WOMEN

&
EDUCATION
Gender Studies | Assignment
Sir Tariq Bin Gul Kakar

Submitted by :
Syed Rehan Rafay Bukhari
 Women and Education
Outline:

1) Introduction: Women and Education

2) Women and Education

a) History of Women’s education:
i) Ancient Times
ii) Middle Ages
iii) Renaissance and Enlightenment
b) Women education: To make a Subservient and Submissive wife
i) Marriageable Beings
ii) Educator of Children
c) Second and Third wave of Feminism: Its impact on Women’s education
i) Gender Disparities in education
ii) Third wave of feminism: Intersectionality and Diversity in education
d) Radical Literature and its impact on women’s education
i) Radical Literature challenges Traditional Education
ii) Radical Feminist Texts and Critical Thinking
e) Establishment of women studies and ultimately gender studies as full fledge
subject

3) Challenges to women’s education

a) Community level challenges: Early marriage, Household chores and Gender
Based Violence
i) Challenges such as Child marriage, household chores, gender-based
violence and objectification of women
ii) Harassment, Bullying, Violence in Institutes and Safety Concerns
iii) Infrastructure and Teachers
b) Cultural, Religious and Dogmatic challenges
i) Cultural Challenges
ii) Dogmatic Challenges
iii) Religious challenges and misinterpretation of texts
c) Economic challenges: Costs and economic dependence
i) Cost of education
ii) Contribution
iii) Poverty
d) Psychological challenges: Women’s looks are also used to exploit them (Beauty
Myth: Naomi Wolf)
i) Societal Beliefs and Norms
ii) Lack of female role models
iii) Depression and Anxiety
iv) Sexual Harassment
v) Beauty Myth
e) Rise of terrorism and Afghan Girls education: Case Study
i) Implications for Women’s education
ii) Fear of violence and Intimidation
iii) Gender Segregation
iv) Women Mobility and Autonomy
4) Prospects of women’s education
a) Gender equality and Economic equality
i) Economic Growth and Equality
ii) Social and Cultural Benefits
iii) Women Human Development
iv) Gender Gap Reduction
b) Acceptance and inclusivity of women in androcentric world
c) Educated mother is necessary for a prosperous nation
i) Encouragement for daughters
ii) Educated mothers: Advocates for women education
iii) Economic independence and obliteration of poverty
iv) Challenges the social and toxic traditional norms

5) Feminism and role of education: Theories of education

a) Liberal feminism view of education
b) Radical feminism view of education
i) Gender Stereotyping in Schools
ii) Gendered Violence in Schools
c) Marxist and Socialist feminism view of education
i) Biological Determinism
ii) Class Traitors in Education
iii) Hegemonic Masculinity

6) Women’s education in Pakistan: A critique

7) Case Studies of women education related radicalism in Pakistan: Girls Schools

torched in Waziristan and Balochistan
a) Impact of attacks on Women’s Education

8) Conclusion
Introduction:
Women were deprived of education since the inception of patriarchal society. Their role was
limited to mothers, caregivers and submissive wives only. The industrial revolution and later
urbanization brought women out of their traditional roles but later again they were limited to
traditional tasks. Women defied the norms this time owing to renaissance memories and
enlightenment environment. Few women resisted and asked for uprooting the patriarchal
norms. The first wave of feminism mainly focused on political rights but it also concerned
education. Later, the second and third wave of feminism pave the way for formal education
for women and end of discrimination against women. Women face various challenges to their
education such as cultural, economic, psychological, security concerns, political, social,
dogmatic and religious challenges. Women’s education offers various prospects such as
economic equality, gender gap reduction, social and cultural benefits. Various feminist
schools view traditional education with their own lens and provide different theories such as
liberal education theory, radical education theory, Marxist and socialist education theory.
Women's education in Pakistan presents a complex scenario marked by significant progress
and persistent challenges as well as the security dilemma of girls school that haunts women’s
education in Pakistan.

History of Women’s Education:

Women were majorly deprived of educational rights since the patriarchal societies replaced
matriarchal societies and the role of women was only limited to reproduction and household.
Proper education of women began in the 20th century after the first wave of feminism and it
was exacerbated by following second and third wave. The 18th and 19th centuries saw
significant growth in the establishment of girls' schools and women's colleges, particularly in
Europe and Northern America.

a) Ancient Times:
In Ancient times, Peseshet of ancient Egypt is often credited with being the earliest
known female physician in history. Gargi Vachaknavi was an ancient Indian sage
and philosopher. In Vedic literature she is honoured as a great naturalist renowned
expounder of the Vedas, and known as Brahmavadini, a person with knowledge of
Brahma Vidya. In Athens, women were largely excluded from formal education,
though some received private tutoring. In Sparta, women had more freedom and were
educated in physical training and arts. Plato, in his Ideal state provided for the women
education also and owing to this he is also called as the first feminist 1.

b) Middle Ages and Renaissance:

Education for women during the medieval period in Europe was typically limited to
religious instruction. The Renaissance witnessed a gradual increase in educational
opportunities for women.

c) Enlightenment:
The Enlightenment brought a greater emphasis on reason and individual rights,
leading to increased calls for women's education.Thinkers like Mary Wollstonecraft
argued for women's education in works like "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman"
(1792), asserting that educated women would be better mothers and citizens. 2

1
Lesser, Harry. "Plato's feminism." Philosophy 54.207 (1979): 113-117.
2
Widad, Zenati. Women empowerment in A Vindication of The Rights of Woman by Marry Wollstonecraft.
Women Education: To Make a Subservient and Submissive Wife
Education has always been influenced by gender, class, religion and nationality. Historically,
women’s education was designed to teach middle class and upper class girls enough to make
them attractive marriage material for men, and lessons were often taught in the home by
poorly educated governesses. Education was seen as a way of making women better wives
and mothers, not as a way of transforming their lives.

a) Marriageable Beings:
One parliamentary report in the 19th century said girls should be educated to be
‘decorative, modest, marriageable beings3. Women’s education always conformed to
class expectations. Working class girls, if they were educated at all, were taught the
very basics of reading, writing, arithmetic and domestic skills such as needlework.
Women were not encouraged to have academic aspirations in case it undermined their
attachment to the home and it was believed that academic study was against women’s
nature and that too much knowledge could affect women’s fertility.

b) Educator of Children:
Church leaders were often against the higher education of women because they said it
went against the teachings of the Bible.The painfully slow process of education
reform began in the 1840s after it was acknowledged that if women were the first
educators of children, then they needed a solid education. Educational opportunity
was still in the gift of men and by 1864, it was noted that only 12 public secondary
schools for girls existed in England and Wales. These early schools for women
supported the findings of a report by the Taunton Commission which said, in the
1860s, that men and women had the same mental capacity.

Second And Third Wave of Feminism: Its Impact on Women’s Education:

The first wave of feminism focused mainly on the political rights such as women adult
suffrage. It also concerned education but the question of education was focused mainly
during the subsequent second and third wave of feminism. These waves paved the way for
women education.

a) Gender Disparities in Education:

The second wave of feminism placed a strong emphasis on eliminating gender
disparities in education and ensuring equal access to educational opportunities for
women. Title IX of the Education Amendments Act was one of the most significant
legislative achievements of the second wave. It prohibited sex-based discrimination in
any school or educational program receiving federal funding. This led to: Increased
enrollment of women in higher education. Expansion of women's sports programs and
scholarships. Greater protection against sexual harassment and discrimination in
educational settings. More women began attending college and pursuing advanced
degrees, breaking into fields traditionally dominated by men, such as law, medicine,
and engineering.

3
Theobald, Marjorie R. Knowing women: Origins of women's education in nineteenth-century Australia. No.
21. Cambridge University Press, 1996.
 b) Third wave of feminism: Intersectionality and Diversity in education:
The third wave of feminism emphasized diversity and intersectionality, recognizing
the varied experiences of women based on race, class, sexuality, and other social
identities4. Educational programs began to incorporate more diverse perspectives,
ensuring that curricula reflected the experiences of women of color, LGBTQIA+
individuals, and other marginalized groups. Third-wave feminism has emphasized the
importance of a global perspective in education, advocating for the rights of girls and
women worldwide. This has led to increased focus on education for girls in
developing countries and support for international initiatives aimed at closing the
gender gap in education.

Radical Literature and Its Impact on Women’s Education:

Radical literature during the second and third waves of feminism and authors such as Simone
de Beauvoir, Judith Butler, Julamith Firestone, Audre Lorde and Andrea Dworkin highlighted
systematic education barriers that were used to keep women away from education.

a) Radical literature challenges traditional education:

Radical women’s literature played a significant role in women's education by
challenging societal norms, advocating for gender equality, and it provided critical
perspectives on women's experiences. This body of literature has been influential in
shaping feminist thought, inspiring activism, and transforming educational
curriculam. Radical feminist literature reviled patriarchal structures and advocated for
the dismantling of male dominance in society.

b) Radical feminist texts and critical thinking:

Radical feminist texts discuss the politics of education, sexuality, reproductive rights,
and bodily autonomy. Radical feminist literature has been instrumental in the
development of Women's Studies and Gender Studies programs in educational
institutions. These programs include courses that critically examine texts by radical
feminist authors, providing students with diverse perspectives on gender issues.
Engaging with radical feminist texts encourages critical thinking about societal norms
and power structures. Students learn to question and analyze the status quo, fostering
a deeper understanding of gender inequality and social justice. Radical feminist
literature has pushed for greater representation of diverse voices and experiences in
educational curricula. This inclusivity helps create a more comprehensive and
accurate portrayal of women's contributions and challenges.

Establishment Of Women Studies and Ultimately Gender Studies as Full Fledge

Subject:
Second wave of feminism led to the development of subject that was particularly concerned
with the issues faced by women. It was the Women studies, that was later merged in gender
studies. Women and later gender studies played crucial part in imparting education to the
women. The second wave of feminism spurred the development of Women's Studies, its
programs and courses focused on women's history, literature, and social issues, that helped to
legitimize the academic study of gender and women’s contributions across disciplines.

4
Dill, B.T. and Kohlman, M.H., 2012. Intersectionality: A transformative paradigm in feminist theory and
social justice. Handbook of feminist research: Theory and praxis, 2, pp.154-174.
Feminist activists and educators raised awareness about the systemic barriers that were faced
by the women, it lead to to reforms aimed at creating a more equitable educational
environment. Educational institutions increasingly integrated gender studies and multicultural
education into their curriculam. Efforts were made to encourage women to pursue careers in
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Programs aimed at reducing the gender
gap in these fields included mentorship opportunities, scholarships, and targeted recruitment
efforts.

Community Level Challenges to Women’s Education:

Education is a fundamental right but the women were deprived of this right for nearly 2000
years. Women began to attain education particularly from 20th century. Even today, women
face significant challenges to get education.

a) Challenges such as Child marriage, household chores, gender-based violence and

objectification of women:
Community level challenges to women’s education often include early marriages,
marital rapes, household chores, gender-based violence, and objectification of
women. Traditional beliefs that prioritize men's education over women's limit girls'
access to schooling and education. In many communities, girls are expected to marry
at a young age, which often results in dropping out of school. Some communities may
not recognize the importance of educating girls, viewing it as unnecessary or
secondary to household responsibilities.These norms lead to lower enrollment rates
for girls, higher dropout rates, and limited support for girls' education from families
and community leaders.

b) Harassment, bullying, Violence in Institutes and Safety Concerns:

Girls face harassment, bullying, and violence on the way to and from school or within
the school environment and this leads to abandonment of education. In regions
affected by conflict or political instability such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, the
safety risks associated with attending school are particularly high for girls.Safety
concerns discourage families from sending girls to school, leading to decreased
attendance and higher dropout rates.

c) Infrastructure and teachers:

Lack of adequate school infrastructure, such as separate toilets for girls, deter girls
from attending school. Teachers are not adequately trained to address gender-specific
needs and challenges in the classroom. Teachers and school staff some time hold
gender biases that affect their interactions with and expectations of female
students.Gender bias and inadequate teacher training contributes to an unwelcoming
or hostile educational environment for girls, affecting their motivation and academic
performance. Lack of facilities and resources to manage menstruation leads to girls
missing school during their periods. Parents educational backgrounds and their
attitudes towards girls' education also significantly influence their daughters'
educational outcomes.

Cultural, Religious and Dogmatic Challenges to Women’s Education:

Cultural, religious, and dogmatic challenges to women's education are deeply rooted in
societal norms and beliefs that can significantly hinder girls' and women's access to and
participation in education. These challenges vary across different regions and communities
but share common themes that restrict educational opportunities for women.
 a) Cultural Challenges:
In society, the girl’s education is considered a waste of money as people see the
need for preparation of a life to care for a husband and children after marriage. This
means that a girl’s responsibility is to manage the household and it is thus investing
in girl’s education is not fruitful and it is better to go after sons education. Sons are
given so much preference that girls are forced to keep on giving birth until at least a
male child is born in the family. It does not matter how many female children are
born, the son is seen as the one who will keep the family name alive, whereas the
female children are seen as temporary members of the family.

b) Dogmatic Challenges:
Dogmatic adherence to traditions and customs prevent communities from adapting to
changing times and recognizing the importance of educating women. Norms related to
female modesty and honor restrict girls' mobility and access to coeducational
environments or schools that are far from home. These norms lead to lower
enrollment rates for girls and increased dropout rates, particularly in areas where
schools are not easily accessible. In some cultures, boys are preferred over girls for
educational investment due to the belief that boys will become the primary
breadwinners and support their parents in old age. This preference results in gender
disparities in educational attainment, with girls receiving less support and
encouragement to pursue their studies.

c) Religious challenges and misinterpretation of texts:

Certain interpretations of religious texts are used to justify gender inequality and
discourage or prohibit the education of women5. In some communities, religious
leaders hold significant sway and promotes the views that restrict women's access to
education. Such religious beliefs and interpretations create significant barriers to girl’s
education, particularly when they are deeply ingrained in the social fabric of a
community.

i) Debunking the Myth that religions restrict women education:

1) The Holy Quran:

Say: Can those who have knowledge and those who do not be alike?‟ So
only the wise do receive the admonition. (Al-Zumar, 39:9.)

So only those of His servants who have knowledge (of these realities with
a vision and outlook) fear Him. Surely, Allah is Almighty, Most
Forgiving. (Fatir, 35:28.)

2) Hadith:
Acquisition of knowledge is binding on all Muslims (both men and
women without any discrimination). [Narrated by Ibn Maja in al-
Sunan, 1:81 §224.]

5
Wood, Hannelie J. "Gender inequality: The problem of gender practices in the church." 75.1 (2019).
 3) Bible:
Now as they went on their way, Jesus entered a village. And a woman
named Martha welcomed him into her house. And she had a sister called
Mary, who sat at the Lord's feet and listened to his teaching. But Martha
was distracted with much serving. And she went up to him and said,
“Lord, do you not care that my sister has left me to serve alone? Tell her
then to help me.” But the Lord answered her, “Martha, Martha, you are
anxious and roubled about many things, but one thing is necessary. Mary
has chosen the good portion, which will not be taken away from her.”
[Luke 10:38-42 ESV]

4) Sanatan Dharam:
According to the Mahabharata, Kunti, the mother of the Pandavas, was
accomplished in the Atharvaveda. [Mahabharata 4.1.14.3.155, Nilkanth
Tika with Kolkata 1946]
According to Ramayana, some women were absorbed in lifelong studies
and did not marry . [Ramayana, 7.17 Madras 1933]

Economic Challenges to Women’s Education:

Women are economically dependent. Women work 2/3rd of working hours of the world, get
paid 1/10th of men, and own 1/100th of the economy. Economic challenges play significant
role in women's access to education and their ability to complete their studies. These
challenges create barriers that are particularly difficult for women and girls, especially in
low-income communities or developing countries.

a) Cost of education:
The cost of tuition is prohibitively expensive for many families, particularly in higher
education. Costs associated with uniforms, textbooks, and other educational materials
create financial strain as well. Families with limited financial resources prioritize
spending on boy’s education, perceiving boys as future breadwinners. Girls are often
required to contribute to household chores or care for younger siblings, reducing the
time available for schooling.

b) Contribution:
In many families, girls are expected to contribute economically by working, either at
home or outside, to support the family’s income. In impoverished households, basic
needs such as food, shelter, and healthcare take precedence over education.

c) Poverty:
Poverty is the most important factor that determines whether or not a girl can access
education, according to the World Bank. Even in areas where parents don not have to
pay school fees, it can be difficult to keep up with the costs of transportation, textbooks,
or uniforms. Parents also often rely on girl’s income to support the household, and
sending a girl to school means they spend less time helping in the home. If families can
not afford the costs of school, they are more likely to send boys than girls. When
parents have to make the decision between buying necessities like food over sanitary
napkins, girls are forced to stop learning because they can not manage their periods.
Psychological challenges: Women’s looks are also used to exploit them (Beauty Myth):
The human psychology, as “The science of the intellects, characters and behaviour
of animals including man. (Edward L. T,) has vital role to identify and investigate the
problems to solve them properly according to the psychological (Abraham, Maslow).
Psychological challenges keenly impact women’s education, affecting their motivation, self-
esteem, and overall academic performance. These challenges often stem from societal norms,
gender stereotypes, and personal experiences.

a) Societal Beliefs and Norms:

Societal beliefs that men are naturally better at subjects like math and science
undermine girl’s confidence in their abilities. Teachers and peers consciously or
unconsciously exhibit biases that discourage girls from pursuing certain subjects or
academic paths. This leads to self-doubt in girls and lower participation in subjects
where they are perceived to be less capable.

b) Lack of female role models:

A lack of female role models in certain fields, especially STEM, make it difficult for
girls to envision themselves in those careers. The absence of female mentors result in
fewer support systems for girls navigating their educational journeys. Without role
models, girls have lower aspirations and feel less motivated to pursue higher
education or careers in male-dominated fields.

c) Depression and Anxiety:

Many women experience feelings of inadequacy and doubt their accomplishments,
fearing they will be exposed as frauds. High expectations and societal pressures lead
to perfectionism, causing anxiety and fear of failure6. Low self-esteem and confidence
result in decreased participation, reluctance to take on leadership roles, and avoidance
of challenging subjects or tasks. Societal pressure to conform to traditional gender
roles lead to conflicts between academic ambitions and expected domestic
responsibilities. Women often face the challenge of balancing educational pursuits
with societal expectations of caregiving and homemaking. This pressure creates stress
and limits the time and energy women can dedicate to their education, potentially
leading to higher dropout rates. Academic pressure, combined with societal
expectations leads to high levels of stress and anxiety. Women experience depression
due to various factors, including discrimination, harassment, and lack of support.
Mental health issues impair cognitive function, concentration, and overall academic
performance, making it difficult for women to succeed in their studies.

d) Sexual Harassment:
Women and girls face sexual harassment in educational settings, creating a hostile and
unsafe learning environment. Gender-based bullying from peers undermine girls
confidence and willingness to participate in class. Experiences of harassment and
bullying leads to anxiety, depression, and a reluctance to attend school, negatively
affecting academic performance.

6
Vergauwe, Jasmine, et al. "Fear of being exposed and its relevance in the work context." Journal of Business
and Psychology 30 (2015): 565-581.
 e) Beauty Myth:
Beauty Myth was a groundbreaking feminist critique of the societal obsession with
female beauty. Author argued that the beauty industry and societal standards of beauty
are tools of oppression that reinforce patriarchal power structures. She defined the
"beauty myth" as the belief that a woman's value is closely tied to her physical
appearance.7This myth perpetuates unrealistic and narrow standards of beauty that most
women cannot achieve and those whole fall below the societal expectations are
humiliated, objectified and bullied. The book traced the origins of the beauty myth and
noted that as the women rose in prominence, she was contained by the beauty standards
to serve patriarchy. Wolf argued that as women made progress in other areas, the
emphasis on beauty intensified to maintain control over them. Owing to this control,
women choose beauty over education and fall in the trap of patriarchy.

Rise of terrorism and Afghan Girls education (Case Study):

On March 23, the first day of the school year in Afghanistan, eager female students arriving
for class found closed gates and armed Taliban guards. Despite the de facto authorities
assurances only days earlier that schools would reopen for girls above sixth grade, they had
barred girls from further education. In August 2021, for example, Abdul Baqi Haqqani,
minister of higher education, told AFP, "The people of Afghanistan will continue their higher
education in the light of Sharia law in safety without being in a mixed male and female
environment.” In mid-September 2021, however, only boys were permitted to return to class
and the status of girls went completely unaddressed. In December, acting Deputy Education
Minister Abdul Hakim Hemat said in a BBC interview that girls would not be allowed to
attend secondary school until a new education policy was approved. Officials advocating a
"safe learning environment" for girls offered scant detail on what that would mean or when it
might be arranged. The Taliban’s newly appointed minister of education in
September questioned the importance of education itself, saying, "No PhD or master's degree
is valuable today. You see that the Mullahs and Taliban that are in power have no PhD,
masters or even a high school degree, but they are the greatest of all."

a) Implications for women’s education:

The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan has had significant implications for women's
education in the country. The Taliban's strict interpretation of Islamic law, combined
with their restrictive policies and practices, has severely limited women's access to
education and participation in public life. During their previous rule (1996-2001), the
Taliban banned girls from attending school beyond the age of eight. They closed girls'
schools and universities, effectively denying education to millions of girls and
women.The ban on girls education resulted in a generation of women being deprived
of formal schooling, limiting their opportunities for personal and professional
development. Even after the fall of the Taliban regime, women and girls continued to
face barriers to education due to ongoing insecurity, cultural norms, and limited
resources. Schools for girls have been targeted by insurgent groups, including the
Taliban, through bombings and threats, further deterring families from sending their
daughters to school.

7
Wolf, Naomi. The beauty myth. Royal NSW Institute for Deaf and Blind Children, 1995.
 b) Fear of Violence and Intimidation:
Fear of violence and intimidation has contributed to low enrollment and high dropout
rates among girls, particularly in areas where the Taliban holds sway.The Taliban
enforce strict gender segregation in education, with separate schools and classrooms
for boys and girls8. They impose dress codes that require women and girls to wear
burqas or cover their entire bodies, making it challenging for them to attend school or
participate in public life.

c) Gender Segregation:
Gender segregation and restrictive dress codes perpetuate gender inequality and limit
women's freedom of movement and expression, including their ability to access
education. Women and girls in Taliban-controlled areas face limited opportunities for
higher education and vocational training, as many educational institutions and
programs are either closed or inaccessible to them.

d) Women Mobility and Autonomy:

The Taliban's restrictions on women's mobility and autonomy further limit their
ability to pursue educational and career opportunities.Women and girls are deprived
of the skills and knowledge needed to participate fully in society and contribute to the
country's development and prosperity.

Prospects of Women’s Education: Economic, Social and Cultural Growth:

The prospects of women's education are multifaceted and hold significant potential for both
individual and societal advancement. An educated class of women is necessary for uplifting
the society from the abyss of patriarchy.

a) Economic growth and economic equality:

Educated women are more likely to participate in the labor force, contributing to
economic growth. Reports show that closing gender gaps in education and labor
participation can lead to substantial economic gains9. Education empowers women to
start and run businesses, fostering innovation and economic diversification. Education
leads to better job opportunities and financial independence for women, reducing
economic dependency on male family members.

b) Social and Cultural Benefits:

Education equips women with the knowledge and confidence to participate actively in
social, political, and economic spheres. This empowerment leads to greater gender
equality and social justice. Educated women are more likely to stand against gender-
based violence and advocate for their rights, leading to a more just and equitable
society. Education empowers women to recognize and stand against gender-based
violence, and to seek help and support.

8
Bamik, Hamidullah. "Afghanistan’s cultural norms and girls’ education: Access and
challenges." International Journal for Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field 4.11 (2018): 83-93.

9
Kabeer, Naila, and Luisa Natali. "Gender equality and economic growth: Is there a win‐win?." IDS Working
Papers 2013.417 (2013): 1-58.
 c) Women Human Development:
Educated women are more likely to access healthcare services, leading to better
maternal and child health outcomes. They are also more informed about nutrition and
health practices. Education increases awareness and use of family planning methods,
reducing fertility rates and improving the quality of life for women and their families.

d) Gender Gap Reduction:

Educated women gain the knowledge and confidence to participate in decision-
making processes at home, in their communities, and in political spheres. This leads
to more balanced and inclusive governance, community development and gender
equality. Education opens doors for women to take on leadership roles in various
sectors, challenging traditional gender roles and inspiring other women and girls to
follow. Education increases women’s access to better job opportunities and higher
wages. Economic independence enhances their bargaining power within households
and reduces their dependency on male family members. Educated women are more
likely to start and sustain their own businesses, contributing to economic diversity and
growth, and setting examples of female entrepreneurship. Educated women and girls
can challenge and change traditional gender stereotypes and cultural norms that
restrict their roles and opportunities. It fosters critical thinking and awareness of
gender biases. Such women serve as role models, demonstrating that women can
excel in various fields traditionally dominated by men, thereby changing societal
perceptions.

Acceptance and inclusivity of women in androcentric world: A prospect of women

education:
Education helps in challenging and changing traditional gender norms and stereotypes.
Women who are educated redefine their roles beyond the traditional confines of
society.Educated women entering diverse fields: science, technology, engineering, business,
and politics showcase their capabilities and break the stereotype that certain professions are
male-dominated. Educated women bring diverse perspectives to the workplace, fostering a
more inclusive and innovative environment. Education empowers women to advocate for
workplace policies that promote gender equality, such as maternity leave, equal pay, and anti-
harassment policies. Education equips women with the skills and confidence needed to take
on leadership roles in various sectors, including politics, business, and community
organizations. Such women in leadership positions influence policies that promote gender
equality and inclusivity, leading to systemic changes.

Educated Mother is Necessary for a Prosperous Nation:

An educated mother plays a crucial role in promoting and facilitating women's education.
Such mother serves as a role model, demonstrating the importance of education through her
own experiences and achievements. This inspires daughters to pursue their own educational
goals.

a) Encouragement for daughters:

Educated mothers are more likely to encourage their daughters to attend school,
pursue higher education, and excel academically. They understand the long-term
benefits of education and actively promote it. Mothers provide academic support at
home, helping with homework, reading, and fostering a learning-friendly
 environment. This can improve their daughters academic performance and
confidence.

b) Educated mothers: Advocates of Women Education:

They are better equipped to advocate for their daughters educational rights, ensuring
they have access to quality education and the necessary resources. Educated mothers
have better knowledge about health, nutrition, and hygiene, leading to better overall
health and well-being for their families. Healthy children are more likely to attend
school regularly and perform better academically. They are more likely to educate
their daughters about reproductive health and rights, reducing the risks of early
marriage and teenage pregnancies, which can interrupt education.

c) Economic Independence and obliteration of poverty:

Educated mothers are more likely to be employed or engaged in income-generating
activities. This economic stability enables them to afford school fees, books,
uniforms, and other educational necessities for their daughters. By prioritizing
education, they help break the cycle of poverty, creating better opportunities for future
generations.

d) Challenge the Social and toxic traditional norms:

Educated mothers are often more aware of gender inequalities and are more likely to
challenge traditional norms that restrict girls' access to education. They advocate for
gender equality within their families and communities. They often take on leadership
roles in community organizations and schools, promoting policies and practices that
support girls' education. The educational achievements of a mother can set higher
aspirations for the entire family. Children of educated mothers are more likely to
aspire to and achieve higher educational levels themselves. Research shows that
children of educated mothers tend to have better cognitive development and
educational outcomes due to the stimulating and supportive home environment.

Feminism and role of education: Theories of education:

Talcott Parsons see education as an agent of secondary socialisation and feminists believe
that: Education transmits patriarchal norms and values and gender scripts. It legitimises
patriarchy and teaches women and girls to accept their position in society. Although there is a
common agreement among feminist sociologists, there are many perspectives on the function
and role of education. Some feminists argue that education upholds white supremacy through
the teaching of Eurocentric and whitewashed histories. It reinforces European capitalist
heteropatriarchy, meaning it teaches children that the nuclear family is natural and the only
legitimate family. Capitalist heteropatriarchy is a cultural and socio-political system where
European/Euro-American heterosexual men dominate women and sexual minorities.

a) Liberal Feminism Education Theory:

Liberal feminism is based on individual autonomy. Liberal feminists are primarily
concerned with equality between the sexes and believe equality is possible through a
change in law and legislation, which maximises individual autonomy 10. They are
concerned with overt sexism and the legal protection of women and girls in education.

10
Webb, Janette. "The politics of equal opportunity." Gender, Work & Organization 4.3 (1997): 159-169.
 Liberal feminists highlight that the education system has made a lot of progress.
While patriarchy still exists, girls have managed to make advancements in education;
for example, girls outperform boys at GCSE. Education is now useful to and benefits
girls because many of the barriers women and girls faced in the past have been
removed.

b) Radical Feminism Education Theory:

Radical feminists argue that education is a patriarchal social institution. They believe
the role of education is to reinforce patriarchal ideology and normalise the oppression
of women and girls. Radical feminists assert that men and boys are naturally inclined
to exploit and oppress women and girls, who are taught to work a triple burden shift 11.
Radical feminists believe the education system needs a massive restructuring. They
argue that even with the legal changes pushed by liberal feminists, gender
stereotyping is still pervasive in education.

i) Gender stereotyping in schools:

 Schools socialise children into gender roles.
 Girls are stereotyped as being more emotionally mature than
boys.
 They are also seen as quiet and docile, while boys are seen
stereotyped as being emotionally immature and dominant.
 Gender stereotyping teaches girls to be submissive and boys to
dominate

ii) Gendered Violence in School:

 Girls are subjected to many normalised forms of inequalities
and violence. Kat Banyard found that sexual bullying and
harassment are widespread in schools, and 37% of girls at
mixed-sex schools have been sexually harassed while at school.
Banyard suggests this happens because of power; boys want
power over girls.
 Education and schools have been accused of creating a culture
of impunity; this is when people can do whatever they want
because they know they will not face any consequences for
their actions.

c) Marxist and Socialist Feminist Views of Education:

Marxist and Socialist feminists argue that women/girls were the first oppressed class.
They reject the idea of “woman” being a natural category and the oppression of
women being a natural biological and evolutionary consequence. Marxists and
socialist feminists are largely critical of the education system. They argue that
education socialises girls to become and accept their roles as wives, mothers and
sisters within nuclear families. As capitalism is both an economic and cultural system,
women and girls are oppressed economically and culturally 12. The purpose of

11
Jóhannsdóttir, Nína Katrín. Patriarchy and the subordination of women from a radical feminist point of view.
Diss. 2009.
12
Monzo, Lilia D. "Women and revolution: Marx and the dialectic." Knowledge Cultures 4.06 (2016): 97-121.
 education is to transmit capitalist social practices, norms and values, which uphold the
oppression of women and girls.

i) Biological Determinism:
Through the hidden and formal curriculum, girls are taught to
internalise biological deterministic ideas of gender, which position
them as inferior to men. Biological determinism is the belief that our
genetics dictates our behaviour and characteristics.

ii) Class Traitors in Education:

Marxist and socialist feminists assert that not all women’s experiences
of patriarchy are the same and not all have the same class position or
interests. Some women do not wish to challenge patriarchal
assumptions as it could threaten their class position.
They are referred to as class traitors; people who work against the
interests of their own class. The little resources afforded to women are
unequally allocated to the middle class and girls are educated to be
decorative, marriageable beings and exploit working-class women.

iii) Hegemonic Masculinity in the Classroom:

Marxist and socialist feminists recognise that although men and boys
benefit the most from patriarchy, it also harms them. Schools impose
European capitalist ideas of masculinity on boys and punish
femininity. Boys who display feminine characteristics are bullied.
Participating in sports is still considered a masculine trait. Sports also
teach boys how to be competitive and dominant, a quality and skill that
is valued by capitalist societies.

Women’s Education in Pakistan: A critique:

Women's education in Pakistan presents a complex scenario marked by significant progress
and persistent challenges. Various policies have been implemented to promote women's
education, including the National Education Policy and Education Sector Reforms, but their
effectiveness has been inconsistent. There has been a notable increase in female enrollment at
primary and secondary levels. However, dropout rates remain high, particularly in rural areas.
Female participation in higher education is growing, especially in urban centers. Women are
increasingly pursuing fields such as medicine, social sciences, and education, though
underrepresentation persists in STEM fields. Significant disparities exist between urban and
rural areas, as well as among different provinces. Punjab and Sindh have better educational
indicators compared to Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

a) Barriers to Women’s Education in Pakistan:

Traditional gender roles and patriarchal attitudes often discourage or restrict girls'
education. Early and forced marriages are prevalent, particularly in rural areas,
leading to school dropouts among girls. Many families prioritize boys' education over
girls' due to limited financial resources. Families often require girls to contribute to
household income or domestic chores, limiting their educational opportunities. In
some regions, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and tribal areas, threats and
attacks on girls' schools by extremist groups have hindered educational access. Safety
concerns, including harassment on the way to and from school, discourage parents
from sending their daughters to school. Many schools lack basic facilities, such as
 clean water, sanitation, and proper classrooms, particularly in rural areas. Poor quality
of education, due to untrained teachers and lack of resources, affects retention and
learning outcomes. There are significant gaps in the implementation of educational
policies and programs, often due to bureaucratic inefficiencies and corruption.
Insufficient budget allocation for education, and within that, inadequate focus on girls'
education.

Case Studies of women education related radicalism in Pakistan: Girls Schools torched
in Waziristan and Balochistan:
The only private girls school in North Waziristan tribal district of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa fell
victim to a bomb attack in March, perpetrated by unidentified terrorists. According to police
reports, the school, situated in Shewa Tehsil, bore the brunt of the assault, resulting in severe
damage to its infrastructure. Local residents voiced concerns, revealing that the school had
been under constant threat from terrorist elements for some time. Despite prior alerts to law
enforcement, no measures were taken to safeguard the educational institution. This targeted
school held significant importance as the sole private educational facility catering exclusively
to girls in the entire North Waziristan district. 13
Pakistan has, in the past few weeks, witnessed ill-omened reminders of a demoralising aspect
of militancy: the war on female education. In May, armed men set fire to a girl’s middle
school in Surab district of Kalat Division in Balochistan, reducing the staff room and other
areas to ashes. This was the third such arson attack in May. The dropout rate for girls after
primary school is dismal in the country, becoming the reason for the dearth of girls institutes
in many parts, especially Balochistan. 14

a) Impact of attacks on Women Education:

The female students enrolled in these institutions are doomed to a life without
learning. Now, Families will keep their children at home, and once again, access to
schooling and empowerment will elude thousands of girls in the tribal belt and
Balochistan. Moreover, the ban on female education and businesses by the Taliban
government in Afghanistan has given new strength to primitive attitudes. This is
further complicated by the state’s timidity towards extremist elements, which
amplifies all expressions of zealotry and its devastating impact on the country’s
social, political and economic growth.

Conclusion:
The relationship between women and education is pivotal to the advancement of societies
worldwide. Despite significant progress in recent decades, numerous challenges continue to
impede women’s access to education. Educated women contribute to economic growth,
improved health outcomes, and more equitable societies. They break stereotypes, foster
inclusive environments, and inspire future generations. Addressing the challenges to women's
education necessitates a multifaceted approach, involving policy reforms, community
engagement, economic incentives, and investments in infrastructure and quality. By
overcoming these obstacles, humanity can unlock the full potential of women and ensure that
education becomes a universal right rather than a privilege. The future of women's education
holds immense promise, and realizing this potential will lead to a more just, prosperous, and
equitable world for all.

13
The Express Tribune
14
Dawn Newspaper