RESEARCH AND STATISTICS

Learning Objectives

At the end of this course, learners should be able to:

a. Define Nursing Research

b. Explain the steps in the Research Process
c. Describe the importance of research to Nursing as a profession
d. Discuss the contribution of research to enhance Nursing Practice, Education and
Management.
e. Describe the steps in the Research Process.
f. Apply the principles of Hypothesis formulation, Data Collection, Analysis and
Interpretation of the Research Findings

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE

INTRODUCTION
In the early practice of Nursing, approaches to care were based on healthcare instruction,
rituals/traditions and personal choice. Cares provided were either just as ordered or that they
followed usual practice. These approaches can no longer be used as basis for the provision of
sound quality Nursing care. The strength and source of information in client care must be
considered. Nurses educated at all levels must use research and Evidence Based Practice to
improve on patient care. An all-embracing principle that guides healthcare practice is to provide
quality care to all irrespective socioeconomic status and individual characteristics. In carrying
out client care, the professional nurse ensures that available, current health information are
utilized as they related to the client, with a view to improving the quality of care and patients
outcomes.
The march towards professionalism and the stability of a profession requires intellectual capacity
which comes with great responsibility. A profession must have a strong knowledge base and
capable of modifying it, including its application to remain relevant and compete favourably
among other professions. Nursing is a key area of practice in the healthcare industry requiring an
independent but inter-dependent body of knowledge for the realization of an improved health
status for the population.
The body of knowledge must be regularly reviewed to meet with current trend so that the
profession and her practice are not left behind by time. Nursing research is a key tool to
developing and improving on Nursing education and practice.
Nursing research is not a new concept though for most nurses it sounds an academic interest not
necessary for the Nurse-Practitioner. Nurses have for decade unconsciously collaborated with
other healthcare workers to perform research but failed for many years to initiate and conduct
Nursing research until recently when this requirement has come to the fore. Evidence abound in
literature that even before Nursing was taken to institutions of higher learning, some scientific
enquire had begun.
As a practice profession, research, education and practice forms a tripods upon which the
profession stands. The relationship between then is reciprocal. Research emanates from clinical
practice and developed concepts, theories and models that form the content for teaching in
education. Education provides and produces nurses that are equipped to practice at the clinical
setting and to conduct research. The ultimate goal of the inter relationship between these tripods
is provision of quality care to the clients.
For most nurses, anxiety in raised over the issue of research because it does not fit naturally into
work schedule. However, most practitioners in care settings have been able to identify situations
that need to be reevaluated. Observations in some aspects of Nursing care raise the question of
why some activities are done in some ways when there are possible better alternatives to meet
clients needs and expectations

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Nursing: According to ICN Nursing encompasses autonomous and collaborative care of
individuals of all ages, families, and communities, sick or well and in all settings. Nursing
include the promotion of health, prevention of illness as the care of the ill, disabled and dying
people. Advocacy, promotion of safe environment, research participation in shaping health
policy in patients, health system management and education are all key nursing roles.
Research: Research has been defined by different authorities using different approaches but
much with the same meaning.
Anyaegbunam (2004) defined research as the planned, organized, systematic and scientific
process of seeking information or answer to an existing problem. Research traditionally means to
search again (re-search). Though knowledge already exist, there is the need to further search,
evaluate existing knowledge develop new theories or refine existing theories with a view to
improving on knowledge base or practice.
Boswell and Cannon (2020) defined research as a systematic inquiry into a subject that uses
various approaches (Quantitative and or Qualitative) to answer questions and solve problems
All authorities who have defined research point towards certain components to included:
a. It is a search for knowledge
b. The search is planned, systematic and scientific
c. It is directed towards solving a problem or improving knowledge.
Polit and Beck (2006) defined research as the systematic inquiry desighed to develop knowledge
about issues of importance to nurses, including NursingPracticeNursing Education and Nursing
Administration.
Research therefore refers to a careful, unbiased, systematic investigation into some field of
knowledge to establish facts or principles following scientific steps of procedure.

Nursing Research: Ploit, Beck and Hungler (2001) defined Nursing Research as the systematic
inquiry, designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to Nurses including Nursing
Practice, Nursing Education and Nursing Administration. Nursing Research is therefore
concerned with any systematic enquiring into the problem encountered in Nursing practice and
into the modalities of client care.
Nursing Research provides a body of knowledge and evidence used to support nursing practice
(American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2016).
Nursing Research addresses how care can be better provided to meet the client’s need and
expectation because:
a. It seems to address the care need of the patient appropriately.
b. Fit the current accepted provision of care.
c. Whether patient situation can be better addressed through other method of care.
If Nurses do not read and evaluate research findings to know relevance to the practice of the
profession, they run the risk of practicing in a way that is either ineffective or possibly even
harmful to patient care.

EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE (EBP)

According to Boswell and Cannon (2020) EBP is the process of using confirmed evidence
(Research and Quality Improvement), decision making and Nursing Expertise to guide the
delivery of holistic patient care by Nurses. They also defined EBP as the combination of
scientific evidence, patient preferences, and clinician expertise when making decision for patient
care.

It is also defined as the process of establishing a core foundation of knowledge requiring Nurses
to locate, analyze, evaluate and use the significant evidence to inform care. The nurse requires
reliable clinical knowledge and high quality clinical information to optimize care outcomes.
Holistic Nursing Care requires the clinical expertise of the Nurse, psychological aspects, ethical
considerations and biological components (patient’s perspective). The EBP has established itself
as the foremost process for addressing clinical problems directed at improving the quality of
care. EBP requires using research findings to drive clinical decisions and care (North-Eastern
State University, 2021)

Nursing care decision should be based on research findings and scientific data. This remains the
best method for the provision of care. A reliance on substantiated treatment is required while
plans and efforts should be made to critically analyze aspects of care being provided to ensure
quality, tested practices are utilized in patients care.

EBPs expectation is that all care givers will become involved in the identification, examination
and implementation of research-founded, evidence-tested healthcare that can result in the
provision of effective, validated client care.

Nurses have a responsibility to ensure that the care they provide is based on sound nursing
knowledge and not routines. Nurses need to be actively involved at all levels in the conduct and
utilization of research in client care.

STATISTICS: This is the scientific method of collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting and
drawing valid conclusion from the data. It also includes the application of the findings to the
human population. Statistics are broadly divided into two categories:
a. Descriptive Statistics: This includes Tabulations and Graphs. It also includes Measures
of Central Tendency, Range, Variance and Standard Deviation.
 b. Inferential statistics: This deals with hypothesis testing. The commonly used forms are
the Chi-Square and the Student T-Test.

VARIABLE
This is a measurable or potentially measurable component of an object or an event that may
fluctuate in quality and quantity from one individual object or events and from time to time in
the same class.
It may also be defined as any characteristic or attribute or phenomenon of nature, capable of
changing or varying in different condition and which can be measured and quantified.

Three types of variable are particularly important in research. These are

Independent Variable: This refers to the phenomenon in the hypothesis that is manipulated by
the researcher to produce an effect. Thus, it comes first in time, stand alone and its manipulated
by the researcher eg. In a hypothesis linking smoking with lung cancer, smoking becomes the
independent variable.

Dependent Variable: This occurs only as a result of the manipulation of the independent
variable. It is not manipulated but accepted as the effect of whatever treatment is applied e.g in
hypothesis linking smoking with lung cancer. Lung cancer is the dependent variable.

Extraneous Variable: There are features that exist about which the researcher collects no data.
They are not of specific interest to the research but are present in the research situation and if not
controlled influenced the findings concerning relationship among variables. They must therefore
be identified and controlled.

SAMPLE/SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
A sample is a subset or part of a population that has been selected for used in a study. The
sample is considered to be representative of the population from which it was drawn. Therefore,
its findings can be generalized to the entire population. The reason for the use of a sample in a
study is that in most cases, the population is so large that it would not be feasible to study all her
member in an attempt to understand the nature of the problem or event in the population for
generalization to be made. This is done to limit to the barest minimum the sampling error. The
researcher usually extrapolate the attribute of your sample to the universe. The larger the sample,
the clover it approximate the universe.

METHODS OF INQUIRY/SOURCES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

As provided for by history, human beings have sought answers to their questions through five
major ways. These sources of human knowledge include:

(a) Experience or Habit: This is a familiar and well known source of knowledge. It forms
the shortest route without barriers. To learn from experience is considered a prime
characteristic of intelligence
Its main weaknesses are: (i) that human being cannot have the opportunity to experience
all situations they need to know about. (ii)Experience is individually interpreted.
(b) Trial and Error: This is also called chance learning or knowledge. Its main weakness is
that it is not bounded by strict scientific proof.
(c) Authority: This refers to information from experts in the field of study. They can be
located through written records of face to face interview.
Weakness: (i) Information might be obsolete
(ii) Authorities can be wrong
(ii) Experts usually disagree
(d) Deductive Reasoning: This was introduced by Aristotle and his followers. It can be
described as the thinking process in which one proceed for general to specific statements
using prescribed rules of logic. It is a system of generalizing known facts in order to
reach a conclusion usually done through a series of statements called syllogism. They
usually have a major premise and a minor premise. In deductive reasoning, previously
unconnected facts are combined in such a way as to imply a previously unconnected
conclusion.
Weakness
(1) The major premise cannot always be correct
(2) Not all aspects of knowledge can be reasoned out this way
(3) Not everybody can logically reason
(4) The conclusion of a syllogism can never exceed the content of the premises.
(e) Inductive Reasoning: This was introduced by Francis Beacon. It is a thinking process in
which we proceed from specific to general statements. He maintained that investigators
should accept general conclusions on the basis of facts gathered through direct
observation. He established observation, then generalization.
(f) Scientific Method: This constitutes the most adequate approach to the discovery of
knowledge.it is particularly evident in physical science because it is possible to carry out
true test. Observation is commonly done in human. Scientific methods can be categorized
 into steps which are systematic in nature. The basic characteristics of scientific methods
are: (1) Order and systematization (2) Control (3) Empiricism (4) Generalization. It is the
surest method for the establishment of cause-effect relationship.
Disadvantage: It cannot be applied in all research situation.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH

Researches are generally classified by purpose or by approach

Classification by Approach: Under this sub-head, there are two categories: Basic and Applied
research. They differ primarily in terms of focus and intent

(a) Basic Research: This is a research conducted to add to existing knowledge, gain new
knowledge, build a body of knowledge, develops or refines theories. Its findings may not
be immediately applicable to practical situations but they do provide basic knowledge
that guide future research. The knowledge gained is often times useful later. The
research is done with little concern on how it might ultimately be applied to practice.
(b) Applied Research: This is research whose findings has immediate utility value. It has
direct impact on practice as it is required to modify the current or existing practice(s). It
is done to solve practical problems as the findings from such are immediately required for
practical application to the solution of an existing problem. Most Nursing Research fall
into this category as they are applied for decision making on client care. This type of
research may involve:
a. The development of a new approach to care
b. Modification of Nursing Care
c. Development of Nursing care
d. Evaluation of Nursing care

Classification by Approach

There are three major approaches under this classification: Historical, Experimental and Surveys.

(a) Historical Research: This is sometimes referred to as documentary research. It is

oriented towards the past. Issues based on the past are investigated to determine the
accuracy of statement, facts or events. Its major contribution is in the development of a
broader, more complete perspective to enhance our understanding of the present and our
approach to the future.
(b) Experimental Research: This category is based on the manipulation of some specific
conditions in a controlled or laboratory setup in order to determine their effects or
influence on the outcomes.
(c) Survey Approach: This is the most widely used approach in research problems
involving human beings. It involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals
through their responses to questions. It allows for a variety of methods to recruit
 participants, collection of data and instrumentation. The types of surveys include:
Descriptive, Evaluative, Exploratory, Comparative and Relational/Causal Surveys.
Others are the Cohort and Case Control.

AIMS OF RESEARCH

The general purpose of research is to answer question or solve problems. However, we engage in
research for the following reasons:

(a) For Description: This is the main objective of many research topics. It relates to
describing a phenomenon in relation to a problem situation.
(b) Exploration: this begins with some phenomenon of interest but rather than just studying
them like in descriptive and explorative research, the researcher investigate to determine
what factors affect, influence or are correlated with the phenomenon.
(c) Explanation: This is designed to explain or get to the “why” of natural phenomenon.
These are generally linked to theories explaining interrelationship between phenomena.
This type of research offers understanding.
(d) Prediction and Control: With our current level of knowledge, technology and
theoretical progress, there are numerous problems that defies absolute comprehension
and understanding, yet it is frequently possible to make prediction and control
phenomena based on findings from scientific investigations even in the absence of a true
understanding.

CONCLUSION
Research is a phenomena or activity common to all discipline. It can be used as an indication to
measure progress in any discipline or profession. It is the only way to extend the frontiers of
knowledge. Nursing is a profession in transition. It is only through research that our body of
knowledge unique to nursing i.e theories, concepts, principles that will improve nursing practice
will develop.
Nursing has benefitted from research. More researches as it applies to client care will greatly
improve the coverage of the population, improve the health status of the population and help to
realize the goal of “Health for All by the year 2000 and beyond.”

Unit II: NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF RESEARCH
Researches are conducted for the general reason to develop knowledge or solve a problem. This
endeavor is defined by some very specific features or characteristics that separate it from some
other fields of study.

Some of these characteristics include:

Empirical: Considerable empirical evidence are provided by researcher to authenticate findings.

Research is based on observation and experimentation. Researches are concerned with
experience or observation rather than theory or pure logic.

Systematic: A precise or standardized system or method is embraced by all researchers in the

process. Researches are conducted according to fixed plan or system which are usually described
as being well ordered, orderly, planned and meticulously executed. Ordered and sequential
procedure is adopted in the research process.

Controlled: Researchers avoid all form of biases to ensure that investigations are carried out
under conditions that prevents error or the influence of extraneous factors. All variables except
those that are tested or experimented upon are kept constant or guarded.

Employs Hypothesis: This is to guide the investigation process. There is usually a proposed
explanation based on limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. This uides the
researchers focus and direct the course of the research at investigating the relationship between
the variable under investigation.

Analytical: Researchers examine the variables under investigation in details to establish the
correlation. Statistical tools are employed to analyze data with a view to deriving the information
inherent in them. This is carried out on data to avoid error in their interpretation

Objective, Unbiased and Logical: Findings are logically based on observation and
experimentation. The researcher does not allow his personal feelings or opinions to influence his
judgment while considering and presenting facts related to his study. He is unbiased,
unprejudiced, fair and open-minded.

Employs Quantitative or Statistical Methods: Data collected are transformed into numerical
measures and are treated statistically. The two main statistical methods that are employed are the
descriptive and the inferential statistics.

a. PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH

1. Choice of Topic: Develop a doable topic in terms of time, money and people. Make sure
the topic is interesting also.
2. Choosing the Right Methodology
3. Ability to assemble a Research Team.
4. Finding Study Participants
5. Getting Institutions to Participate
 6. Dealing With Your Data. Insufficient Data. You must ground yourself in the research
7. Dealing with biases
8. Lack of Scientific Training
9. Timing
10. Quantity and Quality of available Literature
11. Lack of Confidence
12. Scope of Study. Either too wide or too narrow.
13. Library Management
14. Researchable
15. Ethical sensitivity
16. Legal sensitivity eg breaking confidentiality covenant, compelled disclosure,
17. Participants recruitment and informed consent. Individual should have the freedom of
choice to participate or not to participate and to withdraw from the study at any time

OBSTACLE TO USING RESEARCH

This refers to objects that impedes the utilization of research as guidance for practice. These
include:

a. Education: The more education a Nurse has, the greater the chance that he will utilize
research in providing patient care.
b. Beliefs and Attitude: There may be a negative attitude towards the conduct and
utilization of research. This applies to both Nurses and Organizations.
c. Support/Resources: These include financial inadequacy, availability of Librarians and
computers, knowledge of use of search engines, computer skills etc.

Improvement Plan: Define Problem – Determine an improvement plan – Confirm the outcome
of Improvement Plan – Modifying and plan, procedure or protocol in place – Communicating the
result.

EVOLUTION OF NURSING RESEARCH

Nursing Researchers have modeled themselves after their cohorts in the biomedical sciences.
Efforts have been made over the years to facilitate the growth of research culture by developing
theories, establishing the relevance of research centered practice, advancing education and
providing opportunities for the dissemination of research.

This culture has evolved in the last over 170years beginning in the 1850s with Florence
Nightingale. This has evolved over time to a wider scope demonstrating a trajectory of an
emerging/developing concern. Nurses must conduct, disseminate and utilize research to advance
the Nursing profession.
From the era of Nightingale, sanitation of the environment was emphacized as a
variable/determinant of clinical outcomes. Early concerns were to Nursing Education but in the
1940s the World War shifted the concern to the availability and demand for Nursing Care.

Florence Nightingale is acknowledge as the mother of modern day Nursing. She had the
philosophy of
- Health promotion
- Prevention of diseases
- Care of the sick
During the Crimean War (1854-1856), she analyzed complex data about conditions of the
personnel of the British Army during the Crimean War. She presented the major causes of
mortality among the British Army in a Pie Chart to include Preventable Diseases, War injuries
and all other causes. Her role during this war explains her knowledge of research and the
utilization of research findings in patient’s care as she collected and analyzed data on morbidity
and mortality rates among British soldiers. The findings led to various reforms in the healthcare
system in Great Britain. Her research orientation led to her being elected into the fellowship of
the Royal Statistic Society in 1958 (Asu 24, 1992, Boswell and Cannon, 2020).
Her first published work was in 1958 entitled “Notes on Matters Affecting the Health,
Efficiency and Hospital Administration of the British Army”.

Not much is available in literature on Nursing Research following the early works of
Nightingale. This was probably related to the perception of Nursing as an apprenticeship in a
task oriented caring programme.

In the western world, some researches were conducted with respect to Nursing Education and
Practice in the first half of the 20th Century, true advancement were witnessed from the 1950s.
Some factors associated were:
a. Increase in number of Nurses with higher education
b. Establishment of mechanisms for the dissemination of Nursing Research such as the
National Institute of Nursing Research
c. Funding and support for Nursing Research.
d. Upgrading of research skill in faculty and students.
From 1900 till 1950, Nursing research remained at the primitive stage focusing on Nurses,
Nursing Education, Nursing Students and ways to organize Nursing work without sincere
attention to Nursing Practice in the United States
The first Nursing Research Journal was established in 1952. In the 1970s, Nursing Research was
focused on clinical outcomes. There was the production of the Nursing Studies Index by Virginia
Henderson. Nursing Journals were published in the 1970s.

In the 1980s, research focus shifted to patients and patient’s behaviour, empirical mode of
inquiry, beginning of qualitative studies in Nursing and the availability of clinical Nursing
Research Journals.

In the 2000s, research priorities shifted to:

a. Quality and cost effectiveness of care

b. Health promotion and disease prevention
c. Management of symptoms
d. Adaptation to new technologies
e. Health disparities
f. Palliative care, among others.

These advances were aided by the clinical revolution in Nursing.

The culture of research has progressed not just to conduct the studies but their application in
practice. Advances are also visible in the Nursing Education where progress has been made from
the Basic to the Baccalaureate, the Doctorate and the Post Doctorate programmes.
Nursing Council of Nigeria was founded in 1949 operating as a parallel agency with the
Midwifery Board of Nigeria until in 1979 when they were merged by a decree to become the
Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria. In encouraging research and publications, the
NMCN established a Journal that is published bi-annually and conducts training for the Nurses
on research on a regular basis. In the curriculum of Nursing Education (Basic, ND/HND,
Degree) research is taught and conducted as one of the requirements for certification. The
National Association of Nigeria Nurses and Midwives also float a Journal for the publication of
Nursing Research. Some faculties and departments of Nursing Sciences in Universities also have
journal of Nursing.

The current escalation of knowledge mandates that practitioners be armed with the most current
information. As professionals, Nurses must be committed to lifelong learning both within and
outside formal educational structures. Since the basic goal of research is to uncover new
knowledge, the professional who is able to perform research, evaluate, discriminate and use
current research findings will be the one who is at the forefront. Thus, learning the skills of the
research is imperative for leadership, education and clinical practice. It is a consensus that for
nursing to build a scientific base, all Nurses should know about research. This does not imply
that all Nurses should be active researchers rather it supports the notion that Nurses in varying
professional roles should contributed to bridging the gap between practice and research. Only
then can a scientific base for nursing evolve and allow us stand at par with other professional in
the healthcare disciplines.
The application of research findings to making clinical decision is the focus of Evidence Based
Practice which is directed at improving individual patient’s outcomes.

IMPORTANCE/CONTRIBUTIONS OF RESEARCH TO NURSING

Nurses occupy a very significant position in the healthcare industry. An essential component of
the educational process for nurses is the Nursing research which has significant influence on the
current and future professional nursing practice. Some person may question the need for research
generated knowledge considering the fact that nurses have practiced their craft successfully for
many years. Nurses actually spend about 70% of their time working directly with the patients
delivering care and observing treatment outcomes. As they are closest to the patients, they
provide responses to patient’s questions, address patients concern while providing quality care. It
is not in dispute as to whether research is valuable in providing objectively determined factual
knowledge.

At all level of Nursing: from education to practice, research has remained a valuable tool for
positive change.

RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING (ADMINISTRATION)

a. The problems encountered by nurses in clinical setting require more than mere
application of pathophysiologic reasoning and personal experience for decision making,
it requires the research process and findings to choose the best available alternative.
b. It helps Nurses advance their field, remain updated and offer better patient care.
c. Nurses need research knowledge from assessment to evaluation of patient care.
The process of decision making rely greatly on research as it provide the basis for
decision making at all levels of nursing profession.
 d. For those who want to significantly impact the Nursing Profession, research is an
excellent option. This is because it can support wide-scale policy change that improves
patients care.
e. The nurse administrator and educators can uncover and circulate innovations that uphold
evidence-based care.
f. Professionalism needs research findings.
g. It help nurses to shape health policies and global changes in approach in approach to
healthcare.

RESEARCH FOR PATIENT CARE

Many problems are encountered by nurses in clinical practice. Scientific probe into such
problems are likely to provide reliable and more valid answers. Research findings provide the
best available evidence to guide valid decisions on client/patient care. It is the need for
comprehensive individualized care informed scientific investigations that gave birth to the
Nursing process.
a. The scientific basis for the provision of nursing care that is based on patients need is
provided by research.
b. It uncovers knowledge to build the foundation of clinical practice as the results help to
determine effective best practice and improve patient’s care.
c. It helps the Nurses to respond to changes in the healthcare environment, clients and
governmental policies
d. Research benefit in patient care can be explained with reference to each of the five phases
of nursing process. Improvement in the outcome of nursing care have for most time, be
derived from research findings.
e. Nurses who have good knowledge of research feel more confident and authoritative at
addressing patient’s need.
f. Nurses can advance treatment techniques and improve patient’s outcomes. Florence
Nightingale research work helped her to determine that sanitation improved the survival
rate of the wounded soldiers during the Crimean War. Her findings are still of relevance
to the healthcare system till date.
 g. Nurses can better interpret cutting-edge research which can then be applied by the
relevant professionals to patient’s care.
h. The ability of the nurses to impact the current and future state of the healthcare system is
founded on research.
i. Research findings can provide better support for the diagnosis and treatment for ailments.
Nurses become better patient’s advocate as nursing orders are based on evidence and the
doctrine of best practices.
j. Research builds an advance body of knowledge and provides efficient and cost effective
healthcare.
k. Attitude towards patient care and the required technical skills are shaped by research
findings. New knowledge for practice are discovered through research.
l. Modifications in approaches to care are done with critical examination of research
findings that forms the evidence –based practice.
m. Nursing research provides an opportunity for the nurses to advance treatment techniques
and improve patient’s outcomes.

RESEARCH FOR NURSING EDUCATION

Nursing research is vital to Nursing Education as modification in method, content, procedures
and programmes of Nursing have benefited immensely from research findings.
a. Matching theories with clinical practice and general curriculum development has gained
immensely from research.
b. All programs and procedures can be evaluated with research with a view to adopting
better approaches.
c. It is used for the development and testing Nursing Theories.
d. Research provides more accurate tools and chances to advance the Nursing Field. The
peer reviewed data acceptable to Nursing provides guidance for establishing baes
practices.
e. Career opportunities are made available for those who may not be content with clinical
care. The field as a Nurse Researcher is less demanding.
 f. The Nurse researcher reaps respect from students, peers and other departments.
Involvements in research sets the nurses up for career in academia, government boards
committee and publishing.
g. Research prepares the individual to be a Nurse-Scientist.
h. Research enables the nurses develop knowledge about contemporary issues in healthcare
practice.
i. As medical sciences continue to evolve, the nurse researchers will increasingly be
valuable assets to the development of the nursing profession.

NURSES ROLE IN RESEARCH

The nurse has a role to play at every stage of the research process and the utilization of the
research findings

Identifying problem areas for research.

Research problem validation.

Examining the available literature on the subject to provide a foundation for the research.

Determination of an appropriate design for the chosen study.

Determination of appropriate setting, population and sample for the study.

Administration of treatment in experimental studies.

Managing the subjects and variables under investigation

Collection of data.

Support for the analysis of data.

Active participant in report writing.

Utilization of findings in patient care

NURSING RESEARCH: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Nurses are heavily burdened by the workload to the extent that sacrifices have to be made if they
must satisfy the demands of their task. This originally dampens interest in research work without
exploring its pros and cons. For those who have chosen to break the jinx, they experience so
many challenges in research endeavor while they are also exposed to several opportunities in
their research adventure.

Challenges for the Nurse Researcher

a. Motivation for research versus work-life balance. Even when research findings have been
published, we may not have time to read and understand contents for implementation.
b. Lack of preparedness for the task and the anxiety about the training need.
c. Level of support for Nursing Research is still low. Facilities necessary for the
implementation of research findings may not be available. This is especially a concern in
the resource poor countries.
d. Misunderstandings about the role of the Nurse Researcher.
e. Difficulties with familiarizing oneself with the new specialty. Nursing students do not
have prior experience and may have difficulties with competent guidance.
f. Poor knowledge about the values of the research to the Nurse
g. Nurses may not have the authority to change the method of care even if scientific proofs
are evident.
h. Nurses may not have sufficient time to implement research findings. This is closely
linked to the non-availability of adequate time to further evaluate research finding
consistent with the order of Evidence Based Practice.
i. Research may just be boring to the students of research as lack or poor mentorship exists.
This is an issue as those who encounter problems with the conduct of research may not
have those to seek help from and may therefore jettison laudable ideas.

Opportunities in Nursing Research

a. A newly defined field in Nursing is available nurses. It gives them the opportunity to
partner with scientists in other healthcare and other associate fields.
b. It gives nurses the opportunity to work in other settings such as Universities, Research
Institutes and Organizations, Private Companies, Non-Profit Organizations, NGOs etc.
c. The Nurse Researchers teach in institutions of higher learning, write books, speak to
conferences etc.
d. Nurse researchers write competitive grant applications, reports study findings and make
publications.
e. Enable the Clinical Nurse develops and implement studies on new horizons for
healthcare.
f. Enables partnership with other such as industries, sponsors and investigators for
organized studies.
g. Conduct and support clinical trials.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Research involves a systematic search for information in an orderly manner which defines the
various stages that the researcher goes through in the course of conducting a research. The stages
which may not be totally exhaustive but comprehensive are discussed below:

1. Identification of the Problem: This is the first step in a research process. Once the
problem has been identified it is described to make it clearer. It is the problem that becomes
the motivator for the study. Researchable problems in Nursing can be gotten through:
a. Personal experience
b. Nursing literature
c. Social issues e.g. gender equity in healthcare and social determinants of health, emerging
and re-emerging diseases.
d. Population dynamics e.g. changing structure of the population may signal disease
prevalence and specific healthcare issues.

Following problem identification, it would then be necessary to examine the feasibility of the
research project based on:

a. Cost
b. Availability of subjects
c. Time constraints
d. Availability of facilities and equipment
e. Cooperation of others
f. Interest of the researcher
g. Expertise of the researcher
2. Reviewing the Literature: This exercise in aimed at providing the researcher with a good
knowledge of the topic under consideration. Hence, the researcher tries to identify, locate,
read and evaluate previous studies, related concepts and theories with a view to broadening
his knowledge on the subject area. The primary and secondary sources of literature are used.
All of these afford the researcher the opportunity of knowing what area has been covered,
what is left undone and what methods were applied. The conceptual and theoretical
framework n Nursing research are essential parts of the literature review done to bring a
depth of understanding into the research problem. It usually would aid in making a tittle and
give direction to the study.
A review of concepts and theories form the bulk of the literature review usually embarked
upon by the researcher to bring better understanding of the project title.

Referencing and Citation: There are several methods of referencing and citation adopted
by researchers. The recommended style of referencing by the Nursing and Midwifery
 Council of Nigeria is the American Psychological Association (APA). In-text citation and
the referencing format take different approaches.
3. Setting Research Aim, Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses:
The Aim: This is used to explain the goal of the study which most times takes after the
research tittle.
Objectives: These are more practical description of end results to be achieved. They should
be set in measurable term using action verbs such as to describe, determine, assess, identify
etc. Common areas of objectives in a study are: Knowledge, Practice, Barriers/Problems,
proffering Solution etc. These guide the researcher in the conduct of the entire study.
Research Questions: These are usually the objectives stated in question form that the
researcher will be working to provide answers.
Hypotheses: This is a statement of the predicted relationship between the variables or
among the variables. It is often referred to as the researcher’s intelligent or calculated guess
to the study question answer. The statement evolves from the problem and states the
relationship that the researcher expects to find between two or more variables. Forming
hypothesis is making a tentative generalization about a problem under investigation. It
translates the problem statement into precise unambiguous prediction of expected outcomes.

A hypothesis is therefore an assumption about the relationship between variable which the
researcher is set to verify. There are two types of hypothesis:

a. Statistical or Null Hypothesis (HO): This states that there is no relationship between
variables under investigation describing the expectation of the researcher to the negative
direction. This statement may not reflect the expected outcome based on theoretical framework
or existing knowledge. It is the hypothesis being tested by the researcher.
It states that there is no relationship between variables and that the observed relationship is due
to sampling error.
b. The Alternative Hypothesis (H1): This is any other assumption about the relationship
between variables under investigation the researcher is set to accept if he should reject the null
hypothesis. It states that a relationship exists between variables and that the observed is more
than can be expected from a sampling error alone.

4. Choosing the Study Design: This is one of the most critical decisions a researcher must
make in the conduct of a research. An appropriate design based on the topic, setting and
direction of the study. It serves as the overall plan of the researcher for making observation,
collecting, organizing and analyzing data. It serves as the overall plan of the researcher for
obtaining answer to the research questions and testing hypothesis.
Typically the research design involves decision with regard to the following aspects of the study:
- Will there be intervention
- What kind of comparison will be made
- What procedure will be used to control extraneous variables
- When and how many times will data be collected from the research subject.
- In what setting will the research take place.

These are two main types of research design

- The experimental research design,
- The non-experimental research design.
5. Determine the Population and a Sample Design:

Population: The term universe and population are used interchangeably and refer to the same
concept. A population refers to an aggregate of units that makes up a defined space i.e a
population in a research refers to any group of individuals, items or things which have one or
more characteristics or features in common that are of interest to the researcher. It may be all
individuals of a particular or a restricted part of that group of women e.g. childbearing age.
Population can be classified into two: target population and accessible population. The
population has to be clearly defined. A population may be human or other objects which have
one or more characteristic features in common.
Sample: This refers to the subset of the population selected to represent them in the study.
Findings from the sample are then generalized to the entire population. The procedure for
selecting the sample is called sampling technique. Two sampling plans are generally described
i. Probability sampling technique
ii. Non-probability sampling technique

Pilot Study: This is sometimes done if found necessary to get a better understanding of the
research topic. It is a smaller version of the proposed study
6. Data Collection: This is the process by which data is collected from the research subject or
group. Any of the several methods could be employed in the collection of data from the
sample. Data are collected using various research instruments as may be considered
adequate for the particular research.
The methods of data collection include
- Questioning (Questionnaire)
- Observation
- Interview
- Physical and biological measurement
- Cumulative record
7. Processing and Analyzing Data: When data have been collected using the instrument, they
are organized and interpreted. The reason for analyzing data is to bring out the meaning
contained in them. Descriptive or inferential statistics or both may be used for data analysis in a
research. The data should be analyzed in such a way that all the objectives of the study are
included.
When results have been analyzed and presented, they are discussed. The discussion should be
systematic, objective and accurate. Important points are noted, how they relate to other research
findings, theories and concepts as contained in the literature review must be stated.
The implications become clear following discussion then recommendation as made

8. Writing the Report: A research is of no value if it is finding are not commutated. Report
writing or presenting the researchers activities in written form is important. The research work is
usually presented in chapters guided by research ethics.

The communication of result make the researchers method, results and findings available to all
interested group and persons to provide basis for subsequent studies, take action, develop their
knowledge, modify polices among others.

INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT AND STATISTIC

This refers to how numbers/variables are defined and categorized. In statistics, measurement
scale refers to the kind of information provided by numbers and refers to the systematic
assignment of numbers or integers to entities, attributes or events according to a specified rule in
a meaningful way. The purpose of measurement is to quantify the attributes of real objects. They
possess properties which determine their appropriateness in their application for statistical
analysis.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

This was developed by a psychologist Stanley Steven. These are broad categorizations
explaining the type of facts documented within the values of your variables. In data analysis,
variables such as height, weight, gender, social class etc take on different values. Continuous
variables such as height, weight and temperature are measured on a scale.

The four common scales of measurement are the Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scales.
The types are listed in increasing order of the details they provide.

Nominal Scale (Classificatory Scale): This is the lowest level of measurement. The term
nominal means name. It uses a name that the value of the variable falls within. Some authorities
have referred to them as both attribute and categorical variables. Attributes are classified into
mutually exclusive categories. The categories are named but there is no natural order. It can be
used to define groups in your data such as the experimental and control groups. Examples
include gender (male, female), Result (Pass, Fail), marital status, blood type etc.

It is impossible to calculate mean, median or standard deviation from this scale. The mode is the
most appropriate measure of central tendency for this scale. You can use the pie charts or Bar
Charts to graph these variables because they show frequencies while proportion can be used in
statistical tests. No real arithmetical operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division can be performed on this scale.

On the nominal classifications each observation must be capable of assignment into only one
category.

Ordinal Scale (Relative Measurement): This is the next level of measurement also referred as
the ranking scale. In addition to the name/group category as found with the nominal scale, the
ordinal scale places the groups in a natural order (rank-order). Here, there is an implicit order
relationship between variables but you do not know the relative degree of difference between
them. The order is crucial but the difference between the values might not be consistent or
known. Variables are described according to a scale that shows the relationship between them.
Objects and persons are described in terms of the quantity of the attribute they possess.

At this level of measurement, we are able to arrange the attributes in a series ranging from the
lowest to the highest in terms of the attribute we wish to measure but cannot say exactly the
difference between them. Examples include: Good, Better and Best; Tall, Taller and Tallest;
Bad, Worse and Worst. These values provide order information but the difference category
might not be consistent e.g: First, Second and Third.

Observations in ordinal scale are best presented using number such as the likert scale so that
average score can be calculated but the assigned numbers have limited usefulness as difference
between ranks are not consistent. The mean is therefore not appropriate for ordinal data. The
median is a valid measure of central tendency while range can be used for the measure of
dispersion. Common arithmetical operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division cannot be performed on them.

Interval Scale: This is the third level of measurement scale. It is characterized by a common and
constant unit of measurement. It possesses equal intervals between the units of measure. It means
that the order of values and the distance between any two points is meaningful and known with
exactness. Example, 10 and 20 degree celsius has a difference of 10 but it lacks true zero starting
point. If zero is used, it’s only a reference point as it does not indicate a complete absence of the
measured characteristic. Fahrenheit and Celsius Temperature scales are example of interval
measurement. Zero measurements do not indicate the absence of temperature as its zero point is
arbitrarily defined. This means one cannot interpret a score of 50 as twice the value of 25. The
bulk of psychological traits fit into this scale as we cannot say that a person has zero quantity of
a particular psychological trait.

It allows the calculation of the mean and median of the variables. Basic arithmetical operation
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be performed on this scale.

Ratio Scale: This is the 4th level and highest scale of measurement. It has all the characteristics
of the interval scale as well as a true zero which means a true absence of the characteristic being
measured. Physical characteristics such as height or weight can be measured with ratio scale.
Zero score means a complete absence of the characteristics being measured. With zero origin, we
can conveniently say that a person who has 80 points is twice on an attribute with the person
with 40 points. A person who is 1.2m (4 feet) tall is 2/3 as tall as 1.8m (6 Feet) tall person. In the
same vein, the 10kg is 2/3 as heavy as the one weighing 30kg

This scale affords unique opportunity for statistical analysis. Variable can be orderly, added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median and mode can be calculated with it.

Summary

The attributes of measurement scales are magnitude, equal interval and zero starting point.

a. Nominal scale has none.

b. Ordinal scale has magnitude
c. Interval Scale has magnitude and equal intervals
d. Ratio Scale has all: Magnitude, Equal Interval and Zero Starting point.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

This explains attempt made to organize data in a meaningful way through the use of statistical
methods such as tabulations, graphs, measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion
(Range, Variance and Standard Deviation) and measures of relationship.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

These are measures that summarize the scores in the distribution and are therefore used to
represent a set of data. They are representative of the data in the distribution and serve as an
average of the set of data or scores. When data are arranged in an order of magnitude, they
cluster around a central value. There are three major measures of central tendency: mean median
and the mode. Others are quartile, percentile, decile etc.

Mean (Arithmetical Average): This is a very important statistic in a distribution of score from
any data. It is the most common and the best measure of central tendency. In an ungrouped data,
the mean is simply the value obtained by dividing sum of the scores in the distribution by the
number of cases

When grouped data are involved, two procedures based on frequency are adopted: Assumed
Mean Method and Mid Pont Value Method

Mode (Frequency Average): This is the easiest measure of central tendency. The mode of a
distribution is the most frequently occurring score in the distribution. A distribution could be
Uni-Modal, Bi-Modal, Tri-Modal or Multi-Modal. Consider the following scores: 15, 14, 10, 9,
7, 7, 7, 6, 5, 3. The most frequently occurring value is “7”.

In the case of grouped data, the mode is located in the class interval where there is the highest
number of cases. The mode does not take into consideration the other scores but only the score
with the highest frequency.

Median (Positional Average): This is a much better measure of central tendency than the mode.
It is the value or point on the array of scores or distribution that separate the entire scores into
two halves in such a way that equal numbers of scores fall above and below that point. The
median may not necessarily be a score, it may be a point in the distribution. The scores are first
arranged in order of magnitude. The computation of the median depends on whether the
distribution is made up of an odd or even numbers.

When there is an odd number in the distribution, the median is simply the most centrally located
score in the distribution. For a distribution with an even number, the median is the arithmetic
average of the two most centrally placed scores. The formula for median is

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
This relates to the spread of data. They describe how far apart data lie from each other and from
the centre of a distribution.

Range: This is a commonly used measure of variability. It is one of the descriptive statistics used
for summarizing data. It is the easiest measure of variability. The range of a set of data is the
difference between the highest and the lowest vales in the distribution i.e. Max – Min = Range

If we have this array of scores: 42, 46, 46, 48, 49, 52, 54, 54, 57, 58, 58, 59, 63, 63, 64 66, 68,
68, 69, 71, 73, 73, 75, 77, 79, 79, 80, 80, 82.

To find the Range,

1. Arrange all the values in your data set from the lowest to the highest
2. Subtract the lowest value from the highest value

Following this guide, the range of the scores in the distribution above is ≈ 82 – 42 =40

It is therefore the difference between the highest observation and the lowest observation in the
distribution obtained by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value. A large range means
high variability while a low range means a low variability. The range can be misleading when
you have outliers in your data ie one extreme value will yield a completely different range. It
would give an impression of more variability than the truth.

The range is easily influenced by outliers.

Variance and Standard Deviation

These make use of all the scores in the distribution in their deviations

A good measure of variability should make use of all the scores in the distribution in its
derivation. The standard deviation satisfies this condition. This is the most commonly used
indicator of the degree of variability or dispersion. It is the most dependable estimate of the
dispersion of scores. This index of variability is of great importance because it accommodates
numerous other statistical formulae encountered in education, health and psychology. It takes
care of the weakness of range.

The Variance is an average of squared distances from the mean S =

The Standard Deviation is a kind of average of all the deviations from the mean. S=

Lets consider the following set of scores: 9, 8, 7, 6 5. Whose mean ≈ 35/5 = 7

Each of the scores above deviates from the mean by a value. The deviations are of negative and
positive values, if we add them, the sum up to zero. One of the properties of arithmetic is that the
sum of the deviation of each score in the distribution from the mean is always zero. To take care
of the negative values in the distribution as well as eliminating the possibility of zero result of
addition, the deviations are usually squared. The squared deviation is then summed and divided
by the number of cases to get an average called Variance. To compensate for the squaring of the
individual deviation done earlier, the square root of the average is computed to get the Standard
Deviation.

The Standard Deviation (average distance from the mean) is the average of all the deviations of
the individual scores from the mean. It is computed using the formula below

Proceedure

1. Find the mean of the scores

2. Find the deviation of the mean from each of the scores in the distribution
3. Sum the squares of these deviations
4. Divide the sum of the squared deviation by the number of cases
5. Find the square root of this value

A different approach has to be adopted when we deal with grouped data.

Interquartile Range (the range of the middle half of a distribution)

TOOLS FOR SUMMARIZING AND DEPICTING DATA

These are descriptive statistics or tools used for data analysis. The common ones are

Tabulations: This is the use of tables as a statistical tool for the presentation of data. It mainly
deals with the frequency distribution tables which usually feature the event under consideration,
the frequency of the observations and the percentage of each variable relative to the class under
consideration. When data are collected with the questionnaires or other instruments of data
collection, the data contained are tallied, frequencies are determined and percentages noted.

The frequency distribution table has three columns:

a. The event under consideration such as the attribute of a respondent (e.g. smoking) is
presented in the first column.
b. The second column shows the frequency ie the number of persons responding with either
the positive or the negative affirmation. As a prelude to this column is the “Tally” where
the number of persons responding with specific options are noted before they are
summed to make the frequency.
c. The third column shows the percentage of those responding to each options in relation to
the total sample.
Variable Tally Frequency Percentage
(Smoking)
Yes //// ///// ///// ///// ///// /////…// 72 36
No ///// ///// ///// ///// ///// ///// ///// ///// ///// ///// …/// 128 64
Total 200 200 100
n=200

GRAPHS: Graphs are statistical tools used for describing data. The frequencies are plotted
along the ordinate (Y-Axis) while the class/class boundaries/variables are plotted on the
horizontal axis Abscicia (X-Axis). Variables are taken on the X-axis while the frequencies are
taken on the Y-axis

Each of the columns in a bar chart represents a categorical (qualitative) variable. The height of
the bar represents the frequency (magnitude of the observation).

The different kinds of graphs are described below.

Line Graph: This is simple graphs in which observed values are presented with single lines. The
lines can be presented vertically of horizontally. However, a vertical presentation is usually
preferred. Example below shows diseases distribution by types:

Bar Graphs: This is the use of rectangular bars to represent the magnitude of the observations.
Although the width of the bars should be kept constant for uniformity, the height of the bar is the
interest as it speaks to the frequency of the observation. Three types are described: Simple,
Compound and component.

a. Simple Bar Chart: This is representation of observations using rectangular bar. There
are gaps between the bars with each bar representing an observation. This can be the
 prevalence of diseases such as Malaria, Diarrhea and Tuberculosis.

b. Compound Bar Chart: This is used when you want to compare the pattern of
distribution of events (e.g. diseases) over time. Usually the bars are arranged in groups
representing periods on observation. In this case, we can examine the prevalence of the
three diseases: Malaria, Diarrhea and Tuberculosis grouped for different years. This is
frequently done for the purpose of comparison. It should have a key to explain what
makes up each bar for clarification.
c. proportional to the quantity of the parameters of each
observation.
 d. Component Bar Chart: This is when a single bar is used to sum the total number of
observations in specific area of concerns. For example, a single bar can be used to
represent Malaria, Diarrhea and Tuberculosis observed for each to be considered. It
should have a key to explain what makes up each segment of the bar for clarification.

Years Wheat Barley Oats Total

1991 34 18 27 79
1992 43 14 24 81
1993 43 16 27 86
1994 45 13 34 92
The required diagram is given below:

Component Bar Chart

100%
90%
80%
70%
60% Series 3

50% Series 2

40% Series 1

30%
20%
10%
0%
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

e. Histogram: This is used for data with numerical values and measured on an interval
scale. It is used to represent continuous random variables. It consists of a series of
vertical rectangles that extend over each other and therefore overlap. The histogram has
the appearance of the vertical bar chart but there are no gaps between the bars. Each
column represents a group defined by quantitative variable while its frequency is
measured by the area of the column. Usually, the interest in the histogram is in the length
 of the bars as the bars are proportional to the magnitude of the observed value, the width
of the bars are kept constant. The population pyramid is a modified form of histogram.

f. Frequency Plygon: The mid-points are plotted using the (x,y) ordered pair notation.
These points are joined by a straight line. It could be symmetrical or skewed.

g. The Cumulative Frequency Curve (Orgive): The frequency is the number of times an
event occurs within a given scenario. On the frequency distribution table, the occurring
frequencies are plotted separately against the variable being measured. Cumulative
frequency plots the total number of occurrence at the level being measured. It is defined
as the running total of frequencies. It is the sum of all the previous frequencies up to the
current point. It is an important tool in Statistics to tabulate data in an organized manner.
Whenever you wish to find out the popularity of a certain type of data, or the likelihood
that a given event will fall within certain frequency distribution, a cumulative frequency
table can be most useful. If for example, Census department has collected data and wants
to find out all residents in the city aged below 45, the cumulative frequency table will be
helpful.
Below is a cumulative frequency table provided by a lecturer following administration of a
test on a 100 students.
Table 1: Cumulative Frequency (Table of scores in a class of 100 Students)
Score Frequency (Number of Cumulative frequency
Students)
0-20 2 2
21-40 10 12
41-60 50 62
61-80 30 92
81-100 8 100

h. Pie Chart: this is a circular presentation f data in which the circle is divided into sectors.
Each sector represents an item or variable under consideration. The sector should have an
area equal to the frequency of the variable. Let’s consider the marital status of a sample
size of 100 respondents where we have Married 50(180 , Single 30(108 and Divorced
20(72 . The Pie Chart should have a key for ease of interpretation of the different
segments of the chart.

i. Scatter Diagram: A scatter plot in its simplest form is a way to display bivariate
data. Bivariate data refers to data collected that reflects two different variables. It is
 used when we want to examine the relationship between the two axes (X & Y Axes) on a
single variable in a graph. It is primarily used to observe and show a relationship between
two numeric variables. The scatter plots or diagram gives an idea of the nature of the
relationship. In a graph, when the variables are correlated, the points fall along a line or
curve depicting the nature of existing relationships. The better the correlation, the
tighter the points will hug the line. With a scatter plot, each point of bivariate data that
has been collected is noted but do not connect the points with a line. Instead, look at
the graph to see if there is some sort of relationship between the bivariate data. The
relationship might be strong or weak. Additionally, it may be positive, negative, or have
no relationship at all.
The scatter Diagram is used when:
a. You have paired numerical data.
b. Your dependent variable may have multiple values for each value of your independent
variable.
c. Trying to determine whether the two variables are related.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

This is the statistical model used when we cannot get all the elements within the population for
the study. Inferences are then made from the sample to the population. Inferential statistics deals
with hypothesis testing. The most frequently used are the Chi-Square and the T-Test

Chi-Square: The Chi-square denoted by the notation is a statistical technique for data
analysis. It is one of the most widely used distribution in statistical applications. The most
common use of the is the test of “goodness f fit” which refers to the comparison of the
sample statistics with the population parameters from a value that is normally distributed.

It can be used whenever we wish to examine whether or not, the frequencies that have been
obtained in a study through random sampling , differ significantly from those that would be
expected under a certain set of theoretical assumption.

These assumptions include:

a. The subjects in the sample must be randomly and independently selected.

b. Attributes of the variables are mutually exclusive ie, they qualify for only one category.
c. The sample size must be relatively large.

The chi-square is very popular for analyzing contingency tables and reports the probability that
the relationship observed in a random sample are representative of those that would be observed
if the entire population had been studied. It can also be used for tables in which one of the
variables had been grouped into categories or interval e.g. income. Its major weakness is that it is
influenced by the sample size.

The formula for is

e.g. In a study of the cause-effect relationship between alcohol consumption and liver diseases,
100 participants were studied, 60 of those who took alcohol developed the disease and 10 of
those who do not, developed.

Alcohol Consumption Present Absent Total

Absent 10 (A) 90 (B) 100
Present 60 (C) 40 (D) 100

T-Test: The Student T-Test is like the but is used to test hypothesis when the sample size is
small i.e. when it is less than 25 (some authorities says 100). The procedure for using the T-Test
to examine the Null Hypothesis concerning the population mean (µ) is the same as the Z-Test
except for the formula for calculating the test statistics

Procedure for Hypothesis Testing

1. State the Null Hypothesis (H₁)

2. State the Alternative Hypothesis (H₂)
3. State the Level of Significance ( ) or ( /₂)
4. Choose your test statistics i.e. either or T-test
5. Compute the numerical value of the test statistic
6. Compare Z(Cal) or T(Cal) with
Z( ) or Z( /₂) OR
T( ) or T( /₂)
7. Take a decision
If Z(Cal) or T(Cal) is greater than Z( ) or T( ), Reject the Null Hypothesis
When we reject a Null Hypothesis, we accept the Alternative Hypothesis