Distance Protection

Attia El-Fergany
Professor of EPS and Protection
Learning Objective

✓Principles of distance/impedance relays

✓Various characteristics of DP & their applications

✓Accelerating schemes

✓Challenges to DP
Remember

The best protection engineers have

expertise on the entire “Power System

Elements”, not just the relays!

Distance Relays (ANSI 21)

▪Past time – considered for only OHTLs

▪May be applied to distribution radial feeders

▪Backup – large Generators, and Transformers.

Limitations of OCR

This is impractical. So,

OCR is unsuitable. As a
result, Distance relay is
essential.
Key Advantage of Distance Protection

▪Unlike OC & EF protection, the key advantage of

distance protection is that its fault coverage of the
protected circuit is virtually independent of
source impedance variations.

▪Easy to coordinate and inherently directional.

Principles of Distance Relays

▪Since the Z of TL is proportional to its

length, for distance measurement, it is
appropriate to use a relay capable of
measuring the impedance of a line up to a
predetermined point.
Distance/Impedance relay

Distance = Electrical Impedance

1. Voltage magnitude
2. Current magnitude
3. Phase angle between current and voltage
Principles of Distance Relays

▪ The basic principle of distance protection involves the

division of the voltage at the relaying point by the
measured current. The apparent impedance so
calculated is compared with the reach point impedance.
If the measured impedance is less than the reach point
impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on the line
between the relay and the reach point.
Plain impedance relay characteristic

𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2

𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 < 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

Characteristic of combined directional /
impedance relay
Principle operation for distance protection

𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 =
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐
Primary and Secondary Ohms

𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖
𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
𝑉𝑇𝑅 𝐶𝑇𝑅

𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝐶𝑇𝑅 𝑍𝑝𝑟𝑖

𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑐 = = × =
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝑉𝑇𝑅 𝑍𝑇𝑅
𝑉𝑇𝑅
𝑍𝑇𝑅 =
𝐶𝑇𝑅
 Example - Setting

▪ The line loading on the circuit has increased, making it necessary

to change the CT’s from the existing 1200/5 to 2000/5. The relay
was originally set with a reach of 6.48 ohms to protect 90% of the
line length. What should be the new relay setting so that it will
still protect 90% of the line?
Answer – Setting Change
1200
𝐶𝑇𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 240
5
2000
𝐶𝑇𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑤 = = 400
5
𝐶𝑇𝑅
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝐿 ×
𝑉𝑇𝑅

240 divide 400

6.48 = 𝑍𝐿 × 𝑍𝑅,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑍𝐿 ×
𝑉𝑇𝑅 𝑉𝑇𝑅
𝑍𝑅,𝑛𝑒𝑤 400
= 𝑍𝑅,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 10.8 Ω
6.48 240
Advantages over Overcurrent Relaying
✓Greater instantaneous trip coverage

✓Lower sensitivity to source impedance changes

✓Better sensitivity to fault currents

✓Reduced sensitivity to load

✓Easier coordination with other distance relays

Typical Settings of basic zones

Instantaneously

1st Zone 80% Time delay

2nd Zone 120% Time delay

3rd Zone 200%

Mho Impedance characteristics
Basic Distance Scheme
Typical impedances of OHTL

kV 𝒁𝟏 𝛀/𝒌𝒎 Line angle (Θ)

6.6 – 24 0.4 20 ~ 45 deg
22 - 66 0.4 45 ~ 75 deg
110 - 220 0.4 60 ~ 80 deg
>220 - 750 0.3 75 ~ 89 deg

Θ generally used to set relay maximum torque angle (MTA)

OHTL
▪Classification of line length depends on: ZS
SIR =
✓Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR), and ZL
✓Nominal voltage

▪Length considerations:
✓Short Lines: SIR > 4
✓Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
✓Long Lines: SIR < 0.5
 Importance SIR

If
ZL
𝐸
G E VF 𝑉𝐹 =
1 + 𝑆𝐼𝑅

distance relay

For a distance relay it is more hard to operate on a short line

(large SIR) than on a long line (small SIR)!
Modified Impedance Relays

• Shift center of the characteristic

circle along the line impedance
• Reduces the sensitivity to load
currents
• Reduces the sensitivity to
reverse faults
 Quadrilateral/Trapezoidal Characteristic

▪ High level of freedom in settings

▪ Blinders on left and right can be moved in or
out
✓More immunity to load encroachment (in)
✓More fault resistance coverage (out)

▪ Generated by the common area between

✓Left and right blinders
✓ Below reactance element
✓Above directional element
Quadrilateral Distance Relay
• Greater fault resistance coverage
• Increase the resistive reach sensitivity
• Overcomes MHO problems when
• close-in faults
• systems with strong sources
• Can detect both phase and ground faults
• require different algorithms
• Stretch in all directions to provide the desired
sensitivity
Relay operation

1 Type of fault recognition

..
Three-Phase transmission system

∆𝑉𝑎 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎
∆𝑉𝑏 = 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏
∆𝑉𝑐 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑐
𝑉 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑇 𝑉 012
𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑇 𝐼 012

1 1 1
𝑇 = 1 𝛼2 𝛼
1 𝛼 𝛼2
Three-Phase transmission system
𝑇 𝑉 012 = 𝑍 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑇 𝐼 012

𝑉 012 =𝑇 −1 𝑍 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑇 𝐼 012

𝑉0 𝑍𝑠 + 2𝑍𝑚 0 0 𝐼0
𝑉1 = 0 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 0 𝐼1
𝑉2 0 0 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 𝐼2

𝑉0 𝑍0 0 0 𝐼0
𝑉1 = 0 𝑍1 0 𝐼1
𝑉2 0 0 𝑍2 𝐼2
Self and Mutual Impedances

𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚
𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑠 + 2𝑍𝑚

𝒁𝟎 +2𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟎 −𝒁𝟏
𝒁𝒔 = 𝒁𝒎 =
𝟑 𝟑
Three-phase Fault Protection
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑥𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑎 +𝑥𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 𝑉𝑎
Ia

Ib
𝐼𝑎 +𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0
Ic

𝑉𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎
3-ph F
Relay
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑥𝑍1 𝐼𝑎
𝑉𝑎
𝑥𝑍1 =
𝐼𝑎
 Three-phase Fault Protection - PPS
𝑥𝑍𝑠
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑥𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑎1 +𝑥𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏1 + 𝐼𝑐1 𝑉𝑎1
Ia1

Ib1
𝐼𝑎1 +𝐼𝑏1 + 𝐼𝑐1 = 0 𝑉𝑏1
Ic1
𝑉𝑐1
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎1
3-ph F
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑥𝑍1 𝐼𝑎1
𝑉𝑎1
𝑥𝑍1 =
𝐼𝑎1
Earth Fault Protection
∆𝑉𝑎 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎
∆𝑉𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑚 0
∆𝑉𝑐 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑚 𝑍𝑠 0

𝑉𝑎 = 𝑥𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑎

𝑉𝑎
= 𝑥𝑍𝑠
𝐼𝑎
 Earth Fault Protection
𝑍𝑚
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 + 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑥𝑍1 1 + 𝐼𝑎
𝑍1
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎
𝑥𝑍1 = =
𝑍𝑚 𝑍0 − 𝑍1
1+ 𝐼 1+ 𝐼𝑎
𝑍1 𝑎 3𝑍1

𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎
𝑥𝑍1 = =
𝑍0 − 𝑍1 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐾0 . 𝐼0 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐾𝑛 . 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝐼𝑎 + . 𝐼𝑎
3𝑍1

𝐾0 called compensation factor for zero sequence current.

𝒁𝟎 − 𝒁𝟏 𝑅0 − 𝑅1 𝑋0 − 𝑋1 𝒁𝟎 − 𝒁𝟏
𝑲𝟎 = 𝐾𝑟 = 𝐾𝑥 = 𝑲𝒏 =
𝒁𝟏 𝑅1 𝑋1 𝟑𝒁𝟏
Relay Connection for a B-C Fault
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑎 + 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑐 +𝑉𝑓𝑎
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎 + 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑐 +𝑉𝑓𝑏
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑎 + 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑐 +𝑉𝑓𝑏

𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎0 + 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝑉𝑎2

𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎0 + 𝛼 2 𝑉𝑎1 + 𝛼 𝑉𝑎2
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑚 𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑐 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎0 +𝛼𝑉𝑎1 +𝛼 2 𝑉𝑎2
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑥𝑍1 𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑐 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐 = 𝛼 2 − 𝛼 𝑉𝑎1 − 𝑉𝑎2
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑎1 − 𝑉𝑎2 𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑐 = 𝛼 2 − 𝛼 𝐼𝑎1 − 𝐼𝑎2
𝑥𝑍1 = =
𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑎1 − 𝐼𝑎2
Philosophy of Distance relay Settings
Zone Direction Reach Time Setting (s)
Zone 1 Forward 80 % of the PL Instantaneous
Zone 2 Forward For Single Circuit :120 % of the 0.3 – 0.5 s
(>= 400 kV) PL 0.35 s

For Double Circuit: 150 % of PL 0.5 to 0.6 – If Z2 reach overreaches

50% of the shortest line; 0.35 –
otherwise
Zone 2 Forward 120% of PL or 0.3 – 0.5 s
(<= 220 kV) 100% of PL + 50% of ASL 0.35 s

Zone 3 Forward 100% of PL + 120 of ALL 0.6 to 0.8 s

Zone 4 Reverse 10% for the Long line (>100 km) 0.5 s if Z4 overreaches 50% of reverse
20% for short line (<100 km) shortest line 0.35: otherwise

PL: Protected Line, ASL: Adjacent Shortest Line, ALL: Adjacent Longest Line
Notes
✓Z2 reach should not encroach the next lower voltage
level

✓If Z3 reach encroaches next voltage level, Z3 time must

be coordinated with these protective devices.
Z1 covers only 80%?
✓CT and VT errors
✓TL is not completely balanced ± 15-20%
✓Information's of TL parameters

Zone 1 is under reached to prevent incorrect

operation for fault on next line.
Z2 for single line
✓To provide coverage to remaining
portion of protected line

✓Over reach margin should be minimum

20%
Z2 for double-line

✓Under reach due to mutual coupling

between parallel line

✓27% considering due to mutual additional

20% margin, total 150% of PL
Transformer Feeders

▪ Zone 1 = ZL+ 0.5ZT → T1 = Instantaneous

▪ Zone 2 = 1.2(ZL+ZT)
✓ T2 = Co-ordinate with downstream protection
Example: Calculate Settings for Relay A of Line 1 at Bus 1

✓ Zone 1: 80% of the zL1.

✓ Zone 2: 100% of the zL1 + 25 % of L2.
✓ Zone 3: 100% of the zL1 L1 + 110% of L2.

Do not consider infeed. Ignore settings of K0

L1: L = 60 miles; zL1 = 0.17 + j 0.6 Ω/mi; zL0 = 0.44 + j 3.0 Ω /mi
L2: L = 30 miles, zL1 = 0.12 + j 0.82 Ω /mile; zL0 = 0.65 + j 2.47 Ω /mi
Relays have CTR = 400/5 and VTR = 138000/120
Calculate Settings for Relay A of Line 1 at Bus 1

Z1[L1]=(0.17+j0.6)*60=10.2+j36 Ω pri

Z1[L2]=(0.12+j0.82)*30=3.6+j24.6 Ω pri

VTR
ZTR =
CTR

138000/120
= = 14.375
400/5
Settings for Relay A of Line 1 at Bus 1

▪Zone 1 Settings 21-1

Zr1=0.8 Z [L1]/ZTR= 0.8(10.2+j36)/14.375
=0.57+j2.00 Ω Sec= 2.08 74.09o Ω Sec
▪Zone 2 Settings 21-2
Zr2=[1.0 Z [L1]+0.25 Z [L2]]/ZTR=
[1.0 (10.2+j36) +0.25 (3.6+j24.6)]/14.375=3.03 75.25o Ω Sec
▪Zone 3 Settings 21-3
Zr3= [1.0 Z [L1]+1.1 Z [L2]]/ZTR=
[1.0 (10.2+j36) +1.1 (3.6+j24.6)]/14.375= 4.5 77.34o Ω Sec
Example network for distance relay setting
calculation

Z1 = 0.089 + j0.476 Ω/km

Z0 = 0.426 + j1.576 Ω/km

▪ Calculations are carried out in terms of primary system

impedances in ohms, rather than the traditional practice of
using secondary impedances.
Data given and Line Impedance
• The line impedance is:
ZL = (0.089 + j0.476) x 100 = 8.9 + j47.6Ω
= 48.42 79.41O Ω
▪ CTR=1000/1=1000
▪ VTR=230000/110=2090.91
▪ ZTR=2090.91/1000=2.091
 Zone 1 Phase Reach
▪ The required Zone 1 reach is 80% of the line impedance.

o O
Z1r= 0.8 × 48.42∠79.41 = 38.74∠79.41 Ω

O
Use 38.74∠80 Ω (SettingValue)
✓For Zone 1, instantaneous tripping is normal i.e. 30 ~ 50 ms.
✓A time delay is used only in cases where large d.c. offsets
occur and old circuit breakers, incapable of breaking the
instantaneous d.c. component, are involved.
Zone 2 Phase Reach

Ideally, the requirements for setting

Zone 2 reach are: At least 120% of the
protected line and to cover the
protected line + 50% of the next line.
 Zone 2 Phase Reach

▪ A setting of the whole of the line between substations

ABC and XYZ, plus 50% of the adjacent line section to
substation PQR is used. Hence, Zone 2 reach:

𝑍2𝑟 = 48.42∠79.41o + 0.5 × 60(0.089 + j0.476)

tZ2 = 350 ms.
(200 ~ 500 ms)
o o
= 62.95∠79.41 Ω → Use 62.95∠80 Ω
Zone 3 Phase Reach
▪ Zone 3 is set to cover 120% of the sum of the lines
between substations ABC and PQR, provided this does
not result in any transformers at substation XYZ being
included. Zone 3 reach:

𝑍3𝑟 = 48.42∠79.41o + 1.2X60(0.484∠79.41o )

tZ3 = 600 ms.
= 83.27∠79.41o Ω → Use 83.27∠80o Ω (500 ~ 800 ms)
Residual Compensation
▪ The relays used are calibrated in terms of the positive
sequence impedance of the protected line. Since the zero
sequence impedance of the line between substations ABC
and XYZ is different from the positive sequence impedance,
the impedance seen by the relay in the case of an earth
fault, involving the passage of zero sequence current, will
be different to that seen for a phase fault.
Residual Compensation
𝑍0 − 𝑍1
𝐾𝑛 =
3𝑍1

Z1 = 0.484 79.41O Ω/km

Z0 = 1.632 74.87O Ω/km

Kn = 0.792 -6.5O ZTR?

Accelerating
Schemes
Basic Distance Scheme
Basic Distance Scheme - Disadvantages
 Zone 1 set to 80% leaves 2 end zones

 Faults in end zone results in instantaneous tripping

at one end and time delayed at the other

 Time delay may lead to system stability problems

Longer clearance times - More damage

Carrier Communication Schemes

▪ The purpose of the signaling channel is to transmit the

information about the system conditions at one end of the
protected line to the other end and initiate or prevent
tripping of the remote circuit breaker.
✓Transfer trip scheme
✓Blocking scheme
Communication Channels
▪Power line carrier

▪Fibre optics

▪Microwave

▪Phasor measurement units (PMU) thru GPS

▪Private and Leased Pilot Channels

▪Dual communications channels are often provided.

Under-reaching scheme

▪The scheme in which the Zone-1 relay (set to

cover about 80% of ZL) is used to send a signal to
the remote end of the feeder for inter-tripping is
termed as transfer trip under-reaching scheme.
Over-reaching scheme

▪In this scheme, the relay set to reach

beyond 100% of the line, is used to send
an inter-tripping signal to the remote
end of the line. Zone 2
Blocking schemes

• In this scheme, a blocking signal is sent by the reverse

looking directional unit ZR to prevent instantaneous
tripping for Zone-2 & Zone-3 faults, external to the
protected line. Here ZR must operate faster than
forward-looking Zone-3 units and the signaling
channel must also be extremely fast is operation.
Communication-Based Protection Schemes
▪Direct Transfer Trip (DTT)/Direct Underreaching
Transfer Trip (DUTT)
▪Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
▪Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
▪Directional Comparison Blocking/ Unblocking
(DCB/DCUB)
 Directional Comparison Blocking/
Unblocking (DCB/DCUB)
✓DCB/DCUB are used when the communications
are likely to be lost during line fault conditions.

✓Power line carrier – signal communications is on

the same protected conductor.
Direct Transfer Trip Scheme (DTT)
DTT

Send Logic : Z1

Trip Logic : Rx

If the channel fails only the Basic scheme logic will be provided
DTT
✓When a fault is detected in Zone 1 from either line end, a
signal is sent via the communication channel to trip the
other end breaker instantaneously.

✓There is a potential for “false tripping”

(Maloperation) due to noise etc on the
communications circuit.
PUTT
PUTT
Permissive Underreach Scheme

Send Logic : Z1

Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
PUTT

✓Underreaching Z1 elements send direct transfer trip

✓Noisy channel can cause false trip

✓Very secure channel required

POTT
Permissive Overreach Scheme

Send Logic : Z2

Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
Permissive Overreach Scheme
External Fault

Send Logic : Z2

Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
POTT
POTT scheme works
✓Fault in Zone 2 AND permission-to-trip signal from
remote end relay.

✓The signal is keyed using a Frequency-Shift Keying

(FSK) transmitter/receiver

Absence of communication channel disables

the accelerated tripping
Distance Relay Application Problems
✓Minimum Voltage at Relay Terminals
✓Minimum Length of Line
✓Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
✓Over-Reach – Mutual coupling
✓Loadabilty and Load encroachment
✓Fault resistance
✓Power Swings
✓Voltage Transformer Supervision
Fault in Front of Relay

▪No voltage to make impedance measurement

✓Use a potential memory circuit in distance relay
▪Distance relays that do not employ voltage
memory techniques require a minimum
voltage at the relay terminals under fault
conditions.
▪This voltage should be declared in the data
sheet for the relay.
Minimum Length of Line

▪it is necessary to check first that any minimum

voltage requirement of the relay for a fault at the
Zone 1 reach is within the declared sensitivity for the
relay.
▪Secondly, the ohmic impedance of the line (referred
if necessary to VT/CT secondary side quantities)
must fall within the ohmic setting range for Zone 1
reach of the relay
▪In such cases, an alternative method of protection
will be required → use pilot line differential.
Minimum Length of Line

▪The latest numerical distance relays have a

very wide range of impedance setting ranges
and good sensitivity with low levels of
relaying voltage, so such problems are now
rarely encountered.
Apparent Impedance
▪3 Terminal lines with apparent impedance or infeed
▪Fault resistance also looks like an apparent
impedance
▪Most critical with very short or unbalanced legs
▪Results in
✓ Shorter zone 1 reaches
✓ Longer zone 2 reaches and time delays
▪Pilot protection may be required
▪Fault studies necessary to determine settings
Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed

Impedance seen > apparent impedance

𝐙 𝐑 − 𝐙𝐅
𝐔𝐑% = X100%
𝐙𝐑
ZR = Intended Relay Reach Setting
ZF = Effective Reach
 Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between Relay
and Fault

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑍𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 = = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑍𝐵
𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴

Relay with setting 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 will under reach with infeed.

Infeed at the remote busbar

▪ The relay at A will not measure the correct impedance for

a fault on line section ZC due to current infeed IB. Consider
a relay setting of ZA+ZC.
Over-Reach

Impedance seen < apparent impedance

𝐙 𝐅 − 𝐙𝐑
𝑶𝑹% = X100%
𝐙𝐑
ZR = Intended Relay Reach Setting
ZF = Effective Reach
 Overreaching Due to Busbar outfeed between Relay
and Fault
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐵

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑍𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 = = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 − 𝑍𝐵
𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴

Relay with setting 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 will over reach with infeed.

Example for Over-reach

•An example of the over-reaching effect is

when distance relays are applied on parallel
lines and one line is taken out of service and
earthed at each end.
Forward Reach Limitations
▪ Zone 2 of one line section should not reach beyond the
Zone 1 coverage of the next line section relay. Where
there is a link between the forward reach setting and
the relay resistive coverage (e.g. a Mho Zone 3
element), a relay must not operate under maximum
load conditions.
 Loadablity & Power Flow Direction

+Q
P in P out
Q out Q out
-P +P
P in P out
Q in Q in

-Q
 R-X Diagram and Power Flow Direction
+X 𝑃 2
𝑅= 2 2
𝑉
𝑃 +𝑄
P in P out 𝑄 2
Q out Q out 𝑋= 2 2
𝑉
𝑃 +𝑄
-X +R
P in P out
Q in Q in

-X
 R-X Diagram and Power Flow Direction
+X Low load

High load Apparent load impedance

φ
-X +R

Φ = 0 → ±30 deg
-X
Relay mho Characteristics
Relay mho Characteristics
Procedures of North American Reliability Council (NERC)

𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑍𝑟 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑀𝑇𝐴 − 𝜃

2
0.85𝑉
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 =
𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
1. Draw the zone 3 impedance vector in the R-X diagram.
2. Draw the load impedance vector at a specified power factor.
3. Draw a right triangle forming the 90 ° relay characteristic
between the load impedance vector and the difference vector
that is made up of Z3 – Zload.

For lens Characteristic, RCA=120 deg.

Maximum relay loadability and lens shape
𝑍3 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 − 𝛽 + 𝜑
Typical Solutions to Load Encroachment

✓lens shape.

✓Increase of the torque angle

✓This increases the load allowance of the zone, but may
reduce coverage for certain types of resistive faults.

✓“load blinder”. When the measured impedance is within

the load blinder region, the over-reaching distance
elements are blocked from tripping.
Load Blinder
Load Encroachment Considerations
(Recommended Practices)
✓1.5 times thermal rating of line or associated bay
equipment rating (minimum of all equipment)

✓Minimum voltage of 0.85 pu to be considered

✓Load encroachment angle can be considered as 30

deg (approx. 0.85 pf) .
Load Encroachment
𝟐
𝒌𝑽
𝒁𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 =
𝑴𝑽𝑨
▪Long lines present biggest challenge
▪Heavy load may enter relay characteristic – if available
▪Loading Criteria - RP
✓150 % of emergency line load rating
✓Use reduced voltage (85 %)
Calculate the Load Area setting – load encroachment

Maximum load current = 2200 A

Minimum operating voltage = 90%
Min Power factor cos = 0,85
ZLOAD (min) = Umin / 3 ILmax
ZLOAD (min) = 0,9 • 220 kV / 3 • 2200 A
= 52  (prim.)/ZTR

Max Load Angle = 1.2*cos-1 (cos ) RLOAD (min)

Max Load Angle = 1,2*cos-1 (0,85) Max Load Angle

= 38º
Van Warrington formula – Arc Resistance

▪ Due to the physical nature of an arc, there is a non-linear

relationship between arc voltage and arc current, which
results in a non-linear resistance.
28710
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = 1.4 𝐿 Ω
𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
L = arc length (metres)
I = arc current (A)
Other Empirical Formula – Arc resistance

440. 𝐿
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = Ω
𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
R a𝑟𝑐 = arc resistance (ohms)
L = length of arc (feet)
I = arc current (A)
Another Empirical Formula – Arc resistance

2
76 𝑉
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = Ω
𝑆𝑠𝑐

✓V is the system voltage in kV.

✓𝑆𝑠𝑐 is the short-circuit kVA at the fault location.

Arc Resistance
▪ The arc is only one of the elements that oppose to the fault current
return. In the case of ground faults, the arc resistance could be much
smaller than the added resistance belonging the rest of the
components. Some of the other factors influencing the equivalent
fault resistance are: type and nature of fault, tower and substation
earthing electrodes, ground resistivity (a seasonal changing value)
and type of shielding wires. In general, it is practically impossible to
determine a fixed value for the total fault resistance.
Effects of Fault Resistance

✓Reduces Fault Current Values

✓Reduces Voltage Sag in the Faulted Phase

✓Increases Measured Impedance Values

✓Limits Protection Sensitivity

Fault Resistance

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚𝑍𝐿 + 𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉 𝐼𝐹
𝑍𝑅 = = 𝑚𝑍𝐿 + 𝑅𝐹
𝐼 𝐼
Power Swings
▪Power swings are variations in power flow that occur
when the internal voltages of generators at different
points of the power system slip relative to each other.

▪A power swing may cause the impedance presented

to a distance relay to move away from the normal
load area and into the relay characteristic
What are causes of power Swings?

▪Changes in load magnitude and direction, line

switching, loss of generation, faults, and other
system disturbances.

▪These swings can transverse the distance tripping

zones.
 Out of Step (OoS)
𝑉𝑅
𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿 𝐸𝑆 ∠0
𝑍𝐺 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝑆

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿 − 𝐸𝑆 ∠0
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿- 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐺
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑆

𝑉𝑅 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = = − 𝑍𝐺 𝑍𝑅 = . 𝑍𝑇 − 𝑍𝐺
𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿−𝐸𝑆 ∠0
 𝐸𝐺
OoS 𝑘= → 𝐸𝐺 = 𝑘𝐸𝑆
𝐸𝑆
𝑘∠𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = . 𝑍𝑇 − 𝑍𝐺
𝑘∠𝛿−1∠0

1∠𝛿 1∠ − 𝛿
= × . 𝑘𝑍𝑇 − 𝑍𝐺
𝑘∠𝛿 − 1∠0 1∠ − 𝛿
1∠𝛿 1∠ − 𝛿 1
× =
𝑘∠𝛿 − 1∠0 1∠ − 𝛿 𝑘 − 1∠ − 𝛿

1 𝑘 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
= =
𝑘 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑘 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿

𝑘−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿−𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑘. 𝑍𝑇 . − 𝑍𝐺
𝑘−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿−𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
k=1 𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . − 𝑍𝐺
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 2 2
− 𝑍𝐺
1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . − 𝑍𝐺
2 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
1 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿/2
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 1 − − 𝑍𝐺
2 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿/2

1 𝑗2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿/2

𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 1 − − 𝑍𝐺
2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿/2

1
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 1 − 𝑗𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛿/2 − 𝑍𝐺
2
ZR Trajectory of OoS for Different EG and ES Ratios
Loci for n ≠ 1 are Circles
𝑍𝑇
𝑂𝑆 = 2
𝑘 −1
𝑘𝑍𝑇
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 2
𝑘 −1
𝐸𝐺
𝑘=
𝐸𝑆
Out-of-step protection C37.102
▪ Should not be applied unless stability studies indicate
that it is needed.
▪ Should be applied in accordance with the results of
those studies.
▪ Must be reviewed as system conditions change.
▪ In General, for large machines of 100’s MW ratings
Loss of Potential of VT supply can cause mal trips

▪ Loss of one or more phase voltages prevents the relay from

properly determining fault distance or direction. Occasional
LOP (loss-of-potential) to the distance relay, while
unavoidable, is detectable. When the relay detects the loss-
of-potential, the relay can block distance element operation,
block or enable forward directional overcurrent elements,
and issue an alarm for any true LOP condition.
Voltage Transformer Supervision

▪ Fuses or sensitive miniature circuit breakers normally

protect the secondary wiring between the voltage
transformer secondary windings and the relay terminals.

▪ Distance relays having:

✓sound phase polarisation
✓voltage memory polarisation
Additional features in a distance relay

✓Fault Location ✓Measurements of voltages, currents, etc.

✓Instantaneous OC ✓Event Recorder & CB failure detection/logic

✓ CT supervision ✓Directional/Non-directional OC & EF

✓Check synchroniser ✓ Negative sequence protection

✓Auto-reclose ✓Under/Overvoltage protection

✓CB state monitoring, condition ✓Broken conductor detection

monitoring & control ✓User-programmable scheme logic

 END

Any Questions,
Please…

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