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 Norman S. Nise

Nise
NOW WITH HARDWARE INTERFACE
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS USING CONTROL SYSTEMS
E NGIN EERIN G
NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS™ myDAQ

Close the loop between the lectures and lab. Integrated throughout the Nise text are 10
virtual experiments, which enable students to implement the design-simulate-prototype
workflow of practicing engineers. Powered by LabVIEW™ software and simulations
of Quanser lab plants, the virtual labs enable students to apply concepts to virtual
systems, implement control solutions and evaluate results. The virtual labs deepen the
Seventh Edition
homework learning experience and prepare students to make more effective use of
their time in the lab.

ENGINEERING
CONTROL SYSTEMS
IN A D D ITION

· 20% new end-of-chapter problems that highlight biomedical, robotics, or other

engineering applications, including a new progressive analysis and design problem—a
solar energy parabolic trough collector.

· Greater emphasis on computer-aided analysis and design, including MATLAB®,

LabVIEW™, and Simulink®. MATLAB® and Simulink® have has been updated to
R2014a and a new section has been added: Using Simulink® for control system design.
LabVIEW™ has been updated to LabVIEW™ 2013.

· Hardware Interface Laboratory experiments have been added to certain chapters. These
experiments use National Instruments™ myDAQ to interface your computer with actual
hardware to test control system principles in the real-world. An included tutorial on the
use of myDAQ gives the students the background they need to do the experiments.

Seventh
Cover Design: Wendy Lai
Edition
Cover Image: Spencer Platt/Getty Images ISBN 978-1-118-17051-9
90000

www.wiley.com/college/nise

9 781118 170519

Nise_Control7e.indd 1 10/21/14 10:05 AM

WEBFFIRS 10/29/2014 0:50:34 Page 4

To my wife, Ellen; sons, Benjamin and Alan; and daughter, Sharon, and their families.

Vice President & Executive Publisher Don Fowley

Executive Editor Dan Sayre
Editorial Assistant Francesca Baratta
Content Manager Ellinor Wagner
Executive Marketing Manager Christopher Ruel
Design Director Harry Nolan
Senior Designer Wendy Lai
Photo Editor Elizabeth Blomster
Senior Product Designer Jenny Welter
Associate Editor Wendy Ashenberg
Cover Photo Credit Spencer Platt/Getty Images

This book was set in 10/12 pt Lato Black by Thomson Digital and printed and bound by Courier Kendallville. The
cover was printed by Courier Kendallville.
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need. (Photo by Spencer Platt/Getty Images). This book has not been approved, licensed, or sponsored by Honda.
Copyright  2015, 2011, 2008, 2004, 2000, 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
The software programs and experiments available with this book have been included for their instructional value. They
have been tested with care but are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. The publisher and author do not offer any
warranties or restrictions, nor do they accept any liabilities with respect to the programs and experiments.
AMTRAK is a registered trademark of National Railroad Passenger Corporation. Adobe and Acrobat are trademarks
of Adobe Systems, Inc. which may be registered in some jurisdictions. FANUC is a registered trademark of FANUC,
Ltd. Microsoft, Visual Basic, and PowerPoint are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. QuickBasic is a
trademark of Microsoft Corporation. MATLAB and SIMULINK are registered trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc.
The Control System Toolbox, LTI Viewer, Root Locus Design GUI, Symbolic Math Toolbox, Simulink Control
Design, and MathWorks are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. LabVIEW is a registered trademark of National
Instruments Corporation. Segway is a registered trademark of Segway, Inc. in the United States and/or other countries.
Chevrolet Volt is a trademark of General Motors LLC. Virtual plant simulations pictured and referred to herein are
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Quanser virtual plant simulations pictured and referred to herein may be subject to change without notice. ASIMO is a
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nise, Norman S.
Control systems engineering / Norman S. Nise, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. — Seventh edition.
1 online resource.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.
ISBN 978-1-118-80082-9 (pdf) — ISBN 978-1-118-17051-9 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Automatic control–Textbooks. 2. Systems engineering–Textbooks. I. Title.
TJ213
629.8–dc23
2014037468
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
WEBFTOC 10/29/2014 0:28:41 Page 5

Contents

PREFACE, ix Problems, 96
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 107
1. INTRODUCTION, 1
Hardware Interface Laboratory, 110
1.1 Introduction, 2
Bibliography, 112
1.2 A History of Control Systems, 4
1.3 System Configurations, 6 3. MODELING IN THE TIME DOMAIN, 115
1.4 Analysis and Design Objectives, 9 3.1 Introduction, 116
Case Study, 11 3.2 Some Observations, 116
1.5 The Design Process, 14 3.3 The General State-Space
1.6 Computer-Aided Design, 19 Representation, 120
1.7 The Control Systems Engineer, 20 3.4 Applying the State-Space
Representation, 122
Summary, 21
3.5 Converting a Transfer Function to
Review Questions, 22
State Space, 130
Problems, 22
3.6 Converting from State Space to a
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 29 Transfer Function, 136
Bibliography, 30 3.7 Linearization, 138
2. MODELING IN THE FREQUENCY Case Studies, 141
DOMAIN, 33 Summary, 145
2.1 Introduction, 34 Review Questions, 146
2.2 Laplace Transform Review, 35 Problems, 146
2.3 The Transfer Function, 44 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 153
2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions, 47 Bibliography, 155
2.5 Translational Mechanical System Transfer
Functions, 61 4. TIME RESPONSE, 157
2.6 Rotational Mechanical System Transfer 4.1 Introduction, 158
Functions, 69 4.2 Poles, Zeros, and System Response, 158
2.7 Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears, 73 4.3 First-Order Systems, 162
2.8 Electromechanical System 4.4 Second-Order Systems: Introduction, 164
Transfer Functions, 77 4.5 The General Second-Order System, 169
2.9 Electric Circuit Analogs, 83 4.6 Underdamped Second-Order Systems, 173
2.10 Nonlinearities, 86 4.7 System Response with Additional
2.11 Linearization, 87 Poles, 182
Case Studies, 92 4.8 System Response with Zeros, 186
Summary, 95 4.9 Effects of Nonlinearities upon
Review Questions, 95 Time Response, 192

v
WEBFTOC 10/29/2014 0:28:41 Page 6

vi Contents

4.10 Laplace Transform Solution of State 7. STEADY-STATE ERRORS, 335

Equations, 194 7.1 Introduction, 336
4.11 Time Domain Solution of 7.2 Steady-State Error for Unity Feedback
State Equations, 198 Systems, 339
Case Studies, 202 7.3 Static Error Constants and System Type, 345
Summary, 208 7.4 Steady-State Error Specifications, 348
Review Questions, 209 7.5 Steady-State Error for Disturbances, 351
Problems, 210 7.6 Steady-State Error for Nonunity
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 223 Feedback Systems, 353
Hardware Interface Laboratory, 226 7.7 Sensitivity, 356
Bibliography, 231 7.8 Steady-State Error for Systems in
State Space, 359
5. REDUCTION OF MULTIPLE
Case Studies, 362
SUBSYSTEMS, 235
Summary, 365
5.1 Introduction, 236
Review Questions, 366
5.2 Block Diagrams, 236
Problems, 367
5.3 Analysis and Design of Feedback
Systems, 245 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 377
5.4 Signal-Flow Graphs, 248 Bibliography, 379
5.5 Mason’s Rule, 251 8. ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUES, 381
5.6 Signal-Flow Graphs of State 8.1 Introduction, 382
Equations, 254
8.2 Defining the Root Locus, 386
5.7 Alternative Representations in
8.3 Properties of the Root Locus, 388
State Space, 256
8.4 Sketching the Root Locus, 390
5.8 Similarity Transformations, 265
8.5 Refining the Sketch, 395
Case Studies, 272
8.6 An Example, 404
Summary, 278
8.7 Transient Response Design via Gain
Review Questions, 278
Adjustment, 407
Problems, 279
8.8 Generalized Root Locus, 411
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 295
8.9 Root Locus for Positive-Feedback
Bibliography, 296 Systems, 413
6. STABILITY, 299 8.10 Pole Sensitivity, 415
6.1 Introduction, 300 Case Studies, 417
6.2 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion, 303 Summary, 422
6.3 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion: Special Cases, 305 Review Questions, 423
6.4 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion: Problems, 423
Additional Examples, 311 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 439
6.5 Stability in State Space, 318 Hardware Interface Laboratory, 441
Case Studies, 321 Bibliography, 447
Summary, 323
9. DESIGN VIA ROOT LOCUS, 449
Review Questions, 323
9.1 Introduction, 450
Problems, 324
9.2 Improving Steady-State Error via
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 332 Cascade Compensation, 453
Bibliography, 333
WEBFTOC 10/29/2014 0:28:41 Page 7

Contents vii

9.3 Improving Transient Response via Cascade 11.2 Transient Response via Gain
Compensation, 462 Adjustment, 615
9.4 Improving Steady-State Error and Transient 11.3 Lag Compensation, 618
Response, 474 11.4 Lead Compensation, 623
9.5 Feedback Compensation, 487 11.5 Lag-Lead Compensation, 629
9.6 Physical Realization of Compensation, 495 Case Studies, 638
Case Studies, 500 Summary, 640
Summary, 504 Review Questions, 640
Review Questions, 505 Problems, 641
Problems, 506 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 646
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 519 Bibliography, 647
Hardware Interface Laboratory, 520
Bibliography, 523 12. DESIGN VIA STATE SPACE, 649
12.1 Introduction, 650
10. FREQUENCY RESPONSE TECHNIQUES, 525 12.2 Controller Design, 651
10.1 Introduction, 526 12.3 Controllability, 658
10.2 Asymptotic Approximations: 12.4 Alternative Approaches to
Bode Plots, 531 Controller Design, 661
10.3 Introduction to the Nyquist Criterion, 550 12.5 Observer Design, 667
10.4 Sketching the Nyquist Diagram, 555 12.6 Observability, 674
10.5 Stability via the Nyquist Diagram, 560 12.7 Alternative Approaches to
10.6 Gain Margin and Phase Margin via the Observer Design, 677
Nyquist Diagram, 564 12.8 Steady-State Error Design via
10.7 Stability, Gain Margin, and Phase Integral Control, 684
Margin via Bode Plots, 566 Case Study, 688
10.8 Relation Between Closed-Loop Transient Summary, 693
and Closed-Loop Frequency Responses, 570
Review Questions, 694
10.9 Relation Between Closed- and Open-Loop
Problems, 695
Frequency Responses, 573
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 703
10.10 Relation Between Closed-Loop Transient
and Open-Loop Frequency Responses, 578 Bibliography, 704
10.11 Steady-State Error Characteristics from
13. DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS, 707
Frequency Response, 582
13.1 Introduction, 708
10.12 Systems with Time Delay, 586
10.13 Obtaining Transfer Functions 13.2 Modeling the Digital Computer, 711
Experimentally, 591 13.3 The z-Transform, 714
Case Study, 595 13.4 Transfer Functions, 719
Summary, 596 13.5 Block Diagram Reduction, 723
Review Questions, 597 13.6 Stability, 726
Problems, 598 13.7 Steady-State Errors, 733
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 609 13.8 Transient Response on the z-Plane, 737
Bibliography, 610 13.9 Gain Design on the z-Plane, 739
13.10 Cascade Compensation via the s-Plane, 742
11. DESIGN VIA FREQUENCY RESPONSE, 613 13.11 Implementing the Digital
11.1 Introduction, 614 Compensator, 746
WEBFTOC 10/29/2014 0:28:41 Page 8

viii Contents

Case Studies, 749 GLOSSARY, 881

Summary, 753 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS, 889
Review Questions, 754 INDEX, 895
Problems, 755
APPENDIX E MATLAB’s GUI Tools
Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 762
Tutorial (Online)
Bibliography, 764
APPENDIX F MATLAB’s Symbolic Math Toolbox
Tutorial (Online)
APPENDIX A List of Symbols, 767
APPENDIX G Matrices, Determinants, and
APPENDIX B MATLAB Tutorial, 771
Systems of Equations (Online)
B.1 Introduction, 771
B.2 MATLAB Examples, 772 APPENDIX H Control System Computational
B.3 Command Summary, 814 Aids (Online)
Bibliography, 817 APPENDIX I Derivation of a Schematic for a
DC Motor (Online)
APPENDIX C Simulink Tutorial, 819 APPENDIX J Derivation of the Time Domain
C.1 Introduction, 819 Solution of State Equations (Online)
C.2 Using Simulink, 819 APPENDIX K Solution of State Equations for
C.3 Examples, 824 t0 ˆ
6 0 (Online)
C.4 Using Simulink for Control APPENDIX L Derivation of Similarity
System Design, 836 Transformations (Online)
Summary, 846
Bibliography, 846 APPENDIX M Root Locus Rules:
Derivations (Online)
APPENDIX D LabVIEW Tutorial, 849 Control Systems Engineering Toolbox (Online)
D.1 Introduction, 849
Cyber Exploration Laboratory Experiments Cover
D.2 Control Systems Analysis, Design,
Sheets (Online)
and Simulation, 850
D.3 Using LabVIEW, 851 Hardware Interface Laboratory Experiments
D.4 Analysis and Design Examples, 853 Cover Sheets (Online)
D.5 Simulation Examples, 865 Lecture Graphics (Online)
D.6 Interfacing with External Solutions to Skill-Assessment Exercises (Online)
Hardware, 875
Summary, 879
Bibliography, 879

Online location is www.wiley.com/college/nise

WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 9

Preface

This book introduces students to the theory and practice of control systems engineering. The
text emphasizes the practical application of the subject to the analysis and design of
feedback systems.
The study of control systems engineering is essential for students pursuing degrees in
electrical, mechanical, aerospace, biomedical, or chemical engineering. Control systems are
found in a broad range of applications within these disciplines, from aircraft and spacecraft
to robots and process control systems.
Control Systems Engineering is suitable for upper-division college and university
engineering students and for those who wish to master the subject matter through self-study.
The student using this text should have completed typical lower-division courses in
physics and mathematics through differential equations. Other required background
material, including Laplace transforms and linear algebra, is incorporated in the text, either
within chapter discussions or separately in the appendixes or on the book's Companion
Web site. This review material can be omitted without loss of continuity if the student does not
require it.

Key Features
The key features of this seventh edition are:
 Standardized chapter organization
 Qualitative and quantitative explanations
 Examples, Skill-Assessment Exercises, and Case Studies throughout the text
 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, Hardware Interface Laboratory, and Virtual
Experiments
 Abundant illustrations
 Numerous end-of-chapter problems
 Emphasis on design
 Flexible coverage
 Emphasis on computer-aided analysis and design including MATLAB 1 and
LabVIEW 2
 Icons identifying major topics
Let us look at each feature in more detail.

1
MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.
2
LabVIEW is a registered trademark of National Instruments Corporation.

ix
WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 10

x Preface

Standardized Chapter Organization

Each chapter begins with a list of chapter learning outcomes, followed by a list of case study
learning outcomes that relate to specific student performance in solving a practical case
study problem, such as an antenna azimuth position control system.
Topics are then divided into clearly numbered and labeled sections containing
explanations, examples, and, where appropriate, skill-assessment exercises with answers.
These numbered sections are followed by one or more case studies, as will be outlined in a
few paragraphs. Each chapter ends with a brief summary, several review questions requiring
short answers, a set of homework problems, and experiments.

Qualitative and Quantitative Explanations

Explanations are clear and complete and, where appropriate, include a brief review of required
background material. Topics build upon and support one another in a logical fashion.
Groundwork for new concepts and terminology is carefully laid to avoid overwhelming
the student and to facilitate self-study.
Although quantitative solutions are obviously important, a qualitative or intuitive
understanding of problems and methods of solution is vital to producing the insight
required to develop sound designs. Therefore, whenever possible, new concepts are
discussed from a qualitative perspective before quantitative analysis and design are
addressed. For example, in Chapter 8 the student can simply look at the root locus and
describe qualitatively the changes in transient response that will occur as a system
parameter, such as gain, is varied. This ability is developed with the help of a few simple
equations from Chapter 4.

Examples, Skill-Assessment Exercises, and Case Studies

Explanations are clearly illustrated by means of numerous numbered and labeled Examples
throughout the text. Where appropriate, sections conclude with Skill-Assessment Exercises.
These are computation drills, most with answers that test comprehension and provide
immediate feedback. Complete solutions can be found at www.wiley.com/college/nise.
Broader examples in the form of Case Studies can be found after the last numbered
section of every chapter, with the exception of Chapter 1. These case studies are practical
application problems that demonstrate the concepts introduced in the chapter. Each case
study concludes with a “Challenge” problem that students may work in order to test their
understanding of the material.
One of the case studies, an antenna azimuth position control system, is carried
throughout the book. The purpose is to illustrate the application of new material in each
chapter to the same physical system, thus highlighting the continuity of the design process.
Another, more challenging case study, involving an Unmannered Free-Swimming
Submersible Vehicle, is developed over the course of five chapters.

Cyber Exploration Laboratory, Hardware Interface Laboratory,

and Virtual Experiments
Computer experiments using MATLAB, Simulink 3 and the Control System Toolbox are
found at the end of the Problems sections under the sub-heading Cyber Exploration
Laboratory. The experiments allow the reader to verify the concepts covered in the chapter
via simulation. The reader also can change parameters and perform “what if” exploration to
gain insight into the effect of parameter and configuration changes. The experiments are
written with stated Objectives, Minimum Required Software Packages, as well as Prelab,
Lab, and Postlab tasks and questions. Thus, the experiments may be used for a laboratory
course that accompanies the class. Cover sheets for these experiments are available at
www.wiley.com.college/nise.

3
Simulink is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.
WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 11

Preface xi

Subsequent to the Cyber Exploration Laboratory experiments, and new to this seventh
edition, are Hardware Interface Laboratory experiments in some chapters. These experiments
use National Instruments’ myDAQ to interface your computer to actual hardware to test
control system principles in the real world.
Finally, in this seventh edition are Virtual Experiments. These experiments are more
tightly focused than the Cyber Exploration Laboratory experiments as they let students interact
with virtual models of actual teaching lab equipment produced by Quanser. These experiments
will help students gain a more intuitive understanding of the physical implications of important
control concepts. The experiments are referenced in sidebars throughout some chapters.

Abundant Illustrations
The ability to visualize concepts and processes is critical to the student's understanding. For
this reason, approximately 800 photos, diagrams, graphs, and tables appear throughout the
book to illustrate the topics under discussion.

Numerous End-of-Chapter Problems

Each chapter ends with a variety of homework problems that allow students to test their
understanding of the material presented in the chapter. Problems vary in degree of difficulty and
complexity, and most chapters include several practical, real-life problems to help maintain
students’ motivation. Also, the homework problems contain progressive analysis and design
problems that use the same practical systems to demonstrate the concepts of each chapter.

Emphasis on Design
This textbook places a heavy emphasis on design. Chapters 8, 9, 11, 12, and 13 focus
primarily on design. But. even in chapters that emphasize analysis, simple design examples
are included wherever possible.
Throughout the book, design examples involving physical systems are identified
by the icon shown in the margin. End-of-chapter problems that involve the design of
physical systems are included under the separate heading Design Problems. Design
Problems also can be found in chapters covering design, under the heading Progressive
Analysis and Design Problems. In these examples and problems, a desired response is
specified, and the student must evaluate certain system parameters, such as gain, or
specify a system configuration along with parameter values. In addition, the text includes
numerous design examples and problems (not identified by an icon) that involve purely
mathematical systems.
Because visualization is so vital to understanding design, this text carefully relates
indirect design specifications to more familiar ones. For example, the less familiar and
indirect phase margin is carefully related to the more direct and familiar percent overshoot
before being used as a design specification.
For each general type of design problem introduced in the text, a methodology for
solving the problem is presented—in many cases in the form of a step-by-step procedure,
beginning with a statement of design objectives. Example problems serve to demonstrate the
methodology by following the procedure, making simplifying assumptions, and presenting
the results of the design in tables or plots that compare the performance of the original system
to that of the improved system. This comparison also serves as a check on the simplifying
assumptions.
Transient response design topics are covered comprehensively in the text. They
include:
 Design via gain adjustment using the root locus
 Design of compensation and controllers via the root locus
 Design via gain adjustment using sinusoidal frequency response methods
 Design of compensation via sinusoidal frequency response methods
 Design of controllers in state space using pole-placement techniques
WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 12

xii Preface

 Design of observers in state-space using pole-placement techniques

 Design of digital control systems via gain adjustment on the root locus
 Design of digital control system compensation via s-plane design and the Tustin
transformation
Steady-state error design is covered comprehensively in this textbook and includes:
 Gain adjustment
 Design of compensation via the root locus
 Design of compensation via sinusoidal frequency response methods
 Design of integral control in state space
Finally, the design of gain to yield stability is covered from the following
perspectives:
 Routh-Hurwitz criterion
 Root locus
 Nyquist criterion
 Bode plots

Flexible Coverage
The material in this book can be adapted for a one-quarter or a one-semester course. The
organization is flexible, allowing the instructor to select the material that best suits the
requirements and time constraints of the class.
Throughout the book, state-space methods are presented along with the classical
approach. Chapters and sections (as well as examples, exercises, review questions, and
problems) that cover state space are marked by the icon shown in the margin and can be
omitted without any loss of continuity. Those wishing to add a basic introduction to state-space
modeling can include Chapter 3 in the syllabus.
In a one-semester course, the discussions of state-space analysis in Chapters 4, 5, 6 and
7, as well as state-space design in Chapter 12, can be covered along with the classical approach.
Another option is to teach state space separately by gathering the appropriate chapters and
sections marked with the State Space icon into a single unit that follows the classical
approach. In a one-quarter course, Chapter 13, Digital Control Systems, could be eliminated.

Emphasis on Computer-Aided Analysis and Design

Control systems problems, particularly analysis and design problems using the root locus,
can be tedious, since their solution involves trial and error. To solve these problems,
students should be given access to computers or programmable calculators configured with
appropriate software. In this seventh edition, MATLAB and LabVIEW continue to be
integrated into the text as an optional feature.
Many problems in this text can be solved with either a computer or a hand-held
programmable calculator. For example, students can use the programmable calculator to
(1) determine whether a point on the s-plane is also on the root locus, (2) find magnitude and
phase frequency response data for Nyquist and Bode diagrams, and (3) convert between the
following representations of a second-order system:
 Pole location in polar coordinates
 Pole location in Cartesian coordinates
 Characteristic polynomial
 Natural frequency and damping ratio
 Settling time and percent overshoot
 Peak time and percent overshoot
 Settling time and peak time
Handheld calculators have the advantage of easy accessibility for homework and exams.
Please consult Appendix H, located at www.wiley.com/college/nise, for a discussion of
computational aids that can be adapted to handheld calculators.
WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 13

Preface xiii

Personal computers are better suited for more computation-intensive applications,

such as plotting time responses, root loci, and frequency response curves, as well as
finding state-transition matrices. These computers also give the student a real-world
environment in which to analyze and design control systems. Those not using MATLAB
or LabVIEW can write their own programs or use other programs, such as Program CC.
Please consult Appendix H at www.wiley.com/college/nise for a discussion of computa-
tional aids that can be adapted for use on computers that do not have MATLAB or
LabVIEW installed.
Without access to computers or programmable calculators, students cannot obtain
meaningful analysis and design results and the learning experience will be limited.

Icons Identifying Major Topics

Several icons identify coverage and optional material. The icons are summarized as follows:
The MATLAB icon identifies MATLAB discussions, examples, exercises, and
problems. MATLAB coverage is provided as an enhancement and is not required to
use the text.
The Simulink icon identifies Simulink discussions, examples, exercises, and problems.
Simulink coverage is provided as an enhancement and is not required to use the text.
The GUI Tool icon identifies MATLAB GUI Tools discussions, examples, exercises,
and problems. The discussion of the tools, which includes the LTI Viewer, the Simulink LTI
Viewer, and the SISO Design Tool, is provided as an enhancement and is not required to use
the text.
The Symbolic Math icon identifies Symbolic Math Toolbox discussions, examples,
exercises, and problems. Symbolic Math Toolbox coverage is provided as an enhancement
and is not required to use the text.
The LabVIEW icon identifies LabVIEW discussions, examples, exercises,
and problems. LabVIEW is provided as an enhancement and is not required to use the text.
The State Space icon highlights state-space discussions, examples, exercises, and
problems. State-space material is optional and can be omitted without loss of continuity.
The Design icon clearly identifies design problems involving physical systems.

New to This Edition

The following list describes the key changes in this seventh edition:

End-of-chapter problems
More than 20% of the end-of-chapter problems are either new or revised. Also, an additional
Progressive Analysis and Design Problem has been added at the end of the chapter
problems. The new progressive problem analyzes and designs a solar energy parabolic
trough collector.

MATLAB
The use of MATLAB for computer-aided analysis and design continues to be integrated into
discussions and problems as an optional feature in the seventh edition. The MATLAB
tutorial has been updated to MATLAB Version 8.3 (R2014a), the Control System Toolbox
Version 9.7, and the Symbolic Math Toolbox Version 6.0
In addition, MATLAB code continues to be incorporated in the chapters in the form of
sidebar boxes entitled TryIt.

Simulink
The use of Simulink to show the effects of nonlinearities upon the time response of open-
loop and closed-loop systems appears again in this seventh edition. We also continue to use
Simulink to demonstrate how to simulate digital systems. Finally, the Simulink tutorial has
WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 14

xiv Preface

been updated to Simulink 8.3 and a new section has been added: Using Simulink for
Control System Design.

LabVIEW
LabVIEW continues to be integrated in problems and experiments. LabVIEW has been
updated to LabVIEW 2013.

Hardware Interface Laboratory

New to this edition are experiments that use National Instruments’ myDAQ to control an
actual motor. A tutorial to familiarize the reader with myDAQ is added to Appendix D
LabVIEW Tutorial.

Book Companion Site (BCS) at www.wiley.com/college/nise

The BCS for the seventh edition includes various student and instructor resources. This free
resource can be accessed by going to www.wiley.com/college/nise and clicking on Student
Companion Site. Professors also access their password-protected resources on the Instructor
Companion Site available through this url. Instructors should contact their Wiley sales
representative for access.
For the Student:
 All M-files used in the MATLAB, Simulink, GUI Tools, and Symbolic Math Toolbox
tutorials, as well as the TryIt exercises
 Copies of the Cyber Exploration Laboratory experiments for use as experiment
cover sheets
 Solutions to the Skill-Assessment Exercises in the text
 LabVIEW Virtual Experiments
 LabVIEW VIs used in Appendix D
 All files required to perform Hardware Interface Laboratory experiments using
National Instruments myDAQ
For the Instructor;
 PowerPoint 4 files containing the figures from the textbook
 Solutions to end-of-chapter problem sets
 Simulations, developed by JustAsk, for inclusion in lecture presentations

Book Organization by Chapter

Many times it is helpful lo understand an author's reasoning behind the organization of the
course material. The following paragraphs hopefully shed light on this topic.
The primary goal of Chapter 1 is to motivate students. In this chapter, students learn
about the many applications of control systems in everyday life and about the advantages of
study and a career in this field. Control systems engineering design objectives, such as
transient response, steady-state error, and stability, are introduced, as is the path to obtaining
these objectives. New and unfamiliar terms also are included in the Glossary.
Many students have trouble with an early step in the analysis and design sequence:
transforming a physical system into a schematic. This step requires many simplifying
assumptions based on experience the typical college student does not yet possess.
Identifying some of these assumptions in Chapter 1 helps to fill the experience gap.
Chapters 2, 3, and 5 address the representation of physical systems. Chapters 2 and 3
cover modeling of open-loop systems, using frequency response techniques and state-space
techniques, respectively. Chapter 5 discusses the representation and reduction of systems
formed of interconnected open-loop subsystems. Only a representative sample of physical
4
PowerPoint is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation.
WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 15

Preface xv

systems can be covered in a textbook of this length. Electrical, mechanical (both translational
and rotational), and electromechanical systems are used as examples of physical systems
that are modeled, analyzed, and designed. Linearization of a nonlinear system—one technique
used by the engineer to simplify a system in order to represent it mathematically—is also
introduced.
Chapter 4 provides an introduction to system analysis, that is, finding and describing the
output response of a system. It may seem more logical to reverse the order of Chapters 4 and 5,
to present the material in Chapter 4 along with other chapters covering analysis. However,
many years of teaching control systems have taught me that the sooner students see an
application of the study of system representation, the higher their motivation levels remain.
Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9 return to control systems analysis and design with the study of
stability (Chapter 6), steady-state errors (Chapter 7), and transient response of higher-order
systems using root locus techniques (Chapter 8). Chapter 9 covers design of compensators
and controllers using the root locus.
Chapters 10 and 11 focus on sinusoidal frequency analysis and design. Chapter 10,
like Chapter 8, covers basic concepts for stability, transient response, and steady-state-error
analysis. However, Nyquist and Bode methods are used in place of root locus. Chapter 11,
like Chapter 9, covers the design of compensators, but from the point of view of sinusoidal
frequency techniques rather than root locus.
An introduction to state-space design and digital control systems analysis and design
completes the text in Chapters 12 and 13, respectively. Although these chapters can be used as
an introduction for students who will be continuing their study of control systems engineering,
they are useful by themselves and as a supplement to the discussion of analysis and design in
the previous chapters. The subject matter cannot be given a comprehensive treatment in two
chapters, but the emphasis is clearly outlined and logically linked to the rest of the book.

Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the contributions of faculty and students, both at
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, and across the country, whose sugges-
tions through all editions have made a positive impact on this new edition.
I am deeply indebted to my colleagues, Drs. Elhami T. Ibrahim and Salomon Oldak
at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona for authoring the creative new
problems you will find at the end of every chapter. The new progressive problem, solar
energy parabolic trough collector, that is at the end of every chapter is the creation of
Dr Oldak. In addition, I am grateful to Dr. Oldak for creating the National Instruments
myDAQ experiments, which you will find in the Hardware Interface Laboratory section
of many chapters. Finally, I want to thank Dr. Norali Pernalete, also of California State
Polytechnic University, Pomona, for her contribution of the LabVIEW experiments and
problems continuing in this edition.
I would like to express my appreciation to those who participated in reviews of this
seventh edition. They are: James R. McCusker, Wentworth Institute of Technology, and Ji-chul
Ryu, Northern Illinois University.
The author would like to thank John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and its staff for once again
providing professional support for this project through all phases of its development.
Specifically, the following are due recognition for their contributions: Don Fowley, Vice
President and Publisher, who gave full corporate support to the project; Dan Sayre,
Executive Editor, with whom I worked closely and who provided guidance and leadership
throughout the development of the seventh edition; Francesca Baratta and Jessica Knecht,
Editorial Assistants who were always there to answer my questions and respond to my
concerns in a professional manner; and Anna Melhorn, Senior Production Editor, who
turned the seventh edition manuscript into the final product you are holding in your
hands. Other contributors who worked hard behind the scenes are: Wendy Lai, Designer;
WEBFPREF 10/29/2014 0:22:8 Page 16

xvi Preface

Harry Nolan, Director of Design; Jennifer Welter, Senior Product Designer; Kevin Holm,
Learning Space Content Manager; and Wendy Ashenberg, Content Editor.
My sincere appreciation is extended to Erik Luther of National Instruments Corporation
and Paul Gilbert, Michel Levis, and Tom Lee of Quanser for conceiving, coordinating, and
developing the Virtual Experiments that I am sure will enhance your understanding of control
systems. Others from National Instruments who contributed to the successful publication of
this book are Margaret Barrett and Kathy Brown.
Finally, last but certainly not least, I want to express my appreciation to my wife,
Ellen, for her support in ways too numerous to mention during the writing of all editions.
Specifically, though, thanks to her proofing pages for this seventh edition, you, the reader,
hopefully will find comprehension rather than apprehension in the pages that follow.

Norman S. Nise
 
WEBC01 10/28/2014 14:10:27 Page 1

Introduction
1

Chapter Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define a control system and describe some applications (Section 1.1)
• Describe historical developments leading to modern day control theory (Section 1.2)
• Describe the basic features and configurations of control systems (Section 1.3)
• Describe control systems analysis and design objectives (Section 1.4)
• Describe a control system’s design process (Sections 1.5–1.6)
• Describe the benefit from studying control systems (Section 1.7)

Case Study Learning Outcomes

• You will be introduced to a running case study—an antenna azimuth position
control system—that will serve to illustrate the principles in each subsequent
chapter. In this chapter, the system is used to demonstrate qualitatively how a
control system works as well as to define performance criteria that are the basis
for control systems analysis and design.

1
WEBC01 10/28/2014 14:10:27 Page 2

2 Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction
Control systems are an integral part of modern society. Numerous applications are all
around us: The rockets fire, and the space shuttle lifts off to earth orbit; in splashing cooling
water, a metallic part is automatically machined; a self-guided vehicle delivering material to
workstations in an aerospace assembly plant glides along the floor seeking its destination.
These are just a few examples of the automatically controlled systems that we can create.
We are not the only creators of automatically controlled systems; these systems also
exist in nature. Within our own bodies are numerous control systems, such as the pancreas,
which regulates our blood sugar. In time of “fight or flight,” our adrenaline increases along
with our heart rate, causing more oxygen to be delivered to our cells. Our eyes follow a
moving object to keep it in view; our hands grasp the object and place it precisely at a
predetermined location.
Even the nonphysical world appears to be automatically regulated. Models have been
suggested showing automatic control of student performance. The input to the model is the
student’s available study time, and the output is the grade. The model can be used to predict
the time required for the grade to rise if a sudden increase in study time is available. Using
this model, you can determine whether increased study is worth the effort during the last
week of the term.
Control System Definition
A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled
Input; stimulus Output; response
Control for the purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given
system
Desired response Actual response a specified input. Figure 1.1 shows a control system in its simplest form,
where the input represents a desired output.
FIGURE 1.1 Simplified description of a
control system
For example, consider an elevator. When the fourth-floor button is pressed
on the first floor, the elevator rises to the fourth floor with a speed and floor-
leveling accuracy designed for passenger comfort. The push of the fourth-floor
button is an input that represents our desired output, shown as a step function in Figure 1.2. The
performance of the elevator can be seen from the elevator response curve in the figure.
Two major measures of performance are apparent: (1) the transient response and
(2) the steady-state error. In our example, passenger comfort and passenger patience are
dependent upon the transient response. If this response is too fast, passenger comfort is
sacrificed; if too slow, passenger patience is sacrificed. The steady-state error is another
important performance specification since passenger safety and convenience would be
sacrificed if the elevator did not level properly.
Advantages of Control Systems
With control systems we can move large equipment with precision that would otherwise
be impossible. We can point huge antennas toward the farthest reaches of the universe to
pick up faint radio signals; controlling these antennas by hand would be impossible.
Because of control systems, elevators carry us quickly to our destination, automatically
stopping at the right floor (Figure 1.3). We alone could not provide the power required for

Input command
4
Elevator location (floor)

Transient
response
Steady-state Steady-state
response error

Elevator response

FIGURE 1.2 Elevator

1
response Time
WEBC01 10/28/2014 14:10:27 Page 3

1.1 Introduction 3

FIGURE 1.3 a. Early

elevators were controlled by
hand ropes or an elevator
operator. Here a rope is cut to
demonstrate the safety brake, an
innovation in early elevators;
b. One of two modern Duo-lift
elevators makes its way up the
Grande Arche in Paris. Two
elevators are driven by one
motor, with each car acting as a
counterbalance to the other.
Today, elevators are fully
automatic, using control
systems to regulate position and
velocity.

the load and the speed; motors provide the power, and control systems regulate the
position and speed.
We build control systems for four primary reasons:

1. Power amplification
2. Remote control
3. Convenience of input form
4. Compensation for disturbances

For example, a radar antenna, positioned by the low-power rotation of

a knob at the input, requires a large amount of power for its output
rotation. A control system can produce the needed power amplification, or
power gain.
Robots designed by control system principles can compensate for
human disabilities. Control systems are also useful in remote or dangerous
locations. For example, a remote-controlled robot arm can be used to pick
up material in a radioactive environment. Figure 1.4 shows a robot arm
designed to work in contaminated environments.
Control systems can also be used to provide convenience by changing
the form of the input. For example, in a temperature control system, the
input is a position on a thermostat. The output is heat. Thus, a convenient
position input yields a desired thermal output.
Another advantage of a control system is the ability to compensate for
disturbances. Typically, we control such variables as temperature in thermal
systems, position and velocity in mechanical systems, and voltage, current,
or frequency in electrical systems. The system must be able to yield the FIGURE 1.4 Rover was built to work in
correct output even with a disturbance. For example, consider an antenna contaminated areas at Three Mile Island in
system that points in a commanded direction. If wind forces the antenna Middleton, Pennsylvania, where a nuclear accident
from its commanded position, or if noise enters internally, the system must occurred in 1979. The remote-controlled robot’s
be able to detect the disturbance and correct the antenna’s position. long arm can be seen at the front of the vehicle.
WEBC01 10/28/2014 14:10:27 Page 4

4 Chapter 1 Introduction

Obviously, the system’s input will not change to make the correction. Consequently, the
system itself must measure the amount that the disturbance has repositioned the antenna and
then return the antenna to the position commanded by the input.

1.2 A History of Control Systems

Feedback control systems are older than humanity. Numerous biological control systems
were built into the earliest inhabitants of our planet. Let us now look at a brief history of
human-designed control systems.1
Liquid-Level Control
The Greeks began engineering feedback systems around 300 B.C. A water clock
invented by Ktesibios operated by having water trickle into a measuring container at
a constant rate. The level of water in the measuring container could be used to tell time.
For water to trickle at a constant rate, the supply tank had to be kept at a constant level.
This was accomplished using a float valve similar to the water-level control in today’s
flush toilets.
Soon after Ktesibios, the idea of liquid-level control was applied to an oil lamp by
Philon of Byzantium. The lamp consisted of two oil containers configured vertically. The
lower pan was open at the top and was the fuel supply for the flame. The closed upper bowl
was the fuel reservoir for the pan below. The containers were interconnected by two
capillary tubes and another tube, called a vertical riser, which was inserted into the oil in the
lower pan just below the surface. As the oil burned, the base of the vertical riser was exposed
to air, which forced oil in the reservoir above to flow through the capillary tubes and into the
pan. The transfer of fuel from the upper reservoir to the pan stopped when the previous oil
level in the pan was reestablished, thus blocking the air from entering the vertical riser.
Hence, the system kept the liquid level in the lower container constant.
Steam Pressure and Temperature Controls
Regulation of steam pressure began around 1681 with Denis Papin’s invention of the safety
valve. The concept was further elaborated on by weighting the valve top. If the upward
pressure from the boiler exceeded the weight, steam was released, and the pressure
decreased. If it did not exceed the weight, the valve did not open, and the pressure inside
the boiler increased. Thus, the weight on the valve top set the internal pressure of the boiler.
Also in the seventeenth century, Cornelis Drebbel in Holland invented a purely
mechanical temperature control system for hatching eggs. The device used a vial of alcohol
and mercury with a floater inserted in it. The floater was connected to a damper that
controlled a flame. A portion of the vial was inserted into the incubator to sense the heat
generated by the fire. As the heat increased, the alcohol and mercury expanded, raising the
floater, closing the damper, and reducing the flame. Lower temperature caused the float to
descend, opening the damper and increasing the flame.
Speed Control
In 1745, speed control was applied to a windmill by Edmund Lee. Increasing winds pitched
the blades farther back, so that less area was available. As the wind decreased, more blade
area was available. William Cubitt improved on the idea in 1809 by dividing the windmill
sail into movable louvers.
Also in the eighteenth century, James Watt invented the flyball speed governor to
control the speed of steam engines. In this device, two spinning flyballs rise as rotational
speed increases. A steam valve connected to the flyball mechanism closes with the
ascending flyballs and opens with the descending flyballs, thus regulating the speed.

1
See (Bennett, 1979) and (Mayr, 1970) for definitive works on the history of control systems.
WEBC01 10/28/2014 14:10:27 Page 5

1.2 A History of Control Systems 5

Stability, Stabilization, and Steering

Control systems theory as we know it today began to crystallize in the latter half of the
nineteenth century. In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell published the stability criterion for a
third-order system based on the coefficients of the differential equation. In 1874, Edward
John Routh, using a suggestion from William Kingdon Clifford that was ignored earlier by
Maxwell, was able to extend the stability criterion to fifth-order systems. In 1877, the topic
for the Adams Prize was “The Criterion of Dynamical Stability.” In response, Routh
submitted a paper entitled A Treatise on the Stability of a Given State of Motion and won the
prize. This paper contains what is now known as the Routh-Hurwitz criterion for stability,
which we will study in Chapter 6. Alexandr Michailovich Lyapunov also contributed to the
development and formulation of today’s theories and practice of control system stability. A
student of P. L. Chebyshev at the University of St. Petersburg in Russia, Lyapunov extended
the work of Routh to nonlinear systems in his 1892 doctoral thesis, entitled The General
Problem of Stability of Motion.
During the second half of the 1800s, the development of control systems focused on
the steering and stabilizing of ships. In 1874, Henry Bessemer, using a gyro to sense a ship’s
motion and applying power generated by the ship’s hydraulic system, moved the ship’s
saloon to keep it stable (whether this made a difference to the patrons is doubtful). Other
efforts were made to stabilize platforms for guns as well as to stabilize entire ships, using
pendulums to sense the motion.

Twentieth-Century Developments
It was not until the early 1900s that automatic steering of ships was achieved. In 1922, the
Sperry Gyroscope Company installed an automatic steering system that used the
elements of compensation and adaptive control to improve performance. However,
much of the general theory used today to improve the performance of automatic control
systems is attributed to Nicholas Minorsky, a Russian born in 1885. It was his theoretical
development applied to the automatic steering of ships that led to what we call today
proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative (PID), or three-mode, controllers, which we
will study in Chapters 9 and 11.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s, H. W. Bode and H. Nyquist at Bell Telephone
Laboratories developed the analysis of feedback amplifiers. These contributions evolved
into sinusoidal frequency analysis and design techniques currently used for feedback control
system, and are presented in Chapters 10 and 11.
In 1948, Walter R. Evans, working in the aircraft industry, developed a graphical
technique to plot the roots of a characteristic equation of a feedback system whose parameters
changed over a particular range of values. This technique, now known as the root locus, takes
its place with the work of Bode and Nyquist in forming the foundation of linear control systems
analysis and design theory. We will study root locus in Chapters 8, 9, and 13.

Contemporary Applications
Today, control systems find widespread application in the guidance, navigation, and control
of missiles and spacecraft, as well as planes and ships at sea. For example, modern ships use
a combination of electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic components to develop rudder
commands in response to desired heading commands. The rudder commands, in turn, result
in a rudder angle that steers the ship.
We find control systems throughout the process control industry, regulating liquid
levels in tanks, chemical concentrations in vats, as well as the thickness of fabricated
material. For example, consider a thickness control system for a steel plate finishing mill.
Steel enters the finishing mill and passes through rollers. In the finishing mill, X-rays
measure the actual thickness and compare it to the desired thickness. Any difference is
adjusted by a screw-down position control that changes the roll gap at the rollers through
which the steel passes. This change in roll gap regulates the thickness.
WEBC01 10/28/2014 14:10:27 Page 6

6 Chapter 1 Introduction

Modern developments have seen widespread use of the digital computer as part of
control systems. For example, computers in control systems are for industrial robots,
spacecraft, and the process control industry. It is hard to visualize a modern control system
that does not use a digital computer.
Although recently retired, the space shuttle provides an excellent example of the use
of control systems because it contained numerous control systems operated by an onboard
computer on a time-shared basis. Without control systems, it would be impossible to guide
the shuttle to and from earth’s orbit or to adjust the orbit itself and support life on board.
Navigation functions programmed into the shuttle’s computers used data from the shuttle’s
hardware to estimate vehicle position and velocity. This information was fed to the guidance
equations that calculated commands for the shuttle’s flight control systems, which steered
the spacecraft. In space, the flight control system gimbaled (rotated) the orbital maneuvering
system (OMS) engines into a position that provided thrust in the commanded direction to
steer the spacecraft. Within the earth’s atmosphere, the shuttle was steered by commands
sent from the flight control system to the aerosurfaces, such as the elevons.
Within this large control system represented by navigation, guidance, and control were
numerous subsystems to control the vehicle’s functions. For example, the elevons required a
control system to ensure that their position was indeed that which was commanded, since
disturbances such as wind could rotate the elevons away from the commanded position.
Similarly, in space, the gimbaling of the orbital maneuvering engines required a similar control
system to ensure that the rotating engine can accomplish its function with speed and accuracy.
Control systems were also used to control and stabilize the vehicle during its descent from
orbit. Numerous small jets that compose the reaction control system (RCS) were used initially
in the exoatmosphere, where the aerosurfaces are ineffective. Control was passed to the
aerosurfaces as the orbiter descended into the atmosphere.
Inside the shuttle, numerous control systems were required for power and life support.
For example, the orbiter had three fuel-cell power plants that converted hydrogen and
oxygen (reactants) into electricity and water for use by the crew. The fuel cells involved the
use of control systems to regulate temperature and pressure. The reactant tanks were kept at
constant pressure as the quantity of reactant diminishes. Sensors in the tanks sent signals to
the control systems to turn heaters on or off to keep the tank pressure constant (Rockwell
International, 1984).
Control systems are not limited to science and industry. For example, a home heating
system is a simple control system consisting of a thermostat containing a bimetallic material
that expands or contracts with changing temperature. This expansion or contraction moves a
vial of mercury that acts as a switch, turning the heater on or off. The amount of expansion or
contraction required to move the mercury switch is determined by the temperature setting.
Home entertainment systems also have built-in control systems. For example, in an
optical disk recording system microscopic pits representing the information are burned into
the disc by a laser during the recording process. During playback, a reflected laser beam
focused on the pits changes intensity. The light intensity changes are converted to an
electrical signal and processed as sound or picture. A control system keeps the laser beam
positioned on the pits, which are cut as concentric circles.
There are countless other examples of control systems, from the everyday to the
extraordinary. As you begin your study of control systems engineering, you will become
more aware of the wide variety of applications.

1.3 System Configurations

In this section, we discuss two major configurations of control systems: open loop and
closed loop. We can consider these configurations to be the internal architecture of the total
system shown in Figure 1.1. Finally, we show how a digital computer forms part of a control
system’s configuration.
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Minun tieni ovat etsijän teitä.

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sen, joka seppona seisoo ja takoo,
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orjuuttama!"

Naiset nipristi nenäänsä, herrat heitti keppiänsä.

Ällös huolko, herrasjoukko! Virta on samainen virta, joka

pulputti purona sinimetsän siimeksessä. Saasta jää jälelle,
virta vierivi eellehen, merehen elontyönsä tehtyänsä.

2.

Toisin siellä, toisin täällä.

Tahtoisin puhella kerran kera noiden päivän lasten,

rintamaiden riemulasten, ehtoisan etelän lasten, heidän, joill'
on henki, hehku, sanat suussa suitsevaiset, kynä kuin
kypene, laulu laaja niinkuin linnun lento.

Haastella halaisin heille: Toista on soitella somasti kesken

viinin viljelysten, kera kukkivan kevähän, alla täyden
päiväntähden. Toista laulella runoja, pystyttää pyhätulia
kesken kiljuvain kinosten, hallan maassa harmajassa.
 Tuuman jos sulatit täällä, vaaksan pakkanen pakasti.

3.

Tuulien erehdys.

Kuulin tuulien puhuvan:

"Suureksi puhaltakamme
Suomi, luokamme lujaksi,
vakahaksi, valppahaksi!"

Tuulet taivahan tulivat, puhalsivat päälle Suomen, maa

meni muruiksi, särkyi kansa, kantelo hajosi, sora-äänet yksin
soivat. Tuo oli tuulien erehdys.

4.

Armain kuoleman ajatus.

Pelkäsin unia ennen niinkuin peikkoja; levolle menin kuin

mestauslavalle. Miksi? Mietin. Ol' elämä armahampi yön unia,
nukuin nuoruuden suruihin, heräsin huomenen iloihin.

Siitä asti kuin pimeni päiväni, mustui mun eloni onnen orsi,
kaikk' on toisin yön unet on ystäväni, päivät peikoista
pahimmat, vaikeinta valvominen — armain kuoleman ajatus.
5.

Ei ne kaikki kuollehia.

Ei ne kaikki kuollehia. joita kuolleiksi sanovat.

Meren mustassa mujussa monta nukkuu nuorukaista,

meren suuren soutajata, laivatouvin laittajata. Kun tulee
tulinen ilma, myrsky merta myllertävi, nousevat aaltojen
selille, lainehille laulamahan.

Mik' on laulu kuolon lasten?

Laulu päivästä elämän.
Mikäpä elämän lasten?
Laulu kuolon kuutamosta.

Ja mik' on Jumalan virsi?

Laulu kerran keski-yöstä.

6.

Sateenkaari.

Kaari korkea kohosi, ihmislapset ihmetteli.

Hetken heijastui, katosi, mylvähtipä myrskyn kannel, soi

sävelet, Luoja soitti, kajahteli kaikki taivas ihmispeikkojen
peloksi, sorasävelten säikkymiksi.
 Noin jos lauluni olisit kaari kaunis taivahalla, enne ukkosen
edellä, merkki rautaisten rakeiden!

Jumalien keinu.

Kenen korkeat jumalat keinuunsa ottavat kerta, eivät ne

häntä yhdessä kohden pidä, he heittävät häntä välillä taivaan
ja maan — siksi kuin järjen valon häneltä he vievät.

Ja kuka maailmoiden mahdin kuuluttaja on,

hän tänään pilvien ääriä kulkee, ja huomenna makaa

maassa niin syvällä kuin koski, mi vuorten kuiluissa kuohuu.

Kuka keinussa jumalien keinuu, ei hällä elon aika pitkä ole,

syyn, syyttömyyden hän huiput nähköön — sitten tulkohon
tumma yö!

Tuska.

Hiljaa, hiljaa, muuten kuolema tulee, nyt ollaan oudoilla

ovilla. Hiljaa, hiljaa, tai kätkee kaikki, nyt jousi on liiaksi
jännitetty.

Ei askeltakaan, ei ees, ei taakse, nyt parhaint' on pysyä

paikoillaan. Hiljaa, hiljaa, aivan hiljaa, ettei risukaan risahtais.
 On malja täysi,
Yks pisara lisää —
ja kaikki kaatuvi kerrassaan.
Hiljaa, hiljaa,
hiiren-hiljaa,
niin pieni olla kuin mahdollista!

Mut se kestää kauan.

En kauan jaksa.
Mun valtaa raukeus, väsymys.
Hiljaa, hiljaa,
ei äänt', ei sanaa,
yks' liike pettää voi piileväisen.

Jumalan kiitos! Hän ohi kulkee. Kai kohta saanen ma

hengähtää. Mut hiljaa, hiljaa, ei viel', ei vielä, mun täytyy
kestää tai kaikki loppuu.

Väinämöisen laulu.

Ei iloja monta ihmislapselle suotu: yks' kevään riemu ja

toinen kesän ja kolmansi korkean, selkeän syksyn riemu;
kyntää, kylvää, korjata kokoon, levätä vihdoin rauhassa
raatamisestaan.

Ei suruja monta ihmislapselle suotu: yks' sydämen suru,

elon huoli toinen ja kolmansi korkean, ankaran kuoleman
suru; ystävä pettää, elämä jättää, taika on ainoa sankarin työ
sekä tarmo.
 Miks' laulaisin siis minä, jolle on kantelo suotu, riemuja
muita ja murheita muita? Taida en lukea tähtiä taivahan
kannen, en kaloja meren, en kukkia nurmen. Laulan ma siis,
mit' on ihmisen laulaa suotu.

Ei sovi urhon tietoja, taitoja laulaa, ei esiintuoda. Sankarin

sopii laulaa vaan, miten vaihtuvi vuodet ja viikot, miten kipinät
syttyy ja jälleen sammuu ja kuinka kulkee kuolon ja elämän
laki.

Kaikki on muu vain välkettä taivahan kaaren, katinkultaa,

laineiden läikkyä. Sankarin laulaa sopii niinkuin meri, suurena,
pyhänä, peljättävänä — lempeenä niinkuin lepäävä yö yli
maiden.

Monta on laulua, monta myös laulujen miestä. Yksi on laulu

ylitse muiden: ihmisen, aattehen, hengen ankara laulu.
Kansat katoo, ei katoa mahti, jonka on laulanut mahtaja
kansansa rinnan.
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