Article

Journal of Educational Computing

Research
Conversation 2021, Vol. 59(1) 154–177
! The Author(s) 2020
Technology With Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
Micro-Learning: DOI: 10.1177/0735633120952067
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The Impact of
Chatbot-Based
Learning on Students’
Learning Motivation
and Performance

Jiaqi Yin1, Tiong-Thye Goh2,

Bing Yang1 , and Yang Xiaobin3

Abstract
This study investigated the impact of a chatbot-based micro-learning system on
students’ learning motivation and performance. A quasi-experiment was conducted
with 99 first-year students taking part in a basic computer course on number system
conversion. The students were assigned to a traditional learning group or a chatbot-
based micro-learning group. After the experiment, both groups achieved a compa-
rable performance, suggesting that students are sufficiently competent to learn
independently in the chatbot-based learning environment without the need for con-
tinuous face-to-face delivery. Moreover, students in the chatbot learning group
attained significantly higher intrinsic motivation than the traditional learning group
with perceived choice and perceived value as core predictors of intrinsic motivation.
Further analysis with the Johnson-Neyman procedure revealed differences on inter-
action between the perceived choice and the learning environments. For students

1
School of Education, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
2
School of Information Management, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
3
School of Foreign Studies, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
Corresponding Author:
Bing Yang, School of Education, Hubei University, 368 Youyi Avenue, Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
Email: yangbing.cn88@gmail.com
Yin et al. 155

with a high initial perceived choice (>¼5.1), chatbot-based learning further enhances
their post choice motivation whereas for students with a low initial perceived choice
(<¼3.0), the traditional classroom is more suitable to enhance their post choice
motivation. The implications of the findings can help instructors to incorporate
chatbot-based learning in the classroom.

Keywords
chatbot, learning performance, learning motivation, micro-learning

Introduction
A chatbot is a communication application that simulates human conversation
via auditory or textual methods. It is also known as a conversational agent, an
intelligent agent or a dialogue system. Conversation agents have received much
attention in the field of education and have been deployed in different learning
settings such as the English learning chatbot BookBuddy (Ruan et al., 2019), the
intelligent course tutor chatbot Sammy (Gupta & Jagannath, 2019), the MOOC
collaborative chatbot colMOOC (Tegos et al., 2019), and the academic infor-
mation systems chatbot StudBot (Vijayakumar et al., 2019).
In general, there are two types of chatbot design. The task-oriented chatbots
are designed for a specific task and are set up to provide conversational
responses to user enquiries, usually within a service domain such as booking
flights, ordering food, responding to customer enquiries or learning a skill.
The non-task oriented chatbots emulate a casual but interesting conversation
with a person to perform creative or fun chit-chat for entertainment without
reaching an informational target (Hussain et al., 2019). The chatbot in this study
is a task-oriented chatbot designed to meet a set of learning goals by deriving the
intents and entities with Natural Language Processing (NLP) from a free text
conversation of a user without constraining the users with a set of pre-defined
selection buttons. This approach provides a more natural way of interacting.
Individual student differences, chatbot design, and the chatbot-mediated
learning environment affect the effectiveness of chatbot adoption in education
(Winkler & Soellner, 2018). In building education chatbots, careful consider-
ation of learning strategy is critical to attain individualised learning support and
user acceptance. A promising approach to designing chatbots in the education
setting is to use micro-learning strategy. Various studies have successfully
deployed micro-learning strategy to support learning. For instance, the study
by Mohammed et al. (2018) showed that when deploying micro-learning in
teaching ICT subjects, students’ performance was 18% better than that of the
conventional group. They conclude that the micro-learning technique effectively
156 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

and efficiently improves learning that is associated with extended knowledge

retention periods. In the study by Polasek and Javorcik (2019), applying
micro-learning in computer subjects was demonstrated to support learning as
micro-learning enabled students to improve understanding through opportuni-
ties to try again after failures. Since chatbots can provide human-like dialogue-
based interactive messages to prompt learners to revisit learning resources and
micro-learning can provide bite-sized learning content to support long-term
memorisation, these features are in line with how the brain takes in information
to support learning (G€ oschlberger & Brandstetter, 2019; Jomah et al., 2016;
Smith & Evans, 2018). Thus, we posit that adopting a chatbot instructional
design with micro-learning theory is likely to improve student performance
and learning motivation. An essential step for highlighting the importance of
chatbots is to investigate the value of chatbots supported by learning theory in
comparison to other forms of learning settings (Winkler & Soellner, 2018).
Hence, this study will further explore how a chatbot-based micro-learning
system affects students’ learning performance and their motivation within the
framework of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The study will
contribute to the existing chatbot-based learning research on content, function-
ality, usability and user satisfaction (Liu et al., 2019; Maroengsit et al., 2019)
and inform practitioners on the deployment of chatbots in education.
Specifically, we want to investigate the following research questions:

1. Do students who learn with a chatbot micro-learning system perform better

than students who learn in a traditional classroom setting?
2. Do students who learn with a chatbot micro-learning system experience
stronger levels of intrinsic motivation, tension, competence, choice and
value than students who learn in a traditional classroom setting?
3. Are the factors influencing intrinsic motivation for students who learn in a
chatbot micro-learning system different from students who learn in a tradi-
tional classroom setting?

Literature Review
Micro-Learning
Micro-learning refers to a set of relatively small, focused learning units and
learning activities that are usually completed in a short duration of 10 minutes
that are accessible on multiple devices (Shail, 2019). According to Jomah et al.
(2016), micro-learning is an effective strategy because of its learner-centred,
easy-to-access, interactive, and well-designed features. The success of micro-
learning is dependent on the interplay between various dimensions such as learn-
ing content, duration, curriculum level, form, process, mediality, and learning
type (Hug, 2006). Importantly, in micro-learning, students control their learning
Yin et al. 157

progress and the learning content can be accessed as frequently as possible

without the constraints of time and space (Reynolds & Dolasinski, 2020).
A salient feature of micro-learning is the ease with which learners can pinpoint
the resources they are looking for. Often, new-age learners identify micro-
learning as a modern and innovative learning approach (Jomah et al., 2016).
According to Shail (2019), micro-learning delivers small snippets of information
which mimics the way the learner’s brain receives information and the short
duration of micro-learning content reduces the cognitive fatigue resulting from
longer lessons. A study by Giurgiu (2017) revealed that providing learning con-
tent in small pieces increases information retention by 20%. Therefore, micro-
learning seems to be a promising learning delivery method that enhances the
learning experience and outcomes (Nikou, 2019).
Nikou and Economides (2018) compared mobile device-based micro-learning
and conventional teaching; their study revealed that micro-learning can effectively
improve students’ intrinsic motivation and promote learning performance. To the
best of our understanding, no study exists on the practice of micro-learning using
chatbots. A chatbot is self-contained and can provide context-sensitive informa-
tion and guidance to learners. According to Subramaniam (2019) chatbot can
integrate more interactive conversations into a single learning system that allows
the students to practise skills by turning learning content into a series of messages
to make it look like a standard chat conversation; therefore, it seems appropriate
for chatbots to incorporate micro-learning strategies. At present, research on
chatbot-based micro-learning is still scarce, especially regarding learning motiva-
tion and learning performance of students in general.
The pedagogical design of chatbot-based micro-learning systems can adopt the
theory of micro-learning proposed by Baumgartner (2013). The theory suggests
that, in addition to organising small content modules with a minimum time span,
a recommended design involves content progressing through three learning
phases: the absorbing phase, the acquiring phase and the constructing phase.
In the absorbing phase, basic knowledge is presented to students to enable
them to absorb the required knowledge, which involves the learner completing
some basic activities. In the acquiring phase, the design assumes that learning is an
active process. Students interact with the chatbot to acquire and build knowledge
through instant feedback, revision and reflection thus forming learning experien-
ces. In the constructing phase, learners and the chatbot interact to create a solu-
tion together to resolve a checkpoint. The problem chosen should have only one
clearly defined and straightforward solution so that it can be solved within the
limited time bounded by the learning objective (Baumgartner, 2013).

Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) (Ryan & Deci, 2000) posits that students’
learning interest and performance can be heightened by enhancing their
158 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

motivation. The concept of self-determination further differentiates between

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. An intrinsically motivated student performs
an activity for its inherent satisfaction, fun or challenge rather than for some
separable consequence. In contrast, an extrinsically motivated student performs
an activity due to external forces, pressures or rewards (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In
SDT, the three psychological needs that satisfy intrinsic motivation are auton-
omy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Autonomy refers to
actions viewed as self-initiated and selective. Competence refers to the percep-
tion that the individual has effectively performed a task with confidence (Ryan
& Deci, 2000). Relatedness is defined as the affective support that an individual
receives or gives to others during interactions (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Studies have
shown that students with higher intrinsic motivation can handle challenging
tasks persistently and show more satisfaction and enjoyment as they acquire
competence in new knowledge. Numerous investigators have applied the SDT
framework to intrinsic motivation in educational contexts (Niemiec & Ryan,
2009). For instance, in technology-enhanced online learning Hsu et al. (2019)
showed that when basic psychological needs were fulfilled it enhanced learning
motivation, which generated a higher perceived knowledge transfer with better
achievement of course objectives. In mobile learning, higher levels of students’
perceived competence, autonomy and intrinsic motivation were observed which
contributed to a positive effect on overall achievement (Jeno et al., 2019; Nikou
& Economides, 2018). Similarly in gamified online learning, students showed a
high degree of autonomous and competence motivation (Bovermann et al.,
2018). As intrinsic motivation stems from an individual’s psychological needs
that drive behaviours without external rewards appeared in various technology-
enhanced learning contexts, we intend to continue with previous research by
investigating if a chatbot-based learning system could fullfll similar psycholog-
ical needs that contribute to learning motivation and performance in this study.

Chatbot-Based Micro-Learning
The chatbot micro-learning system is designed with motivational dimensions to
support self-learning. First, it contains different forms of media such as text,
images, and videos to captivate interest and enjoyment during interactions
(Shail, 2019). Second, the content is made simple and precise to allow quick
absorption to minimise any unnecessary pressure and stress. Third, knowledge
checkpoints with affective and positive feedback are included to support self-
evaluation, knowledge construction and competence motivation (Burgers et al.,
2015; Nikou & Economides, 2018). Fourth, it allows repeated practice and free-
text queries to easily target a specific concept to encourage learner-content inter-
action and strengthen the application’s perceived value (Q. Sun et al., 2018).
Lastly, the chatbot provides learning choices with optional links to content-
specific videos and voluntary self-evaluation to support choice motivation
Yin et al. 159

(Patall et al., 2008). In sum, the chatbot-based learning design in this study
ensures its motivational and educational objectives are met with a verifiable
conversational functionality, educational goals, and pedagogical roles that
strengthen students’ ability to learn autonomously at a self-directed learning
pace (Riel, 2019).

Method
Participants
The participants of this study were first-year university students in the class of
2019. A quasi-experimental design was adopted in this study as the participants
were not randomly assigned (Hallberg & Eno, 2015). Participants were grouped
according to their scheduled classes. The traditional learning class (the control
group) consists of 48 students majoring in International Economics and Trade
(17%) and Business Administration (31%) whereas the chatbot-based learning
class (the experimental group) consists of 51 students majoring in Education
(35%) and Tourism Management (16%). Overall, the participants consist of 91
female students and 8 male students which is a typical distribution for the busi-
ness and social science faculties in this university. The same instructor taught the
two classes using the same content at different class time. All students shared
similar learning performance before the experiment. In the traditional learning
class, students simply listened to the instructor delivering content through lec-
tures. In the chatbot learning class, students interacted with the chatbot-based
micro-learning system autonomously to acquire the knowledge.

Materials
The chatbot was created using the content and curriculum from the “Conversion
of Numerical Systems” chapter in the “Basic College Computer” textbook pub-
lished by the Science Press in Beijing, China. This is the standard textbook used
by all the first-year students to develop their computing knowledge in accor-
dance with the 13th Five-Year Plan for Regular Higher Education and has been
adopted for four years. The materials are written in an easy-to-understand
manner suitable for non-computer science students. The book contains illustra-
tive examples and exercises that can be easily converted to the chatbot design.
To provide a media-rich experience, most of the relevant content was reformat-
ted into images with links to external videos as the chatbot platform is not able
to support picture-in-picture video. Minor changes were made to the illustra-
tions to fit into the chatbot interaction frame.
The chatbot-based learning system in the current study contains 10 micro-
learning lessons. Lesson 1 introduces the numeral system, positional notation,
and the binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems. Lesson 2 teaches binary
160 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

to decimal conversion and a quick conversion method. Lesson 3 teaches decimal

to binary conversion and a quick conversion method. Lessons 4 to 10 teach
binary to octal, octal to binary, binary to hexadecimal, hexadecimal to binary,
octal to decimal, decimal to octal and hexadecimal to decimal conversion respec-
tively. These lessons closely adhere to the micro-learning theory suggested by
Baumgartner (2013). Apart from Lesson 1 which contains only the absorbing
phase without a knowledge checkpoint exercise and video, Lessons 2 to 10
contain all the three phases of learning operationalised by knowledge presenta-
tions, illustrations, checkpoint exercises and video options. Each module can be
completed within eight to ten minutes with the nine videos averaging three
minutes each. Figure 1 illustrates a typical learning flow of the chatbot micro-
learning system. During the experiment, students interact with the chatbot-
based learning system autonomously and repeated specific modules at their
preference.
The chatbot-based micro-learning system was developed using the Google
Dialogflow system (Sabharwal & Agrawal, 2020). We developed the intents and
entities based on the learning content. The intent represents the learning topic

Start
Conversaon

Lesson 1
Lesson 2
numeral system, Lesson 10
binary to decimal
posional notaon,
conversion, ….. hexadecimal to decimal
binary, octal and
quick conversion
hexadecimal system

Explain Concept Explain Concept

Illustraon Illustraon

Checkpoint

Problem
Video
Solving

Feedback
Analysis

Figure 1. A Typical Learning Flow of the Chatbot Micro-Learning System.

Yin et al. 161

requested by a learner to which the chatbot is expected to provide a matching

response. The entity represents a term or object that is relevant to the intent to
provide a specific and personalised context for the intent. The Dialogflow system
uses machine learning algorithms to understand and learn from a user’s
requests, match them to intents and respond with the most appropriate learning
content from a knowledge base. After the intents and entities have been devel-
oped, the chatbot is integrated with the Microsoft Bot Framework to generate a
webchat interface and embedded code to be used in a browser. The webchat
interface was selected because of its simplicity, hence providing the least distrac-
tion. Moreover, students are not familiar with other supported platforms from
Dialogflow such as Facebook Messenger, Google Assistant or Slack due to
limited access. During the study, the students were introduced to the chatbot
and were given a link to launch the chatbot in order to explore the content from
their device. Figure 2 illustrates a translated version of a typical sequence of
interactions with the chatbot system.

Measures
The chatbot content was designed based on the conversion of numerical sys-
tems. A professor from the School of Computer Science was invited to design
the test questions covering the teaching objectives of the conversion of numer-
ical systems. Eight fill-in-the-blank questions with a total score of eight were
designed. A pre-test was conducted to assess students’ competency level before
the lesson, while a post-test was conducted to assess the students’ mastery of
knowledge after the lesson.
The motivation questionnaire was adapted from the Intrinsic Motivation
Inventory (IMI) (McAuley et al., 1989) to measure the subjective experience of
intrinsic motivation related to the learning environments of the study. The scales
used in the questionnaire comprise interest-enjoyment, tension-pressure, perceived
choice, perceived competence, and perceived value. The interest-enjoyment scale
measures intrinsic motivation is composed of seven items. Perceived choice and
perceived competence serve as positive predictors of intrinsic motivation and
include four and five items respectively. Tension-pressure is a negative predictor
of intrinsic motivation consisting of five items. Perceived value reflects the inter-
nalisation and self-regulation when people experience useful activities, and this
scale includes four items. A seven-point Likert scale was used in all 25 items, with
1 meaning ‘strongly disagree’ and 7 meaning ‘strongly agree’. The five dimensions
and the corresponding items in the questionnaire are shown in the Appendix.

Procedures
This study administered two groups of pre-test and post-test questionnaires
to examine the effectiveness of chatbot-based micro-learning compared to
162 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

Figure 2. A Translated Version of a Typical Sequence of Interactions With the Chatbot.

traditional learning. The quasi-experimental procedures are illustrated in

Figure 3. Students were allocated to two different learning environments accord-
ing to their current classes: traditional learning (the control group) and the
chatbot-based learning (the experiment group).
Yin et al. 163

Figure 3. Experiment Procedure.

Before the quasi-experiment began, students completed a pre-test to assess

their knowledge of the conversion of numerical systems. Students also completed
an online questionnaire on their intrinsic motivation before the lessons. During
the learning stage, the instructor presented the learning objectives, which included
mastering the conversion between binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal num-
bers. For the experiment group, the instructor taught students to use the chatbot
so students could use the chatbot micro-learning system to study on their own.
The instructor walked around the classroom to ensure that the participants had
enough time to learn and ask questions. In the traditional learning class, students
learned through the instructor’s lecture. They also watched the display on their
computer screens, which was broadcast from the instructor’s console. After the
lesson had finished, the two groups of students completed a second test and a
post-learning questionnaire on intrinsic motivation.
164 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

Table 1. Correlation of Motivation Dimensions.

Dimensions M SD a 1 2 3 4

1. Interest-enjoyment 4.63 .91 0.86 –

2. Tension-pressure 3.54 1.13 0.86 .636 –
3. Perceived choice 4.54 1.01 0.74 .830 .644 –
4. Perceived competence 3.78 .90 0.85 .697 .561 .606 –
5. Perceived value 4.82 .97 0.84 .781 .375 .670 .553
N ¼ 99, all correlation coefficients with p < 0.01.

Results
Data analysis was performed in SPSS. We tested Cronbach’s alpha to examine
the adapted scale’s internal reliabilities, followed by correlation analysis. Table 1
presents the five dimensions in this scale and their Cronbach’s a, mean and
standard deviation values and inter-correlation coefficients. Subsequently, we
used an ANCOVA test to compare the two groups’ learning performance and
learning motivation.

Learning Performance
The average and standard deviation of the pre-test performance scores of the
control group and experimental group were Mc ¼ 2.85, SDc ¼ 2.11 and
Me ¼ 2.92, SDe ¼ 2.36 respectively. An independent t-test showed no significant
difference between the pre-test scores of the two groups F ¼ 1.20, p > 0.05, indi-
cating both groups of students possessed the same level of competence statisti-
cally before the experiment. An ANCOVA was conducted to compare the
learning performance between the two groups. Learning methods (traditional
and chatbot-based) were set as independent variables, post-test scores as depen-
dent variables, and pre-test scores as concomitant variables. The purpose was to
test whether different learning methods can significantly influence students’
learning performance after eliminating the influence of pre-test scores. In covari-
ance analysis, homogeneity of slopes is required. The analysis showed no inter-
action between independent variables and concomitant variables F ¼ 0.13,
p > 0.05, hence covariance analysis could be conducted.
As shown in Table 2, after eliminating the influence of pre-test scores on post-
test scores, there is no significant difference between the learning performance of
the two groups F ¼ 0.02, p > 0.05. While both teaching methods produce similar
mean learning performance scores, the Chi-Square-tests and F-tests show that
the standard deviation of the chatbot-based learning class (the experimental
group) is significantly smaller with p ¼ FCDF (0, 1.6825, 47, 50) ¼ 0.035, indicat-
ing a higher concentration of scores around the average, whereas the standard
deviation scores of the traditional learning class (the control group) are more
Yin et al. 165

Table 2. Covariance Analysis of Post-Test Learning Performance.

Groups N Avg SD Avg (adj) SD F-value P-value

Traditional 48 5.75 2.27 5.75 0.28 0.02 0.88

Chatbot 51 5.82 1.75 5.81 0.27

dispersed. It shows that the chatbot-based micro-learning method provides the

condition for more students to attain nearer to mean performance.

Learning Motivation
The ANCOVA analysis was conducted to compare the intrinsic motivation
between the two groups. Learning methods (traditional learning method and
chatbot-based learning method) were set as independent variables, whereas all
the post-test motivation dimension scores were set as dependent variables. Pre-
test scores were set as covariate variables. The purpose was to verify whether
different learning methods can significantly improve the learning motivation of
students after eliminating the influence of pre-test learning motivation. For
covariance analysis, the homogeneity of slope assumptions for each dimension
was verified to ensure no significant interaction between independent variables
and concomitant variables. The results of homogeneity of slope tests of interest-
enjoyment, tension-pressure, perceived choice, perceived competence and per-
ceived value dimensions are F ¼ 0.723, p > 0.05, F ¼ 0.048, p > 0.05, F ¼ 6.247,
p < 0.01, F ¼ 0.008, p > 0.05 and F ¼ 0.227, p > 0.05 respectively. Covariance
analysis could be conducted on all dimensions except perceived choice.
As shown in Table 3, the interest-enjoyment dimension is significantly differ-
ent between the two groups: F ¼ 4.162, p < 0.05 with Mt ¼ 4.58 and Mc ¼ 4.85.
By offering flexible micro-learning content and feedback, a chatbot learning
system can effectively heighten students’ interest. As a result, students’
intrinsic motivation is stronger in the chatbot-based learning class than in the
traditional class.
As shown in Table 3, the tension-pressure dimension was significantly differ-
ent between the two groups: F ¼ 4.42, p < 0.05 with Mt ¼ 3.82 and Mc ¼ 3.48.
The result indicates that students from the traditional class experienced greater
stress, because the teacher is in command of the class and all students are
required to learn at the same pace. Students in the traditional class require
continual focus to acquire knowledge and to answer the instructor’s questions.
Students’ doubts or concerns cannot always be addressed in a timely fashion
before moving on to the next knowledge point since they need to catch up with
the pace of the instructor, which leads to a higher level of tension and pressure.
Students in a chatbot-based environment, on the other hand, control their study
pace at any knowledge point.
166 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

Table 3. Covariance Analysis of Post-Test Learning Motivation.

Dimension Groups N Avg SD Avg (adj) SD F value P value

Interest-enjoyment Traditional 48 4.52 1.01 4.58 0.09 4.16 0.04

Chatbot 51 4.90 1.00 4.85 0.09
Tension-pressure Traditional 48 3.94 1.14 3.82 0.12 4.42 0.03
Chatbot 51 3.34 1.20 3.48 0.12
Perceived competence Traditional 48 3.87 1.03 3.86 0.11 0.04 0.82
Chatbot 51 3.89 0.96 3.89 0.10
Perceived value Traditional 48 4.74 1.00 4.79 0.11 4.29 0.04
Chatbot 51 5.16 1.01 5.12 0.10

Table 3 demonstrates that the perceived competence dimension is not signif-

icantly different between the two groups: F ¼ 0.049, p > 0.05 with Mt ¼ 3.86 and
Mc ¼3.89. It implies that students are equally good and skilled in both learning
environments. While the chatbot-based learning can provide timely feedback
based on students’ answers to questions and provide a retest opportunity or
detailed explanation to enhance perceived competence and confidence, the tra-
ditional learning method can equally provide students with the required level of
competency in this experiment.
Table 3 shows that the perceived value dimension is significantly different
between the two groups: F ¼ 4.29, p < 0.05 with Mt ¼ 4.79 and Mc ¼ 5.12.
Students perceived the chatbot-based learning environment would add more value
to their knowledge comprehension, perhaps due to the flexibility of the system to suit
individual needs whereas the traditional learning is restricted in that regard.
Since there is significant interaction between the independent variables and
concomitant variables with F ¼ 6.24, p < 0.05, the perceived choice dimension
does not meet the criteria for covariance analysis; therefore the Johnson-
Neyman procedure was used for further analysis (Johnson, 2016). As shown
in Figure 4, a regression analysis was conducted on the perceived choice scores
of the two groups with pre-test scores as independent variables and post-test
scores as dependent variables. The crossing point of the two groups is 4.1, and
the significant homogeneity range is 3.0 to 5.1, indicating no significant differ-
ence between pre-test and post-test scores within the range. In other words,
when the pre-test score is lower than 3.0, the post-test score of the traditional
class is significantly higher than the other group; when the pre-test score is
higher than 5.1, the post-test score of the chatbot-based class is significantly
higher than that of the traditional class. Therefore, when students’ initial per-
ceived choice is low, studying in a traditional environment can better improve
their sense of perceived choice, while the chatbot-supported learning method is
more suitable for students with higher initial perceived choice, who prefer a
more autonomous chatbot-supported learning method.
Yin et al. 167

Figure 4. Comparison Analysis of Post-Test Perceived Choice Dimension.

Factors Influencing Intrinsic Motivation

To compare the dimensions that influence intrinsic motivation in the two learning
environments, we perform separate regression analysis with intrinsic motivation
(measured by perceived interest and enjoyment) as the dependent variable and
tension-pressure, perceived choice, perceived competency and perceived value as
independent variables for each of the learning environment. Table 4 depicts the
outcome of the regression. In both learning environments, the common dimensions
are perceived value and perceived choice; both are significant predictors of intrinsic
motivation. However, for the chatbot-based learning environment, tension-
pressure is an additional predictor whereas perceived competency is not. In
contrast, for the traditional learning environment perceived competency is an addi-
tional predictor whereas tension-pressure is not. This shows that students adapt to
motivation differently depending on the context of the learning environments.

Discussion
The objectives of the current study are to investigate and compare the impact of
chatbot-based learning on students’ learning performance and motivation.
168 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

Table 4. Regression Analysis of Post-Test Learning Motivation.

Chatbot class Traditional class

Standardised beta Standardised beta
Dimension R2 ¼ 0.79 R2 ¼ 0.81

Tension-pressure .213* .112

Perceived choice .421** .341**
Perceived competence .044 .531***
Perceived value .436*** .243*
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

While the results indicate students’ performance improved over the two learning
environments, there is no significant learning performance difference between
the two groups. However, the chatbot-based learning group attained a signifi-
cantly smaller standard deviation in learning performance than the traditional
learning group. This outcome can be attributed to the design of the chatbot-
based learning system which allows students to learn according to their own
pace, receive timely feedback and provides the option to repeat learning content,
all of which facilitate learning motivation. In the traditional classroom learning
environment, these options are limited. Further findings indicate that students’
intrinsic motivation was stronger in the chatbot-based learning environment
than in the traditional learning environment. Given this outcome, we can con-
clude that the chatbot-based learning system is comparable to traditional teach-
ing without compromising learning performance and has the added benefit of
promoting stronger learning motivation. Further analysis showed that the
intrinsic motivation is generally contributed by the core dimensions of perceived
choice and perceived value in both learning environments. The difference is that
in the chatbot-based learning environment students experience and value the
lower tension-pressure of the learning condition whereas students rely on
the competency experience to learn and engage in the traditional class.
Though the current chatbot-based learning design provides students with ade-
quate support for competence and autonomy, we omitted the collaborative
interactions between students, the need to feel connected with others and the
chatbot, which if implemented may heighten the relatedness dimension of moti-
vation and improve the modest effect of the chatbot-based learning system on
learning performance (Sloan, 2015). Future studies should consider the related-
ness factor in order to achieve a complete view of the chatbot-based learning’s
effects on students’ learning motivation and performance.
Chatbot-based learning constitutes an important technological innovation
that fills the gap between technology and education (Colace et al., 2018). In
chatbot-based learning, students learn through interactive dialogue, similar to
social chat tools already familiar to students. Using a familiar tool allows
Yin et al. 169

chatbot-based learning design to focus on engagement and less on instruction.

The chatbot-based learning system contains micro-learning modules that enable
students to conveniently and repeatedly revise at any learning checkpoint.
Moreover, the rich media design such as text, pictures and videos gives students
the ability to choose the modes they prefer. The flexibility of learning is highly
conducive to piquing their learning interest (L. Sun et al., 2018). It also provides
increased opportunity for cognitive reinforcement from different perspectives.
Consequently, the triggering of learning interest leads to increased enjoyment in
learning (Roberts & Ousey, 2004). Unlike the traditional teaching class which is
teacher-centred and hence the teacher is the authority, chatbot-based learning is
more like a personal tutor that can answer questions through conversations, give
quizzes and provide instant and affective feedback, which can further sustain
learning interest (Hidi et al., 2004). This explains the heightening of perceived
interest and enjoyment when students learn from a chatbot-based learning envi-
ronment over the traditional learning class.
The study indicates students experienced greater pressure in the traditional
class. This outcome is likely because in the traditional classroom teachers con-
trol the pace of teaching and it is difficult to accommodate the learning needs of
every student, especially when the student population is large as is common in
first year papers. When individualised support is difficult for lecturers to pro-
vide, students’ learning motivation and performance decrease (Zhang et al.,
2020). Furthermore, the demands on students’ cognitive load are high in the
traditional classroom learning environment as students are required to keep
pace with the lecture content and prepare to answer questions during class
(Moreno & Mayer, 2007); hence tension and pressure are heightened in this
type of environment. Conversely, students from the chatbot-based learning envi-
ronment indicate a more relaxing atmosphere since learning is student-centred,
relatively self-paced, and the choice of interaction with their own chatbot moti-
vates them to learn (Winkler & Soellner, 2018). Moreover, the chatbot-based
micro-learning focused on a narrow topic encourages the learner-content
interaction by motivating the learner to learn without information overload
(Nikou, 2019).
The findings revealed that perceived choice exhibits interaction between the
independent variables and concomitant variables. For students who expressed a
lower level of initial perceived choice, the traditional learning method can offer a
higher sense of choice motivation, probably because they are more used to the
traditional learning method. The chatbot-based learning system supports self-
paced learning based on a series of micro-learning units and tasks that can be
personalised and adapted to learners’ needs and preferences; such flexibility
offers learners a sense of autonomy and choice (Nikou, 2019). For students
who expressed a higher level of initial perceived choice, the chatbot-based learn-
ing offers them a strong sense of autonomy aligned with their choice preference
that eventually lead to a higher choice motivation than in the traditional
170 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

classroom environment. This outcome informs instructors of the need to orga-

nise learning groups based on their learning choice in order to maximise choice
preference that translates into intrinsic motivation.
The result shows that there is no significant difference in perceived compe-
tence between the two learning environments. This outcome suggests that stu-
dents have the required self-efficacy in their capabilities and skills to manage and
comprehend the learning content required to achieve the expected performance
in the two learning environments (Yang et al., 2019). Although the perceived
competence scores are statistically comparable, the capabilities and skills to
operate in the two learning environments differ. For the traditional classroom
learning environment, students need the skills to keep pace with the lecture
content and prepare to respond to questions during class. For the chatbot-
based learning environment, students need the skills to communicate with the
chatbot to discover knowledge and control learning. This outcome suggests that
the general first-year population has the necessary efficacy to confidently
manage learning in the two different environments probably because they are
already used to the traditional learning setting and are familiar with the easy-to-
use chat tool.
The chatbot-based micro-learning system significantly heightens perceived
value and usefulness more than the traditional learning environment. A pos-
sible explanation is that students value the flexible options offered by the
chatbot-based learning experience and find it stimulating and refreshing
compared to their traditional classroom learning. Since students perceived
the chatbot-based micro-learning as useful, they are likely to adopt the tech-
nology according to the technology acceptance model (Davis, 1989). This
implies that instructors can confidently incorporate chatbot-based learning
technology in their classrooms to provide learning choice. However, like any
new technological innovation there is a need to examine the novelty effect as
interest and value perception may decrease over time (Fryer et al., 2019;
Rodrıguez-Aflecht et al., 2018). Thus, further work is required to establish
pedagogical practices such as gradually increasing technology familiarity
(Poppenk et al., 2010) or collaborative use of chatbot technology (Sloan,
2015) to sustain interest, value and usefulness for the required duration, there-
by establishing the long-term effects of chatbot-based learning on students’
motivation and performance.

Limitations and Future Research

There are certain limitations to this research. First, the quasi-experiment and
evaluation were conducted in a single session; future studies should consider
Yin et al. 171

randomised experiments with multiple sessions to ascertain the motivation and

performance effect. Second, the learning content is based on the domain of
“Basic College Computer” and the performance consists of a small number of
test questions that are likely to influence the outcome. Future research should
consider optimising the number of test questions and the types of questions to
verify the performance outcome in different disciplines. Third, the accuracy of
the parsing and the responses of the chatbot to provide matching intents can
affect the user’s attitude toward the conversation agent, which should be con-
sidered in future studies. Lastly, motivation has been measured with a self-
reporting survey (IMI) which has high validity but still has its limitations.
Other forms of dynamic motivation measures such as behavioural indicators
should be considered in future studies (Aluja-Banet et al., 2019; Toure-Tillery &
Fishbach, 2014).

Conclusion
Chatbots are gaining popularity in education. This study reveals that the
chatbot-based micro-learning strategies comprise a promising technology and
are effective in supporting learning in basic computer knowledge among uni-
versity students. The Self Determination Theory (SDT) approach in this study
is an appropriate theoretical lens to measure student motivation in chatbot-
based learning. The outcomes of the investigation provide substantial promise
for the further development of chatbot-based micro-learning systems with dif-
ferent degrees of interaction. Future research needs to develop a comprehen-
sive longitudinal evaluation framework in addition to learning motivation
which can serve as a benchmark to understand how chatbot-based learning
can complement current teaching to create more effective learning without the
need for face-to-face instruction, which is crucial in the current pandemic
situation (FitzGerald et al., 2018). Based on current basic chatbot-based learn-
ing design and user experience, two aspects appear to be useful for future
chatbot developments in computer education. Future designs could include
content with higher knowledge complexity such as algorithms and engaging
in activities of higher cognitive levels such as analysing, evaluating, and cre-
ating computer artefacts. Current designs restrict chatbot-based learning to
playing a teaching assistant role with an emphasis on hard skills knowledge.
Future designs should treat chatbots as project managers, teachers and virtual
classmates with an emphasis on soft skills such as personal attributes, person-
ality traits, inherent social cues, and communication abilities that can facilitate
teaching, learning and coordinating among individuals and teams (Cırule &
Berzisa, 2019; Sam, 2020).
172 Journal of Educational Computing Research 59(1)

Appendix: Questions From the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory

Where R Means Negatively Asked Questions

Dimensions Items

Interest- 1. While I was learning in this way, I was thinking about how much I enjoyed it.
enjoyment 2. This way of learning was fun.
3. I thought this way of learning is quite enjoyable.
4. I enjoyed this way of learning very much.
5. I thought this was a boring way to learn.(R)
6. This way of learning did not hold my attention at all.(R)
7. I would describe this way of learning as very interesting.
Tension- 1.I did not feel nervous at all while learning in this way.(R)
pressure 2. I felt very tense while learning in this way.
3. I was very relaxed in this learning process.(R)
4. I was anxious while learning in this way.
5. I felt pressured while learning in this way.
Perceived 1. I think I will actively use this learning method.
choice 2. I believe I had some choice about learning in this way.
3. I felt like I had to learn in this way.(R)
4. I felt like it was not my own choice to learn in this way.(R)
Perceived 1. I think I am pretty good at this way of learning.
competence 2. I think I did pretty well at this way of learning, compared to other
students.
3. I am satisfied with my performance in this way of learning.
4. I was pretty skilled in this way of learning.
5. After learning in this way for a while, I felt pretty competent.
Perceived 1. I believe this way of learning could be of some value to me.
value 2. I think that this way of learning is useful for increasing my interest.
3. I think this learning method could help me to acquire knowledge.
4. I would be willing to use this learning method again because it has some
value to me.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article: The research was partially supported by the
National Education Science Plan 2015 National General Project of China (Grant No.
BCA150053).
Yin et al. 173

ORCID iD
Bing Yang https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7558-1020

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Author Biographies
Jiaqi Yin is a master student with the School of Education, Hubei University,
Wuhan, China. Her major research areas include technology-enhanced learning in
education.
Yin et al. 177

Tiong-Thye Goh is a senior lecturer in Information Management at Victoria

University of Wellington, New Zealand. Dr Goh current research includes social
media, emotion computing, classification, education technology, analytics, and user
behaviour. Dr Goh’s publications appeared in Journal of Business Research,
Journal of Information Systems Education, Commerce Research, British Journal of
Educational Technology, and Journal of Educational Technology & Society.

Bing Yang is currently a full professor of computing with the School of Education,
Hubei University, Wuhan, China. Professor Yang’s research involves computer
networking, educational technology, e-commerce and big data mining. He has
published extensive research in computer science journal, Chinese journal of com-
puter and other international conferences and workshops.

Yang Xiaobin is currently a full professor with the School of Foreign Studies,
Hubei University, Wuhan, China. His major research areas include English
education.