New
balanced cross sections supported by seismic evidence pro-
vide the basis for comparison with past studies of the EC-
MMVB boundary.
[71] Along strike to the south of our study region, the
southern MMVB appears to share a similar geometry,
shortening magnitude, and several-phase history of Cenozoic
deformation and exhumation. Shortening was mostly
accommodated by a basement-involved fault equivalent to
the LSF with a comparable displacement of 15–20 km
[Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004; Cortés et al., 2006; Sassi et al.,
2007; Moretti et al., 2010]. Field mapping by Restrepo-Pace
et al. [2004] in the Rio Horta area 60 km south of our study
region revealed evidence of Paleocene shortening sealed
by an early Eocene unconformity and a later phase of late
Miocene tectonic wedging, attesting to at least two episodes
of Cenozoic deformation. Regional kinematic models pro-
posed by Sassi et al. [2007] employed a passive-roof duplex
to transfer shortening from the EC to upper crustal levels
of the MMVB, with an early W-directed structure predating
MMVB Oligocene strata and a late Miocene structure
involving large displacement along a major E-vergent
backthrust.
[72] These studies share notable similarities with our
interpretations, including comparable displacement along
a W-directed basement-involved thrust (LSF and its
equivalents) with linked structures displaying a Cretaceous
detachment level. Discrepancies in shortening magnitude
could be related to model parameters such as decollément
depth, main thrust dip, and whether significant displace-
ment is accommodated by other faults. Possible explana-
tions for the apparent paradox of limited displacement
along the leading (westernmost) thrusts of the MMVB
include (1) additional buried W- or E-directed thrusts [e.g.,
Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004; Sassi et al., 2007], (2) a fault-
propagation folding mechanism in which greater thrust dis-
placement is accommodated at depth [e.g., Suppe and
Medwedeff, 1990], or (3) a transpressional flower structure
with limited displacement on external splay faults [e.g.,
Acosta et al., 2004, 2007]. Observations of shallowly
detached folds with steeply tilted Cenozoic strata overlying
gently dipping Cretaceous rocks and several E-directed
backthrusts lead us to favor a passive-roof duplex to
accommodate additional EC shortening not transmitted to the
MMVB [e.g., Banks and Warburton, 1986; Vann et al.,
1986; Sassi et al., 2007]. By analogy, in the northernmost
Andes along the Maracaibo mountain fronts, Duerto et al.
[2006] identified a triangular configuration of seismic
reflectors, shallow detachment levels within the Cretaceous-
Cenozoic section, and a basinward-dipping monocline with
essentially no surface faulting. We propose that a frontal
triangle zone associated with the main LSF thrust explains
several structural elements: (1) a lower zone of imbricate
basement thrusts; (2) an upper zone of basinward-dipping
backthrusts mainly localized in Upper Cretaceous levels; and
(3) shortening accommodated by reactivation of normal
faults inherited from a Mesozoic rift. We further note that
TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA
thin- and thick-skinned modes of deformation are not the
products of separate tectonics events, but are the result of
kinematically linked ramp-flat and basement deformation
[e.g., Cooper et al., 1995; Mora et al., 2006].
7.2. Timing of Deformation and Exhumation
[73] Sediment provenance and fission track and (U-Th)/
He thermochronology help define the timing and pace of
complex deformation in which vergence patterns are con-
sistent with tectonic wedging, backthrusting, and triangle
zone deformation. New results along the EC-MMVB tran-
sition are compared with previous studies to assess the onset,
magnitude, and rates of deformation and exhumation.
[74] Various data sets have been employed to evaluate the
initiation of deformation and exhumation along the W margin
of the EC (Figure S1).
[75] 1. Growth strata indicate initial synorogenic sedi-
mentation during the Eocene in well-studied parts of the
eastern MMVB to the south (Guaduas syncline) and north
(Nuevo Mundo syncline) [Gómez et al., 2003, 2005a;
Moreno et al., 2011]. Selected regions show earlier defor-
mation, with Paleocene shortening suggested by map rela-
tionships in the Rio Horta area 60 km to the south
[Restrepo-Pace et al., 2004] and seismic relationships and
fission track results for the northern Nuevo Mundo syncline
[Parra et al., 2012].
[76] 2. Low-temperature thermochronological results in
the southern MMVB (Guaduas syncline) show initial
cooling between 50 and 35 Ma [Parra et al., 2009b], in
agreement with growth strata [Gómez et al., 2003]. Similar
data show younger cooling in the southern MMVB at 15–
5 Ma [Gómez et al., 2003]. In contrast, reset ZFT and
AFT ages of 24–19 Ma and 10–7 Ma, respectively, in the
western EC suggest relatively continuous exhumation
along the main W-directed thrust fault equivalent to the
LSF [Parra et al., 2009b]. However, several periods of
exhumation are proposed to the north (Nuevo Mundo
syncline), consistent with growth strata evidence [Gómez
et al., 2005a].
[77] 3. Detrital zircon U-Pb ages for the Nuevo Mundo
syncline show provenance signatures linked to EC exhu-
mation between middle-late Eocene to Oligocene time [Nie
et al., 2010].
[78] 4. Petrographic and paleoflow analyses suggest
exhumation of the W flank of the EC by the middle-late
Eocene [Caballero, 2010; Caballero et al., 2010; Moreno
et al., 2011; Saylor et al., 2011] in the Nuevo Mundo
syncline and the late Eocene-Oligocene in the Guaduas
syncline [Gómez et al., 2003].
[79] These lines of evidence and new results from our
study suggest that the onset of exhumation for the W flank
of the EC occurred between the middle Eocene and early
Oligocene. A significant exhumation episode in middle
Miocene-Pliocene time [Gómez et al., 2005a] inferred from
our thermal modeling may have caused significant rock
uplift associated with EC basement provenance [Caballero,
2010; Caballero et al., 2010] as well as increases in sedi-
mentation rate and source-area proximity. These results are
further consistent with the notable absence of magmatic-arc
signatures in the middle Miocene-Pliocene section of the
Llanos foreland [Horton et al., 2010b; Bande et al., 2012],
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which may attest to an effective topographic barrier pre-
cluding sediment delivery from the CC.
8. Conclusions
[80] The main conclusions of this study are summarized in
the following six points.
[81] 1. The eastern Middle Magdalena Valley basin
(MMVB) forms the proximal sector of an intermontane
hinterland basin largely controlled by W-directed thrusting
along the W edge of the Eastern Cordillera (EC). A proposed
kinematic model suggests that shortening was accommodated
by W-directed basement thrusting and linked E-directed shal-
low backthrusting in a passive-roof duplex.
[82] 2. Restoration of 4 cross sections along the EC-
MMVB transition shows that >22–31 km of approximately
E-W shortening was accommodated by reactivation of
inherited basement-involved faults. The Los Cobardes and
Portones anticlines in the western EC are cored by Jurassic
synrift strata and separated by a relay zone, suggestive of
folding above inverted faults that once bounded a Jurassic-
Cretaceous extensional basin. Local non-plane strain
responsible for area inconsistencies during the restoration
could be related to minor oblique shortening.
[83] 3. Low-temperature thermochronology indicates three
main phases of Cenozoic cooling: (1) 45–30 Ma (middle
Eocene–early Oligocene), associated with initial thrusting
along the La Salina fault (LSF); (2) 18–12 Ma (early middle
Miocene), representing initiation of structures propagating
into the hinterland basin (MMVB); and (3) 12–3 Ma (late
Miocene-Pliocene), a period of rapid LSF displacement and
out-of sequence deformation.
[84] 4. Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) results for 11 samples
support thermochronological data and provide information
about the initial basin configuration. Ro data suggest that the
Upper Cretaceous section in the LSF hanging wall achieved
a burial depth of around 4–5 km during earliest synorogenic
sedimentation (Paleocene-Eocene), with diminished burial
farther east in the central EC.
[85] 5. Increased sedimentary lithic fragments suggest the
development of sufficient EC topography to create a sedi-
ment source persisting since late Eocene-early Oligocene
time. Decreased compositional maturity during the Miocene-
Pliocene may indicate westward growth (advance) of the EC
source area during enhanced shortening and possible sedi-
ment recycling of the easternmost MMVB.
[86] 6. Structural reconstructions of the W flank of the EC
show that the LSF was the principal structure responsible for
EC exhumation during the middle Eocene–early Oligocene
(45–30 Ma). In contrast, exhumation since 18–12 Ma along
the EC-MMVB transition has been accommodated largely
by tectonic wedging and E-directed backthrusting.
[87] Acknowledgments. Funding was provided by the Ecopetrol-
ICP (Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo) project “Cronología de la deforma-
ción en las Cuencas Subandinas” and the Jackson School of Geosciences at
the University of Texas at Austin as part of a collaborative research agree-
ment. Additional funding was provided by a Geological Society of America
graduate student research grant. Seismic information, well data, and logisti-
cal support were provided by the aforementioned Ecopetrol-ICP project.
Apatite fission-track analyses for this Ecopetrol-ICP project were conducted
by Apatite to Zircon, Inc., and vitrinite reflectance data were generated by
the ICP geochemistry lab. We thank Rocio Bernal, Henry Campos, Paul
Mann, Junsheng Nie, Mauricio Parra, and Joel Saylor for insightful
TC3008 SÁNCHEZ ET AL.: ANDEAN FOLD-THRUST KINEMATICS, COLOMBIA
discussions. Constructive reviews by Isabelle Moretti, Fabio Speranza, and
Claudio Faccenna improved the quality of the manuscript.
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