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 Acknowledgments
I am grateful to a number of people for this sixth edition’s
excellent illustrations and photographs. Frederic H. Martini,
main author of the outstanding and widely acclaimed Mar-
tini/Nath/Bartholomew, Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology,
Tenth Edition, deserves credit for his insight and creativity in
visualizing anatomical and physiological concepts with the
talented biomedical illustrators William Ober and Claire Gar-
rison. This lab manual benefits from their work through the
inclusion of many illustrations from that book. I have also
worked closely with them over the years to create specific il-
lustrations for the manual. I also thank Judi L. Nath and Ed-
win F. Bartholomew, coauthors on Fundamentals of Anatomy
& Physiology, for their continued support and encouragement.
Shawn Miller and Mark Nielsen of the University of Utah are
a gifted dissector/photographer team whose meticulous work
is coupled with the Ober and Garrison illustrations in the Cat
and Pig Dissection Versions of the manual. The award-winning
human photographs in the manual are by biomedical photog-
rapher Ralph Hutchings.
In addition to the many micrographs that I prepared for
the manual, I was fortunate to have Robert B. Tallitsch, an out-
standing histologist/microphotographer and one of Ric Mar-
tini’s coauthors on Human Anatomy, Eighth Edition, graciously
provide many critical histological images.
Teaching and writing in anatomy and physiology brings
joy to my life and I have been fortunate to have a career in
both. I thank Del Mar College and my publisher, Pearson, for
the many professional opportunities they have challenged me
with over the years. Special thanks are extended to my biology
colleagues at Del Mar College: Lillian Bass, Angelica Chapa,
Kathy Dickinson, Zaldy Doyungan, Joyce Germany, Reba
Jones, Billy Bob Long, Megan McKee, and Joel McKinney for
their encouragement and support of the manual over the years
and editions.
I thank the many students at Del Mar College whom I have
had the privilege to be with in the classroom and laboratory.
Teachers are lifelong learners and I have gained much insight
from my students, many of whom are employed in health care
and often interject real-life experiences of patients that directly
relate to the laboratory topic.
I thank all of the talented and creative individuals at
Pearson. Foremost, Caroline Ayres, project manager, over-
saw the development and production of the sixth edition
manual. Caroline’s expertise with organizing and coordinat-
ing the enormous number of details and managing a chal-
lenging schedule was essential in all phases of this edition’s
A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 7
development and I am sincerely grateful for her contribu-
tions. I am thankful for the support and encouragement
of Cheryl Cechvala, executive editor. Cheryl has a gift for
managing a resourceful team of editors, dissectors, pho-
tographers, and illustrators whose outstanding work is the
foundation of this sixth edition. Thanks also to Becky Mor-
gan, program manager; Nancy Tabor, project manager team
lead; Timothy Nicholls, rights and permissions manager;
and Christina Simpson, photo researcher; for their roles in
the production of this text. I thank Mary Tindle and her fine
team at Cenveo Publisher Services for their creative layout
and attention to detail. I also thank tani hasegawa for her
outstanding design—of both the cover and the interior—
which gives this complex assemblage of text, illustrations,
photographs, and procedures a user-friendly look. Marilyn
Perry, design manager, oversaw the design process and pro-
vided crucial insight into our design complexities. The en-
tire Pearson Science sales team deserves thanks for their fine
efforts in presenting this manual to A&P instructors.
I offer thanks to the people who developed the stellar
media available with this lab manual. Lauren Chen, media
producer, managed the development of MasteringA&P for
the manual. Sarah Young-Dualan was the media producer for
Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™) 3.0.
I have added over 150 new photographs that I have cre-
ated in my anatomy laboratories. I am very appreciative of the
creative and technically skilled team that prepared these im-
ages for this sixth edition.
I thank Biopac Systems, Inc., for their continued support
and partnership with Pearson and assistance in incorporat-
ing activities for their state-of-the-art instrumentation into the
sixth edition. I especially thank Mike Mullins at Biopac for
his review of the manuscript and for his much appreciated in-
volvement in the revision of the manual to match the latest
Biopac software.
Reviewers helped guide the revision of this sixth edition
and I thank them for their time and devotion to the manual.
Ronny K. Bridges
Pellissippi State Community College
James Davis
University of Southern Maine
Kurt J. Elliott
Northwest Vista College
Lorraine A. Findlay
Nassau Community College
vii
09/12/15 12:31 PM
 viii  Ac k n o w l e d g m e n t s

Roy A. Hyle, II the new dissection photographs. Our girls are out of college
Thomas Nelson Community College now and we are thrilled to watch our daughters, Abi and
Corrie Kezer Beth, start their families and careers. Abi and her husband Kit
Rogue Community College blessed the family with the first baby in 20 years and we are all
spoiling our beautiful baby Fay. I am thankful for my mother,
Hui-Yun Li
Janis G. Wood, for always being there for us. I appreciate my
Oregon Institute of Technology
brother Matthew M. Wood and I also thank my sons-in-law
Sarah E. Matarese Kit Semtner and Jess Alford for all they continue to do for our
Salve Regina University daughters and the Wood family.
Justin W. Merry Any errors or omissions in this edition are exclusively my
Saint Francis University responsibility and are not a reflection of the dedicated editorial
Karen E. Plucinski and review team. Comments from faculty and students are wel-
Missouri Southern State University comed and may be directed to me at the addresses below. I will
consider each submission in the preparation of the next edition.
Debra A. Rajaniemi
Goodwin College
John M. Ripper
Butler County Community College
Will Robison
Northwest Nazarene University Michael G. Wood
Del Mar College
I remain deeply grateful to my wife Laurie for enduring Department of Natural Sciences
months of my late-night writing and the pressures of never- 101 Baldwin Blvd.
ending deadlines. I especially thank Laurie for her help with Corpus Christi, TX 78404

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 8 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 About the Author

Michael G. Wood received his Master’s of Science in Biology in 1986

at Pan American University, now the University of Texas at Pan American in Edinburg,
Texas. His graduate studies included vertebrate physiology and freshwater ecology.
Presently he is a tenured Professor of Biology at Del Mar College in Corpus Christi,
Texas, where he has taught over 15,000 students in anatomy and physiology and biology
during the past 30 years. His excellence in teaching has been recognized by the Del Mar
College community, and he is the recipient of numerous honors, including the “Educator
of the Year,” “Teacher of the Year,” and “Master Teacher” awards. Wood is a member of
the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS) and enjoys attending their annual
meeting when not involved in a writing project. He has a passion for science, reading,
and playing guitar. Mike and his wife Laurie are new grandparents and enjoy traveling
to see their daughters and granddaughter. They are both avid freshwater aquarists and
cultivate a variety of tropical fish and shrimp. Mike and Laurie also breed papillon dogs
and enjoy traveling, gardening, and exploring the great outdoors.

Dedication
■
With love to my daughter Beth, for her spirit and determination.

ix

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 9 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 NEW! A Photo Program that Matches
Over 150 new photos walk students through step-by-step
animal organ dissections and core lab processes, while new
histology images provide additional perspective and guidance.

Step-by-Step Animal Organ Dissections

Histology Photos

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 10 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 What Students See in the Lab

Lab Process Photos

NEW! Pearson Collections Custom Versions

Want to quickly and easily
customize your lab manual to
better serve your students?
Pearson Collections offers
several pre-curated options to
fit common lab course needs.
Examples include:
• Labs that can be
performed without
equipment
• Labs that students can
finish in less than an hour
• Labs for A&P I
• Labs for A&P II
• Brief Version also available
Go to www.pearsonhighered
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A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 11 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 40 E x E r c i s E 4 Use of the Microscope

Setup
■■ Plug in the electrical cord and turn the microscope lamp
If the microscope does not have a built-in light source,

Coaches Students
■■
adjust the mirror to reflect light into the condenser.
Check the position of the condenser; it should be in the
uppermost position, near the stage aperture.
■■ Place the slide on the stage and use the stage clips or
mechanical slide mechanism to secure the slide. Move th
slide so that the specimen is over the stage aperture.
■■ Rotate the nosepiece to swing the scanning lens into
position over the aperture.

Focusing and Ocular Lens Adjustment

NEW! ■■ To focus on a specimen, use the coarse focus knob and
Core Lab Topic move the scanning lens and the slide closely together
until the knob resists turning. Next, while looking into t
Coaching Activities ocular lenses, slowly turn the coarse focus knob the othe
direction. The specimen will come into focus within ap-
Over 35 new Coaching Activities
proximately half a turn of the knob.
tutor students through core lab topics,
■■ Once the image is clear, use the fine adjustment knob to
such as blood typing, or tracing blood
examine the detailed structure of the specimen.
from the heart to the hand. One new
■■ When you are ready to change magnification, rotate the
Coaching Activity for each lab exercise nosepiece and move the low-power lens into position. M
is assignable in MasteringA&P. microscopes are parfocal, which means they are designe
to stay in focus when you change from one objective lens
to another. After changing magnification, use only the fin
adjustment knob to adjust the objective lens.
■■ It is important to adjust the microscope to your interpupilla
distance, the distance between the pupils of your eyes, so
that a single image is seen in the microscope. Move the bo
tubes apart and look into the microscope. If two images ar
visible, slowly move the body tubes closer together until y
see, with both eyes open, a single circular field of view.
NEW!
Magnification Control
Assignable
Always use the small scanning lens during your initial o
■■

Review
servation of &
a slide. You will see more of the specimen a
Practice Sheets
can quickly select areas on the slide for detailed studies
at higher magnifications. When viewing a slide it is good
Itemstechnique
from the to work through all the lenses, and therefore a
Review &
magnifications, in order from the scanning lens to the lo
Practice Sheets at the end of
lens and then the high lens.
each lab exercise are assignable
■■ To examine part of the specimen at low magnification,
in MasteringA&P. Assignments
move that part of the specimen to the center over the
include art-labeling
aperture activities,
before changing to aand
higher-magnification
multiple-choice and matching
objective lens. This repositioning keeps the specimen in t
questions.
field of view at the higher magnification. Because a highe
magnification lens is closer to the slide, less of the slide
is visible in the field of view. The image of the specimen
enlarges and fills the field of view.

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 12 M04_WOOD0187_06_SE_Ex04.indd 40 09/12/15 12:31 PM

cope

■■ Highest magnification is achieved on most microscopes

with an oil-immersion objective lens that utilizes a drop of
microscope lamp on.
immersion oil between the slide and the lens (see Lab Activy 5).
-in light source,
e condenser.
should be in the
rture.
Through Tough Lab Topics
Light Intensity Control
■■ Use the light control knob to regulate the intensity of light
from the bulb. Adjust the brightness so that the image has
stage clips or
good contrast and no glare.
the slide. Move the
tage aperture. Adjust the iris diaphragm by moving the diaphragm lever
■■

side to side. Notice how the field illumination is changed

ning lens into NEW! Draw
by different It!iris.Tutorials
settings of the
■■ At high magnification, increase the light intensity and open
Draw It! Tutorials include brief videos that feature author Michael Wood
stment the iris diaphragm.
teaching students how to sketch selected structures, systems, and processes, such as
e focus knob and cells and body cavities,
QuickCheck Questions in order to better understand and remember them. QR codes in
closely together the
2.1lab manual
When is theallow
coarsestudents toknob
adjustment access
usedthe
on tutorials
a for on-the-go study. Corresponding
hile looking into the Coaching Activities
microscope? for each Draw It! Tutorial are assignable in MasteringA&P.
ocus knob the other
2.2 What is the typical view position for the condenser?
o focus within ap-

djustment knob to 2 In the Lab

pecimen.
cation, rotate the
ns into position. Most
ns they are designed
one objective lens
on, use only the fine
e lens.
Materials Draw It!
Compound microscope, slide, and coverslip
Newspaper cut into small pieces
Dropper bottle containing water
Prepared slide: simple cuboidal epithelium
(kidney slide) VIdeo tutor

to your interpupillary
Procedures: Preparing and Observing
s of your eyes, so
a Wet-Mount Slide
cope. Move the body
pe. If two images are 1. Make a wet-mount slide of a small piece of newspaper as
ser together until you follows:
r field of view. a. Obtain a slide, a coverslip, and a small piece of
newspaper that has printing on it.
b. Place the paper on the slide and add a small drop of
ring your initial ob- water to it.
of the specimen and c. Put the coverslip over the paper as shown in
r detailed studies Figure 4.3. The coverslip will keep the lenses dry.
ng a slide it is good
ses, and therefore all 2. Move the scanning lens into position (if it is not already
nning lens to the low there), and place the slide on the stage.

Figure 4.3 Preparing a Wet-Mount Slide Using tweezers or your

w magnification,
fingers, touch the water or stain with the edge of the coverslip.
center over the
magnification
s the specimen in the
n. Because a higher-
, less of the slide
e of the specimen

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 13 17/09/15 4:21 PM 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 An Easy Way for Students to Study

Practice
Anatomy Lab
Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™) 3.0
is a virtual anatomy study and practice
tool that gives students 24/7 access to
the most widely used lab specimens,
including the human cadaver, anatomical
models, histology, cat, and fetal pig. PAL
3.0 is easy to use and includes built-in
audio pronunciations, rotatable bones,
and simulated fill-in-the-blank lab practical
exams. The PAL 3.0 app is available for iPad
or Android tablet.

Dynamic Study Modules

Dynamic Study Modules help students study effectively
on their own by continuously assessing their activity and
performance in real time. Students complete a set of questions
with a unique answer format that also asks them to indicate their
confidence level. Questions repeat until the student can answer
them all correctly and confidently. Once completed, Dynamic Study
Modules explain the concept using materials from the text. These
are available as graded assignments prior to class, and accessible
on smartphones, tablets, and computers.

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 14 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 Anywhere, Anytime

NEW! Learning Catalytics

Learning Catalytics is a “bring-your-own-device”
engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system.
With Learning Catalytics, instructors can flip the classroom and
assess students in real time using open-ended tasks to probe
their understanding. Students use their smartphone, tablet, or
laptop to respond to questions in class.

PhysioEx 9.1
PhysioEx™ 9.1 is an easy-to-use lab
simulation program that allows students to
repeat labs as often as they like, perform
experiments without animals, and conduct
experiments that are difficult to perform
in a wet lab environment because of time,
cost, or safety concerns. PhysioEx 9.1 is
assignable in MasteringA&P.

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 15 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 Contents

Exercise

1 Laboratory Safety 1
3
4
Diffusion of a Solid in a Gel 64
Osmosis 64
Review & Practice Sheet Laboratory Safety 5 5 Concentration Gradients and Osmotic Rate 67
Exercise 6 Observation of Osmosis in Cells 67

2 Introduction to the Human Body 7

7 Active Transport Processes 69
Review & Practice Sheet Movement Across Plasma
1 Organization of the Body 8 Membranes 71
2 Anatomical Position and Directional Terminology 10
Exercise

7
3 Regional Terminology 12
4 Planes and Sections 15 Epithelial Tissue 75
5 Body Cavities 15 1 Simple Epithelia 77

Review & Practice Sheet Introduction to the Human 2 Stratified Epithelia 79

Body 19 3 Pseudostratified and Transitional Epithelia 81
Exercise Review & Practice Sheet Epithelial Tissue 83

3 Organ Systems Overview 27 Exercise

1 Introduction to Organ Systems 27 8 Connective Tissue 87

2 Gross Anatomy of the Cat 28 1 Embryonic Connective Tissue 88
Review & Practice Sheet Organ Systems Overview 35 2 Connective Tissue Proper 89
Exercise 3 Fluid Connective Tissue 93

4 Use of the Microscope 37

4 Supporting Connective Tissue
Review & Practice Sheet Connective Tissue
94
99
1 Parts and Care of the Compound Microscope 38
Exercise
2 Using the Microscope 39
3 Depth-of-Field Observation 41 9 Muscle Tissue 103
4 Relationship Between Magnification and Field 1 Skeletal Muscle 105
Diameter 42
2 Cardiac Muscle 106
5 Using the Oil-Immersion Objective Lens 43
3 Smooth Muscle 106
Review & Practice Sheet Use of the Microscope 45
Review & Practice Sheet Muscle Tissue 109
Exercise

5
Exercise
Anatomy of the Cell and Cell Division 47
1 Anatomy of the Cell 48
10 Neural Tissue 111
1 Neuron Structure 112
2 Observing Cells 51
2 Neuroglia 113
3 Cell Division 52
Review & Practice Sheet Neural Tissue 115
Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Cell and Cell
Division 57 Exercise

Exercise 11 Integumentary System 117

6 Movement Across Plasma 1

2
Epidermis and Dermis 117
Membranes 61 Accessory Structures of the Skin 120

1 Brownian Movement 62 Review & Practice Sheet Integumentary System 123

2 Diffusion of a Liquid 63

xvi

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 16 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 C o n t e n t s   xvii

Exercise Exercise

12 Body Membranes 127 17 Organization of Skeletal Muscles 219

1 Mucous Membranes 128 1 Skeletal Muscle Organization 220
2 Serous Membranes 129 2 The Neuromuscular Junction 224
3 Cutaneous Membrane 130 3 Naming Muscles 225
4 Synovial Membranes 131 Review & Practice Sheet Organization of Skeletal
Review & Practice Sheet Body Membranes 133 Muscles 227

Exercise
Exercise

13 Organization of the Skeletal System 135 18 Muscles of the Head and Neck 231

1 Bone Structure 135 1 Muscles of Facial Expression 232

2 Histological Organization of Bone 137 2 Muscles of the Eye 235

3 The Skeleton 138 3 Muscles of Mastication 236

4 Bone Classification and Bone Markings 140 4 Muscles of the Tongue and Pharynx 237

Review & Practice Sheet Organization of the Skeletal 5 Muscles of the Anterior Neck 239
System 143 Review & Practice Sheet Muscles of the Head
and Neck 243
Exercise

14 Axial Skeleton 145

Exercise

19 MAbdomen,
uscles of the Vertebral Column,
1 Cranial Bones 145
and Pelvis 247
2 Facial Bones 156
1 Muscles of the Vertebral Column 247
3 Hyoid Bone 160
2 Oblique and Rectus Muscles 251
4 Paranasal Sinuses of the Skull 160
3 Muscles of the Pelvic Region 254
5 Fetal Skull 161
Review & Practice Sheet Muscles of the Vertebral
6 Vertebral Column 161
Column, Abdomen, and Pelvis 257
7 Thoracic Cage 168
Exercise

20 Manduscles
Review & Practice Sheet Axial Skeleton 171

Exercise
of the Pectoral Girdle
Upper Limb
15 Appendicular Skeleton
259
177 1 Muscles That Move the Pectoral Girdle 259
1 Pectoral Girdle 179 2 Muscles That Move the Arm 263
2 Upper Limb 180 3 Muscles That Move the Forearm 265
3 Pelvic Girdle 184 4 Muscles That Move the Wrist and Hand 269
4 Lower Limb 186 Review & Practice Sheet Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle
5 Gender Differences in the Human Skeleton 190 and Upper Limb 275

Review & Practice Sheet Appendicular Skeleton 193 Exercise

Exercise
21 MLimb
uscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower
16 Articulations 199
1
279
Muscles That Move the Thigh 279
1 Joint Classification 199
2 Structure of Synovial Joints 202
2 Muscles That Move the Leg 283

3 Types of Diarthroses 202

3 Muscles That Move the Ankle and Foot 285
Review & Practice Sheet Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle
4 Skeletal Movement at Diarthrotic Joints 205
and Lower Limb 293
5 Selected Synovial Joints: Shoulder, Elbow, Hip,
and Knee Joints 209
Review & Practice Sheet Articulations 215

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 17 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 xviii  C o n t e n t s
Exercise

22 Muscle Physiology
Exercise

1
297
Biochemical Nature of Muscle Contraction 298
26 Autonomic Nervous System 367
1 The Sympathetic (Thoracolumbar) Division 369
2 Types of Muscle Contraction 298
2 The Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) Division 372
3 Isometric and Isotonic Contractions 301
Review & Practice Sheet Autonomic Nervous
4 BIOPAC: Electromyography—Standard and Integrated System 375
EMG Activity 302
Exercise
5 BIOPAC: Electromyography—Motor Unit Recruitment and
Fatigue 305
Review & Practice Sheet Muscle Physiology 309
27 General Senses 377
1 General-Sense Receptors 378
Review & Practice Sheet BIOPAC:
Electromyography—Standard and Integrated EMG
2 Two-Point Discrimination Test 380
Activity 311 3 Distribution of Tactile Receptors 380
Review & Practice Sheet BIOPAC: 4 Distribution of Thermoreceptors 381
Electromyography—Motor Unit Recruitment and 5 Receptor Adaptation 382
Fatigue 313
6 Referred Pain 383
Exercise
7 Proprioception 384

23 OSystem
rganization of the Nervous Review & Practice Sheet General Senses 385
315 Exercise
1
2
Histology of the Nervous System
Anatomy of a Nerve 320
317
28 SGustation
pecial Senses: Olfaction and
387
3 BIOPAC: Reaction Time 321
1 Olfaction 387
Review & Practice Sheet Organization of the Nervous
System 325 2 Olfactory Adaptation 389

Review & Practice Sheet BIOPAC: 3 Gustation 390

Reaction Time 327 4 Relationship Between Olfaction and Gustation 391

Exercise Review & Practice Sheet Special Senses: Olfaction and

24 Tand
Gustation 393
he Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, Exercise
Reflexes
29 Anatomy of the Eye
331
1 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 331 395
2 Spinal Meninges 334 1 External Anatomy of the Eye 395
3 Spinal and Peripheral Nerves 335 2 Internal Anatomy of the Eye 397
4 Spinal Reflexes 338 3 Cellular Organization of the Retina 400
5 Dissection of the Spinal Cord 339 4 Observation of the Retina 402

Review & Practice Sheet The Spinal Cord, Spinal 5 Dissection of the Cow or Sheep Eye 402
Nerves, and Reflexes 341 Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Eye 405
Exercise Exercise

25 Anatomy of the Brain 343 30 Physiology of the Eye 409

1 Cranial Meninges and Ventricles of the Brain 344 1 Visual Acuity 409
2 Regions of the Brain 348 2 Astigmatism Test 410
3 Cranial Nerves 352 3 Blind-Spot Mapping 411
4 Sheep Brain Dissection 356 4 Accommodation 411
Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Brain 361 5 BIOPAC: Electrooculogram 413
Review & Practice Sheet Physiology of the Eye 419
Review & Practice Sheet BIOPAC:
Electrooculogram 421

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 18 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 C o n t e n t s   xix

Exercise 3 Arteries of the Abdominopelvic Cavity and Lower

31 Anatomy of the Ear 425

4
Limb 492
Veins of the Head, Neck, and Upper Limb 495
1 External and Middle Ear 425
5 Veins of the Lower Limb and Abdominopelvic
2 Internal Ear 428 Cavity 501
3 Examination of the Tympanic Membrane 432 6 Fetal Circulation 504
Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Ear 433 Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Systemic
Circulation 505
Exercise

32 Physiology of the Ear Exercise

37 Cardiovascular Physiology
435
1 Equilibrium 436 509
2 Nystagmus 437 1 Listening to Heart Sounds 511

3 Hearing 438 2 Determining Blood Pressure 512

Review & Practice Sheet Physiology of the Ear 441 3 Measuring the Pulse 514
4 BIOPAC: Electrocardiography 515
Exercise

33 Endocrine System
5 BIOPAC: Electrocardiography and Blood Volume 519
443 Review & Practice Sheet Cardiovascular
1 Pituitary Gland 444 Physiology 523
2 Thyroid Gland 445 Review & Practice Sheet BIOPAC:
Electrocardiography 525
3 Parathyroid Glands 447
Review & Practice Sheet BIOPAC:
4 Thymus Gland 448
Electrocardiography and Blood Volume 529
5 Adrenal Glands 449
Exercise
6 Pancreas 451
7 Testes and Ovaries 452 38 Lymphatic System 531
Review & Practice Sheet Endocrine System 455 1 Lymphatic Vessels 532

Exercise 2 Lymphatic Tissues and Lymph Nodes 534

34 Blood 459
3 The Spleen 536
Review & Practice Sheet Lymphatic System 539
1 Composition of Whole Blood 459
Exercise
2 ABO and Rh Blood Groups 463
3 Hematocrit (Packed Red Cell Volume) 465 39 Anatomy of the Respiratory System 541
4 Coagulation 467 1 Nose and Pharynx 542
5 Hemoglobin 467 2 Larynx 542
Review & Practice Sheet Blood 469 3 Trachea and Primary Bronchi 545

Exercise 4 Lungs and Bronchial Tree 547

35 Anatomy of the Heart 471

Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Respiratory
System 551
1 Heart Wall 473
Exercise
2
3
External and Internal Anatomy of the Heart
Coronary Circulation 478
474
40 Physiology of the Respiratory System 555
4 Conducting System of the Heart 479 1 Lung Volumes and Capacities 557

5 Sheep Heart Dissection 479 2 BIOPAC: Volumes and Capacities 560

Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Heart 483 3 BIOPAC: Respiratory Rate and Depth 564
Review & Practice Sheet Physiology of the Respiratory
Exercise
System 569
36 ACirculation
natomy of the Systemic Review & Practice Sheet
Volumes and Capacities 571
BIOPAC:
487
1 Comparison of Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins 487 Review & Practice Sheet BIOPAC:
Respiratory Rate and Depth 573
2 Arteries of the Head, Neck, and Upper Limb 489

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 19 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 xx  C o n t e n t s

Exercise Exercise

41 Anatomy of the Digestive System 575 45 ASystem

natomy of the Reproductive
1 Mouth 578 633
2 Pharynx and Esophagus 581 1 Male: Testes, Epididymis, and Ductus Deferens 634

3 Stomach 582 2 Male: Accessory Glands 636

4 Small Intestine 585 3 Male: Penis 639

5 Liver and Gallbladder 588 4 Male: Spermatogenesis 640

6 Pancreas 591 5 Female: Ovaries, Uterine Tubes,

and Uterus 643
7 Large Intestine 592
6 Female: Vagina and Vulva 647
Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Digestive
System 995 7 Female: Mammary Glands 649
8 Female: Oogenesis 649
Exercise

42 Digestive Physiology Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Reproductive

599 System 653
1 Digestion of Carbohydrate 602 Exercise
2
3
Digestion of Lipid
Digestion of Protein
603
604
46 Development 659
1 First Trimester: Fertilization, Cleavage, and Blastocyst
Review & Practice Sheet Digestive Physiology 607 Formation 660
Exercise 2 First Trimester: Implantation and Gastrulation 662

43 Anatomy of the Urinary System 609

3 First Trimester: Extraembryonic Membranes and the
Placenta 665
1 Kidney 609 4 Second and Third Trimesters and Birth 667
2 Nephron 611
Review & Practice Sheet Development 671
3 Blood Supply to the Kidney 613
Exercise
4
47
Ureter, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra 614
5 Sheep Kidney Dissection 617 Surface Anatomy 675
Review & Practice Sheet Anatomy of the Urinary 1 Head, Neck, and Trunk 675
System 619 2 Shoulder and Upper Limb 680
Exercise 3 Pelvis and Lower Limb 680

44 Physiology of the Urinary System 623

Review & Practice Sheet Surface Anatomy 685

1 Physical Analysis of Urine 625

Appendix A: Weights and Measures A-1
2 Chemical Analysis of Urine 626
Appendix B: Eponyms in Common Use   A-3
3 Microscopic Examination of Urine 628
Credits  CR-1
Review & Practice Sheet Physiology of the Urinary
Index  I-1
System 631

A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 20 09/12/15 12:31 PM


Dissection Exercise
1 Cat Muscular System C-1
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-2
2 Superficial Muscles of the Back and Shoulder C-3
3 Deep Muscles of the Back and Shoulder C-5
4 Superficial Muscles of the Neck, Abdomen,
and Chest C-7
5 Deep Muscles of the Chest and Abdomen C-10
6 Muscles of the Forelimb C-10
7 Muscles of the Hind Limb: The Thigh C-14
8 Muscles of the Hind Limb: The Leg C-16
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Muscular System C-19
Dissection Exercise
2 Cat Nervous System C-21
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-22
2 The Brachial Plexus C-22
3 The Lumbosacral Plexus C-22
4 The Spinal Cord C-26
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Nervous System C-27
Dissection Exercise
3
Cat Endocrine System C-29
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-30
2 Endocrine Glands of the Cat C-30
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Endocrine System C-33
Dissection Exercise
4 Cat Cardiovascular System C-35
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-36
2 Arteries Supplying the Head, Neck, and Thorax C-36
3 Arteries Supplying the Shoulder
and Forelimb (Medial View) C-39
4 Arteries Supplying the Abdominal Cavity C-40
5 Arteries Supplying the Hind Limb (Medial View) C-42
6 Veins Draining the Head, Neck, and Thorax C-42
7 Veins Draining the Forelimb (Medial View) C-44
8 Veins Draining the Abdominal Cavity C-44
9 Veins Draining the Hind Limb (Medial View) C-45
10 Cat Heart Dissection C-45
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Cardiovascular
System C-49
A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 21
DISSE C TION E X ER C ISES
Dissection Exercise
5 Cat Lymphatic System C-53
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-54
2 The Cat Lymphatic System C-54
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Lymphatic System C-57
Dissection Exercise
6
Cat Respiratory System C-59
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-60
2 Nasal Cavity and Pharynx C-60
3 Larynx and Trachea C-61
4 Bronchi and Lungs C-61
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Respiratory System C-63
Dissection Exercise
7 Cat Digestive System C-65
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-66
2 The Oral Cavity, Salivary Glands, Pharynx,
and Esophagus C-66
3 The Abdominal Cavity, Stomach, and Spleen C-68
4 The Small and Large Intestines C-68
5
The Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas C-69
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Digestive System C-73
Dissection Exercise
8 Cat Urinary System C-75
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-76
2 External Anatomy of the Kidney C-77
3 Internal Anatomy of the Kidney C-77
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Urinary System C-79
Dissection Exercise
9 Cat Reproductive System C-81
1 Preparing the Cat for Dissection C-82
2 The Reproductive System of the Male Cat C-82
3 The Reproductive System of the Female Cat C-84
Review & Practice Sheet Cat Reproductive
System C-87
xxi
09/12/15 12:31 PM
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A01_WOOD0187_06_SE_FM_CAT.indd 22 09/12/15 12:31 PM

 Exercise

Laboratory Safety
1
Access more study tools online in the Study Area
of MasteringA&P:
• Pre-lab and post-lab quizzes
• Art-labeling activities
• Practice Anatomy Lab (PAL) virtual anatomy
™
practice tool
™
• PhysioEx lab simulations
• A&P Flix
• Bone and dissection videos

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this exercise, you should be able to:
1. Locate all safety equipment in the laboratory.
2. Demonstrate how to clean up and dispose of broken glass safely.
3. Show how to handle glassware safely, including insertion and removal of glass rods
used with stoppers.
4. Demonstrate how to plug in and unplug electrical devices safely.
5. Explain how to protect yourself from and dispose of body fluids.
6. Demonstrate how to mix solutions and measure chemicals safely.
7. Describe how to safely work with body fluids.
8. Describe the potential dangers of each laboratory instrument.
9. Discuss disposal techniques for chemicals, body fluids, and other hazardous
materials.

Experiments and exercises in the anatomy and physiology laboratory are, by de-
sign, safe. Some of the hazards are identical to those found in your home, such as
broken glass and the risk of electrical shock. The major hazards can be grouped
into six categories: glassware, electrical, body fluids, chemical, laboratory instru-
ments, and preservatives. The following is a discussion of the hazards each cat-
egory poses and a listing of safety guidelines you should follow to prevent injury
to yourself and others while in the laboratory. Proper disposal of biological and
chemical wastes ensures that these contaminants will not be released into your
local environment.

M01_WOOD0187_06_SE_Ex01.indd 1 24/11/15 3:50 PM

 2  E x e r c i s e 1 Laboratory Safety
Laboratory Safety Rules
The following guidelines are necessary to ensure that the labo-
ratory is a safe environment for students and faculty alike:
1. No unauthorized persons are allowed in the laboratory.
Only students enrolled in the course and faculty are to
enter the laboratory.
2. Never perform an unauthorized experiment. Unless you
have your instructor’s permission, never make changes to
any experiment that appears either in this manual or in a
class handout.
3. Do not smoke, eat, chew gum, or drink in the laboratory.
4. Always wash your hands before and after each laboratory
exercise involving chemicals, preserved materials, or body
fluids, and immediately after cleaning up spills.
5. Wear shoes at all times while in the laboratory.
6. Be alert to unsafe conditions and to unsafe actions by
other individuals in the laboratory. Call attention to those
conditions or activities. Someone else’s accident can be as
dangerous to you as one that you cause.
7. Glass tubes called pipettes are commonly used to measure
and transfer solutions. Never pipette a solution by
mouth. Always use a pipette bulb. Your instructor will
demonstrate how to use the particular type of bulb
available in your laboratory.
8. Immediately report all spills and injuries to the laboratory
faculty.
9. Inform the laboratory faculty of any medical condition
that may limit your activities in the laboratory.
Location of Safety Equipment
Write here the location of each piece of safety equipment as
your instructor explains how and when to use it:
nearest telephone
first aid kit
fire exits
fire extinguisher
eye wash station
chemical spill kit
fan switches
biohazard container
Glassware
Glassware is perhaps the most dangerous item in the labora-
tory. Broken glass must be cleaned up and disposed of safely.
Other glassware-related accidents can occur when a glass rod
M01_WOOD0187_06_SE_Ex01.indd 2
or tube breaks while you are attempting to insert it into a cork
or rubber stopper.
Broken Glass
■■ Sweep up broken glass immediately. Never use your hands
to pick up broken glass. Instead, use a whisk broom and
dustpan to sweep the area clear of all glass shards.
■■ Your laboratory most likely has a “broken glass bucket” in
which to discard broken glass. If it does not, place broken
glass in a box, tape the box shut, and write “BROKEN
GLASS INSIDE” in large letters across it. Your laboratory
instructor will arrange for disposal of the sealed box.
Inserting Glass into a Stopper
■■ Never force a dry glass rod or tube into the hole cut in a
cork or rubber stopper. Use a lubricant such as glycerin or
soapy water to ease the glass through the stopper.
■■ To insert a glass rod or tube into a stopper, always push on
the rod/tube near the stopper. Doing so reduces the length
of glass between the stopper and your hand and greatly
decreases your chance of breaking the rod and jamming
glass into your hand.
Electrical Equipment
Electrical hazards in the laboratory are similar to those in your
home. A few commonsense guidelines will almost eliminate
the risk of electrical shock.
■■ Do not force an electrical plug into an outlet. If the plug does
not easily fit into the outlet, inform your laboratory instructor.
■■ Unplug all electrical cords by pulling on the plug, not the
cord. Pulling on the cord may loosen wires inside the cord,
which can cause an electrical short and possibly an electrical
shock to anyone touching the cord.
■■ Never plug in or unplug an electrical device in a wet area.
■■ Uncoil an electrical cord that is wrapped around the base
of a microscope before plugging the cord into an electrical
outlet. Wrapping electrical cords around the microscope can
damage the microscope or the cord.
Body Fluids
The three body fluids most frequently encountered in the lab-
oratory are saliva, urine, and blood. Because body fluids can
harbor infectious organisms, safe handling and disposal proce-
dures must be followed to prevent infecting yourself and others.
■■ Work only with your own body fluids. It is beyond the scope
of this manual to explain proper protocol for collecting and
experimenting on body fluids from another individual.
24/11/15 3:50 PM

■■ Never allow a body fluid to touch your unprotected skin.
Always wear gloves and safety glasses when working with
body fluids—even though you are using your own fluids.
■■ Always assume that a body fluid can infect you with a disease.
Putting this safeguard into practice will prepare you for
working in a clinical setting where you may be responsible
for handling body fluids from the general population.
■■ Clean up all body-fluid spills with either a 10 percent bleach
solution or a commercially prepared disinfectant labeled for
this purpose. Always wear gloves during the cleanup, and
dispose of contaminated wipes in a biohazard container.
Chemicals
Most chemicals used in laboratories are safe. Following a few
simple guidelines will protect you from chemical hazards:
■■ Be aware of chemicals that may irritate skin or stain cloth-
ing. Chemical containers are usually labeled to show con-
tents and potential hazards. Handling and disposal of all
chemicals should follow OSHA guidelines and regulations.
Most laboratories and chemical stockrooms keep copies of
technical chemical specifications, called Safety Data Sheets
(SDS). These publications from chemical manufacturers
detail the proper use of the chemicals and the known ad-
verse effects they may cause. All individuals have a federal
right to inspect these documents. Ask your laboratory in-
structor for more information on SDS.
■■ Never touch a chemical with unprotected hands. Wear gloves
and safety glasses when weighing and measuring chemicals
and during all experimental procedures involving chemicals.
■■ Always use a spoon or spatula to take a dry chemical from
a large storage container. Do not shake a dry chemical out
of its jar; doing so may result in your dumping the entire
container of chemical onto yourself and your workstation.
■■ When pouring out a volume of a solution kept in a large
container, always pour the approximate amount required
into a smaller beaker first and then pour from this beaker
to fill your glassware with the solution. Attempting to pour
from a large storage container directly into any glassware
other than a beaker may result in spilled solution coming
into contact with your skin and clothing.
■■ To keep from contaminating a storage container, do not
return the unused portion of a chemical to its original
container. Dispose of the excess chemical as directed by
your instructor. Do not pour any chemicals—unused or
used—down the sink unless directed to do so by your
instructor.
■■ When mixing solutions, always add a chemical to water;
never add water to the chemical. By adding the chemical
to the water, you reduce the chance of a strong chemical
reaction occurring.
M01_WOOD0187_06_SE_Ex01.indd 3
E x e r c i s e 1 Laboratory Safety   3
Laboratory Instruments
You will use a variety of scientific instruments in the anatomy
laboratory. Safety guidelines for specific instruments are in-
cluded in the appropriate exercises. This discussion concerns
the instruments most frequently used in laboratory exercises.
■■ Microscope: The microscope is the main instrument you
will use in the study of anatomy. Exercise 4 of this manual
is devoted to the use and care of this instrument.
■■ Dissection tools: Working with sharp blades and points
always presents the possibility of injury. Always cut away
from yourself, and never force a blade through a tissue.
Use small knife strokes for increased blade control rather
than large cutting motions. Always use a sharp blade, and
dispose of used blades in a specially designated “sharps”
container. Carefully wash and dry all instruments upon
completion of each dissection.
Special care is necessary while changing disposable
scalpel blades. Your instructor may demonstrate the proper
technique for blade replacement. Always wash the used
blade before removing it from the handle. Examine the
handle and blade, and determine how the blade fits onto
the handle. Do not force the blade off the handle. If you
have difficulty changing blades, ask your instructor for
assistance.
■■ Water bath: A water bath is used to incubate laboratory
samples at a specific temperature. Potential hazards
involving water baths include electrical shock due to contact
with water and burn-related injuries caused by touching
hot surfaces or spilling hot solutions. Electrical hazards
are minimized by following the safety rules concerning
plugging and unplugging of electrical devices. Avoid burns
by using tongs to immerse or remove samples from a
water bath. Point the open end of all glassware containing
a sample away from yourself and others. If the sample
boils, it could splatter out and burn your skin. Use a water-
bath rack to support all glassware, and place hot samples
removed from a water bath in a cooling rack. Monitor the
temperature and water level of all water baths. Excessively
high temperatures increase the chance of burns and usually
ruin an experiment. When using boiling water baths,
add water frequently, and do not allow all the water to
evaporate.
■■ Microcentrifuge: A microcentrifuge is used for blood and
urine analyses. The instrument spins at thousands of
revolutions per minute. Although the moving parts are
housed in a protective casing, it is important to keep all
loose hair, clothing, and jewelry away from the instrument.
Never open the safety lid while the centrifuge is on or
spinning. Do not attempt to stop a spinning centrifuge
with your hand. The instrument has an internal braking
mechanism that stops it safely.
24/11/15 3:50 PM
Another random document with
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 MAY.
T° Fahrenheit.
Atmosphere.
Monthly mean 57.1
Maximum 85.0
Minimum 31.0
Mean daily range 22.5
Greatest daily range 32.0
Least daily range 8.0
Surface.
Monthly mean 56.7
Extremes.
Maximum (10th of month) 77.0
Minimum (5th) 36.0
Mean maximum 65.2
Mean minimum 49.9
Range.
Monthly 41.0
Mean daily 14.9
Greatest daily (19th) 25.0
Least daily (21st) 4.0
One Inch.
Monthly mean 56.8
Extremes.
Maximum (10th) 74.5
Minimum (5th) 36.5
Mean maximum 62.9
Mean minimum 49.5
Range.
Monthly 38.0
Mean daily 11.9
Greatest daily (10 and 19) 20.0
Least daily (23rd) 1.0
Three Inches.
Monthly mean 56.7
Extremes.
 Maximum (31st) 71.0
Minimum (6th) 40.0
Mean maximum 60.9
Mean minimum 49.7
Range.
Monthly 31.0
Mean daily 9.3
Greatest daily (19th) 15.5
Least daily (23rd) 1.5
Six Inches.
Monthly mean 56.3
Extremes.
Maximum (31st) 66.0
Minimum (6th and 7th) 43.0
Mean maximum 56.7
Mean minimum 53.2
Range.
Monthly 23.0
Mean daily 4.65
Greatest daily (8 and 19) 8.5
Least Daily (5th) 1.0
Twelve Inches.
Monthly mean 55.6
Extremes.
Maximum (31st) 64.0
Minimum (6th and 7th) 46.0
Mean maximum 56.6
Mean minimum 54.4
Range.
Monthly 18.0
Mean daily 2.18
Greatest daily (8th) 4.5
Least daily (3rd and 20th) 0.0
Twenty-Four Inches.
Monthly mean 53.1
Extremes.
Maximum (31st) 58.0
 Minimum (6th and 8th) 48.0
Mean maximum 53.4
Mean minimum 52.8
Range.
Monthly 10.0
Mean daily 0.48
Greatest daily (23rd) 2.0
Least daily (on 12 days) 0.0

115. Method of Whitney and Marvin.[77]—The thermometer

devised by Whitney and Marvin is shown in Fig. 14. The principle on
which this modification depends is as follows:
A mercurial thermometer of the ordinary construction is liable to
give wrong indications of the temperature because it is difficult to
determine the temperature of the column of mercury from the bulb
to the surface of the ground. To avoid this source of error the
thermometer figured was constructed.
The bulb of the thermometer is made quite small and a slender
portion of the stem extends into its spherical portion. The top
portion of the thermometer stem does not differ in any essential
respect from the stem of an ordinary thermometer.
The bulb is almost wholly filled with alcohol, which acts as the
principal thermometric fluid and has the advantages of a high
coefficient of expansion. The thermometer bulb and the stem of the
thermometer up to a point convenient for graduation, are filled with
mercury. In the drawing the mercury is represented by the heavy
black marking in and just above the small bulb. The peculiar
construction at this point is for the purpose of retaining the mercury
about the point of the slender capillary stem inside the bulb and
preventing the entrance of alcohol into the stem when the
thermometer is horizontal.
In order to register the maximum and minimum temperatures a
short column of alcohol is placed in the upper portion of the stem,
above the mercury, and within this are arranged two small steel
indexes, so constructed that they will not slide in the tube of their
own weight, but are easily pushed upward by the mercury column or
pulled downward by the top meniscus of the alcohol column. The
indexes are set by means of a small magnet, the one being drawn
down upon the top of the mercurial column
and the other raised up against the meniscus
of the alcohol column.
The rise of the mercury carries its index
upward, leaving it to register the highest
point reached, while the alcohol meniscus
withdraws the other index and leaves it at a
point representing the minimum
temperature. It remains only to mention that
the graduations are fixed in the usual way,
having reference only to the positions of the
mercurial column. Beyond the highest point
supposed to be reached by the mercury, say
about 120°, the graduations are extended in
an arbitrary manner. The scale numbers
represent temperatures by the mercurial
column and are continued in regular
sequence beyond the 120°. On this plan the
readings for minimum temperatures are on a
purely arbitrary scale and are converted into
true degrees of temperature by use of a table
prepared for each thermometer, which table
embodies as well all the corrections for
instrumental error.
The arrangement of the alcohol columns
above the mercurial column and the indexes
are shown enlarged at one side of the
illustration. The readings of the maximum
temperature are made from the bottom end
of the index next to the mercurial column.
The minimum temperature is the reading of
the top of the uppermost index. Thus in the
figure the maximum temperature indicated
is 76.5°, and the minimum 125.7°, which, by
reference to the table of correction for this
thermometer, No. 10, is found to be 53.3°.
The use of mercury in the stem of the
thermometer not only admits of the use of
the index for registering the maximum Fig. 14. Soil
temperature, but possesses the additional Thermometer—Whitney
and Marvin.
advantage of reducing the error due to
uncertain temperature of the stem to about
one-sixth what it would be if alcohol were used. Moreover, if
necessary, as in the case with thermometers for greater depths than
that figured, the ungraduated portion of the stem can be made of
very much finer bore than the graduated portion, the effect of which
is to diminish the objectionable error to a comparatively
unimportant quantity.
The chief objection to thermometers of this construction is the
liability of alcohol getting from the bulb into the stem during the
processes of construction, graduation and subsequent handling, and
the difficulty of safely shipping them.
When once set up, however, there seems to be little or no
possibility of derangement and the error common to mercurial
thermometers due to rise of the freezing point with age does not
apply owing to the high coefficient of expansion of the alcohol used
in the bulb.
 APPLICATIONS OF SOIL THERMOMETRY.

116. Estimation of the Absorption of Heat by Soils.—A

cubical zinc box, six centimeters square, is filled with the sifted air
dried soil. The box, one side of which is left open, is encased snugly
in a wooden cover, exposing only the open end, and placed for a few
hours in the direct rays of the sun. The temperature is then taken at a
given depth. The box may be provided with thermometers at
different depths, the bulbs thereof extending to the center. In this
case the box should be covered with thick felt instead of wood. The
temperature of the layers of soils of different depths can thus be read
off directly. The air temperature directly above the box should be
accurately noted while the experiment continues.
Any other kind of box well protected against all heat save the direct
sunlight on the open surface of the soil will answer as well as the one
described.
To determine the action of moist earth in similar conditions the
soil may be previously moistened; the per cent of moisture being
determined in a separate portion of the soil or the amount of water
added to the air-dried soil being noted.
117. Estimation of the Conductivity of Soils for Heat.—The
bulb of a thermometer is placed in the middle of a mass of fine earth
which is then exposed, best in a metallic box painted with lamp
black, in a warm place. The time required for the thermometer to
reach a certain degree is noted. By reversing the experiment and
placing the mass of earth heated to a given degree in a cool place the
conductivity can be determined by the time required for the mercury
in the thermometer to fall to any given point.
The experiment may also be made by packing the soil by gently
jolting it in a glass tube six to eight centimeters in diameter. One end
of the tube is closed with a piece of metal or fine wire gauze painted
with lamp black and is exposed to the source of heat. The bulb of a
thermometer is placed at a given distance from the end of the tube
and the time for the mercury to be affected observed.
 COHESION AND ADHESION OF SOILS.

118. Behavior of Soil After Wetting.—The deportment of a

soil when thoroughly wet in respect of its physical state on drying out
is a matter of great practical concern to the agronomist. Some soils
on becoming dry fall into a pulverulent state and are easily brought
into proper tilth; others become hard and tenacious, breaking into
clods and resisting ordinary methods of pulverization. The physical
laws which determine these conditions depend largely on the
principles of flocculation soon to be described. The present task is to
describe briefly some of the methods of estimating the force of
cohesion and adhesion.
119. General Method.—The fine earth, air-dried, is mixed with
enough water to make a paste and molded into forms suitable for
trial in a machine for testing strength of cement, etc. The forms most
used are cakes three to five centimeters in length and one to two
centimeters thick. These are used for determining crushing power.
For longitudinal adhesion the paste may be molded in prismatic or
cylindrical shape.[78] The prisms should show one to two centimeters
in cross section or the cylinder be one to two centimeters in
diameter. Before use they are to be exposed for several days until
thoroughly air-dried. The force required to separate or crush these
prepared pieces will measure the adhesive or cohesive property of
the sample. A great number of trials should be made and the mean
taken.
120. Method of Heinrich.[79]—This process consists in mixing
the air-dried earth with water until its aqueous content is fifty per
cent of the highest water capacity determined by experiment. The
sample is next placed between two pieces of sheet iron of ten
centimeters square, each of which in its middle point is provided
with a hook. The thickness of the layer between the two pieces of iron
should be about five to ten centimeters. The exuding particles of soil
are cut off with a knife. The upper piece of sheet iron is next
suspended by a cord in such a way that the iron piece occupies a
horizontal position. A small basket is attached to the lower surface
and sand added thereto, little by little, until the column of earth is
separated. The sand basket and iron plate are weighed, and the total
weight gives the power necessary to separate a column of soil ten
centimeters square in cross section. The iron plates may be
roughened so that the adhesion thereto of the soil is greater than its
cohesive force.
121. Adhesion of Soil to Wood, Iron, Etc.—The adhesive
power of moist soil for wood, iron, etc., is measured by Heinrich[80]
in the following way: The soil is mixed with water, as above, until it
contains just fifty per cent of its total water-holding content. It is
then placed in a large vessel and the upper surface made as smooth
as possible. A plate of wood, iron, etc., of ten centimeters square is
then pressed on the surface until a complete contact is secured. This
plate, by means of a hook and cord passing over a pulley, is then
subjected to stress by weighting the cord which carries a basket for
that purpose. The basket should be of the same weight as the plate in
contact with the soil. The weight added to the basket necessary to
separate the plate from the soil is taken to represent the cohesive
force. The author of the method appears to take no account of the
pressure of the air on the plate caused by the exclusion of the air
from its under surface.
 THE ABSORPTIVE POWER OF SOILS FOR
SALTS IN SOLUTION.

122. General Principles.[81]—It is a fact of every-day

observation that soils have a particular property of absorbing certain
materials with which they come in contact. If it were not for this
property all our wells would soon become unwholesome from the
reception of decayed animal and vegetable matter carried to them in
the drainage water from the surface. It is also a well-known fact that
burying dead bodies prevents the gaseous products of decomposition
from reaching and vitiating the atmosphere.
Besides this well-known power of soils to absorb the
decomposition products of animal and vegetable matter, they also
possess a property which is of far greater importance in plant
economy; that is, the power of withdrawing and retaining certain
mineral constituents from their solutions.
As far back as the sixteenth century mention is made by Lord
Bacon of a process for obtaining pure water on the seashore by
simply digging a hole in the sand and allowing it to fill with filtered
sea water, which by this means is deprived of its salt. Although
certain facts were observed by some of the earlier writers in regard to
soil absorption, no systematic researches were conducted with a view
of demonstrating the extent and cause of this power until within a
comparatively few years.
In 1850 Prof. Way published in the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, the results of a thorough and most
excellent investigation of the subject. Since then many distinguished
chemists, such as Henneberg, Stohmann, Peters, Heiden, Knop,
Ullik, Pillitz, Biedermann, Tuxen, and others have given their
attention to this matter.
123. Summary of Data.—If a solution of a soluble sulfate,
chloride or nitrate of an alkali or an alkaline-earth metal be placed in
contact with a soil, the result is that the soil takes up a part of the
base but none of the acid. This absorption of base is attended with
the liberation of some other base from the soil which combines with
the acid of the solution. Any alkali or alkaline earth base has the
power of replacing any other such base. However, if soluble
phosphates and silicates of these bases be placed in contact with the
soil both the base and the acid are removed from the solution.
Peters[82] has shown that the amount of absorption depends upon
the concentration of the solution, the relation between the quantity
of solution and the soil and the kind of salt used. He treated 100
grams of earth with 250 cubic centimeters of solutions of different
potash salts with the following results:

Strength of solution. ⅒ Normal. ¹⁄₂₀ Normal.

Grams Grams
Salt Used K₂O absorbed. K₂O absorbed.
KCl 0.3124 0.1990
K₂SO₄ 0.3362 0.2098
K₂CO₃ 0.5747 0.3154

Biedermann[83] proves that, for phosphoric acid at least, the

absorption increases with the temperature.
It has also been found that the amount of absorption depends
upon the time of contact between the soil and solution. Way found
that the absorption of ammonia was complete in half an hour, while
Henneberg and Stohmann[84] noticed that the phosphoric acid
continued to be fixed after the expiration of twenty-four hours.
It is a very important fact that the absorption of a base is never
complete; no matter how dilute the solution it will still carry a small
portion of the base with it. Peters states that it requires about 28,000
parts of water to remove one part of absorbed potash and Stohmann
found that it required about 10,000 parts of water to remove one
part of absorbed ammonia. With phosphoric acid, the resulting
compound seems to be much more insoluble.
According to Tuxen[85] the presence of salts of soda and potash in
solution decreases the power of a soil to absorb ammonia
compounds and the presence of sodium salts decreases the power of
a soil to absorb potash. On the other hand the presence of potassium
compounds considerably increases the absorption of phosphoric
acid. He further affirms that the compounds of potash, phosphoric
acid, etc., formed in the soil, are decidedly more soluble in sodium
salts than in pure water.
124. Cause of Absorption.—The withdrawing and fixing of
phosphoric acid from solutions by the soil is not very difficult to
understand as this acid forms insoluble compounds of iron, lime,
and magnesium, some or all of which are present in all soils. As to
the absorption of the alkalies, the explanation is far more difficult as
nearly all of their ordinary compounds are readily soluble in water.
As lime is usually found combined with the acid part of an alkali
salt, from which the base has been absorbed by the soil, it might
naturally be supposed that the absorptive power of the soil would
depend upon the amount of lime present. Way found, however, that
the addition of chalk in no way influenced the absorption of
ammonia by a soil which contained but a small amount of lime. This
fact was also confirmed by Knop[86] who found that chalk exerted no
influence on the absorption of ammonia salts. These facts would
seem to point to the conclusion that lime was present in sufficient
quantity in these experiments, or that it is not essential to the
phenomena of absorption. However, as any alkali or alkaline-earth
base can replace any other such base, the presence of lime in the
filtrate is probably more of an accidental occurrence, owing to the
comparatively large amount of that substance in most soils, than a
necessary condition, as any other base would doubtless answer in the
absence of lime.
125. Warington[87] has shown that hydrated oxides of iron and
aluminum, and especially the former, are capable of absorbing
potash and ammonia, and as more or less of these hydrates exist in
nearly all soils, a part, at least, of absorptive phenomena is to be
ascribed to them.
126. Way tried to determine which of the constituents of a soil
exercised chiefly the absorptive power. He passed a solution of
ammonia through tubes containing pure sand and found that it came
through apparently unaltered from the first, while a soil treated in
the same way removed the ammonia for a considerable time. He
concluded from this that the absorptive power does not exist in the
sand. He next oxidized the organic matter in a soil with nitric acid
and then treated it with ammonia in the same way. The first portions
of the filtrate showed no ammonia in any form, hence he concluded
that organic matter is not essential to the act of absorption. He
further showed that clay alone is capable of causing absorption
phenomena, by treating powdered clay tobacco pipes with ammonia.
Having shown that clay was the main constituent in a soil which
caused the absorption of alkalies, he tried next to trace out the
particular compound which caused the absorption. Having tried
various natural silicates he at last succeeded in producing a hydrated
silicate of aluminum and soda which exhibited displacement and
absorptive properties very similar to those shown by the soil.
As Way had succeeded in producing an artificial hydrated silicate
possessing absorptive properties, Eichorn[88] thought of trying
natural hydrated silicates or zeolites and found that they exhibited
the same power as Way’s artificial preparation. It has also been
shown by Biedermann,[89] Rautlenberg,[90] and Heiden[91] that the
absorptive power bears a close relation to the amount of soluble
silicates present.
In view of these facts it is now generally accepted that the
absorption of salts of the alkalies, accompanied by the change of
base, is due chiefly to the presence of decomposed zeolite minerals in
the soil.
Besides the purely chemical absorption of salts by the soil, we have
a physical absorption of various substances similar to the action of
charcoal when used as a filter.
127. Conclusions of Armsby.—The data connected with the
absorption of bases by a soil have also been reviewed by Armsby.[92]
He shows that the absorption is accompanied by a chemical reaction
between the salt whose base is absorbed and some constituent of the
soil, and this change seems to be due particularly to certain zeolitic
silicates, although Liebig and others were disposed to credit this
absorption largely to physical causes.
Knop advances the idea that the soil has the power of
disintegrating salts in the presence of some substances like calcium
carbonate which can unite with the acid. In experiments made with
hydrous silicates it was shown that the absorption resembled in all
cases like phenomena in the soil; hence the supposition already
advanced in regard to the influence of such silicates is doubtless true.
In respect of absorption in general, the following conclusions were
reached:
1. The absorption of combined bases by the soil consists in an
exchange of bases between the salt and the hydrous silicates of the
soil.
2. This exchange, which is primarily chemical, is only partial, its
extent varying
(a) with the concentration of the solution, and
(b) with the ratio between the volume of the solution and the
quality of soil used.
3. The cause of these variations is probably the action of mass or
the tendency of resulting compounds to re-form the original bodies,
the absorption actually found in any case marking the point where
the two forces are in equilibrium.
128. Selective Absorption of Potash.—As a rule more potash
is absorbed from the sulfate than from the chlorid. This fact would
seem to point to the advisability of using sulfate as a fertilizer in
preference to chlorid. However, as with the exception of nitrates, the
absorptive power of a soil, for the salts used as fertilizers, is many
times greater than it is ever called upon to exert in fixing applied
fertilizers, we need not trouble ourselves in regard to the absorption
of phosphoric acid, potash or ammonia, in so far as the practical side
of the matter is concerned. For example, an acre of soil to the depth
of nine inches weighs about 900 tons. Now it has been found by
Huston,[93] that 100 parts of a soil experimented upon absorbed over
0.25 part of P₂O₅, hence 900 parts would absorb over 2.25 parts of
P₂O₅; or an acre of this soil to the depth of nine inches would absorb
over two and one-fourth tons of phosphoric acid. 500 pounds per
acre is a large dressing of a phosphatic fertilizer for field crops and
500 pounds of a high grade fertilizer would contain about 100
pounds of P₂O₅; hence the power of such a soil to absorb phosphoric
acid is more than forty-five times as great as it is ever likely to be
called upon to exert in fixing the phosphoric acid added to it as a
fertilizer.
 Huston has further shown that an acre of soil nine inches deep will
absorb more than 2.7 tons of potash (K₂O) from potassium chlorid
from which salt less potash is absorbed than from the sulfate. Now
one-tenth ton of potassium chlorid per acre would be a large dressing
of potash, hence this soil possesses the power of absorbing more
than twenty-seven times as much potash as is ever likely to be
applied as a fertilizer.
In like manner it may be shown that the power of an acre of soil
nine inches deep to absorb ammonia from ammonium sulfate is
more than thirty-two times as great as it would be called upon to
exert in fixing the ammonia from a dressing of one-quarter ton of
ammonium sulfate per acre.
With sodium nitrate, however, there is no absorption; hence great
care is necessary in the application of nitrogen as a nitrate, for, if it
be put on in large quantities, at a season when the plant is not
prepared to assimilate it, or during a period of heavy rains, there
must unavoidably result loss from drainage. The best time to apply a
nitrate is evidently during the active growing season.
129. Whitney[94] places great emphasis on the surface area of soil
particles in respect to their power to absorb solutions of salts. The
approximate surface area of a cubic foot of each of the different
typical soils of Maryland is as follows:

Pine barrens 23,940 square feet.

Truck lands 74,130 „ „
Tobacco lands 84,850 „ „
Wheat lands 94,540 „ „
River terrace 106,260 „ „
Limestone subsoil 202,600 „ „

It will be seen that there are about 24,000 square feet of surface
area in a cubic foot of the subsoil of the pine barrens, no less then
100,000 square feet or two and three-tenths acres of surface area in
a cubic foot of the subsoil of the river terrace, and 200,000 square
feet of surface area in a cubic foot of the limestone subsoil.
These figures seem vast, but they are probably below rather than
above the true values, on account of the wide range of the diameters
of the clay group. This great extent of surface and of surface
attraction, which has been described as potential, gives the soil great
power to absorb moisture from the air, and to absorb and hold back
mineral matters from solution. A smooth surface of glass will attract
and hold, by this surface attraction, an appreciable amount of
moisture from the surrounding air. A cubic foot of soil, having
100,000 square feet of surface, should be able to attract and hold a
considerably larger amount of moisture.
It might have been added that if the potential of the surface,
separating the solution from the soil, be greater than the potential in
the interior of the liquid mass, there will be a tendency to
concentrate the liquid on this surface of separation. It has been
shown that certain fluids have greater density on a surface separating
the fluid from a solid. On the other hand, if the potential were low
there might be no tendency for this concentration, and even the
reverse conditions would prevail and the soluble substance could be
readily washed out of the soil.
130. Removal of Organic Matters.—It is probably largely due
to this straining power that organic matters are removed from
solutions in percolating through the soil. Whitney[95] has observed
that the organic matter may be coagulated and precipitated from
solution by the soil constituents, and held in the soil in loose
flocculent masses, while the liquid passes through nearly free of
organic matter.
131. Importance of Soil Absorption.—The importance of the
absorptive power of the soil can hardly be overestimated. By means
of this power those mineral ingredients of plant food, of which most
soils contain but little, are held too closely to allow of rapid loss by
drainage, and still sufficiently available to answer the needs of
vegetation, provided the store is large enough. The only important
plant food liable to be deficient in the soil which does not come
under the influence of absorption is nitrogen in the form of salts of
nitric acid, and nature has made a wide provision for this element by
binding it in the form of organic bodies which nitrify but slowly, and
by supplying each year a small quantity from the atmosphere.
By means of the absorptive power of soils the farmer, if he puts on
an excess of potash or phosphoric acid as a fertilizer, does not lose it
but is able to reap some benefits from it in the next and even in
succeeding crops. If it were not for this power the best method for
applying fertilizers would be a much more complicated problem than
it is at present; and it would be necessary to apply them at just the
proper season and in nicely regulated amounts to insure against loss.
132. Method of Determining Absorption of Chemical
Salts.—The soil which is to be used for this experiment should be
treated as has been indicated and passed through a sieve the meshes
of which do not exceed half a millimeter in size. From twenty-five to
fifty grams of the fine earth may be used for each experiment.
The fine earth should be placed in a flask with 100 to 200 cubic
centimeters of the one-tenth to one-hundredth normal solution of
the substance to be absorbed. The flask should be well shaken and
allowed to stand with frequent shaking twenty-four to forty-eight
hours at ordinary temperatures. The whole is then to be thrown upon
a folded filter and an aliquot part of the filtrate taken for the
estimation. The methods of determining the quantities of the
substances used will be found in other parts of this manual. It is
recommended to conduct a blank experiment with water under the
same conditions in order to determine the amount of the material
under consideration abstracted from the soil by the water alone. The
difference in the strength of the solution as filtered from the soil,
corrected by the amount indicated by the blank experiment, and the
original solution will give the absorptive power of the soil for the
particular substance under consideration.
If it should be desired to determine the absorptive power of the
soil for all the ordinary chemical fertilizing materials at the same
time, a larger quantity of the sample should be taken corresponding
to the increased amount of the standard solutions used. About 500
cubic centimeters of the mixed salt solution should be shaken with
125 grams of the earth and the process carried on in general as
indicated above. The absorption coefficient of an earth for any given
salt according to Fesca,[96] is the quantity of the absorbed material
expressed in milligrams calculated to a unit of 100 grams of the soil.
133. Method of Pillitz and Zalomanoff.—It is recommended
by Pillitz and Zalomanoff[25] to reject the old method, viz., shaking
the soil with the solution in a flask, and substitute the filtration
method both because it gives a more natural process and because the
results are more constant. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 15.
 Two cylinders are placed vertically, one over the
other. The lower cylinder is graduated in cubic
centimeters, the upper cylinder is closed at each end
by perforated rubber stoppers A and B through the
openings of which the glass tubes c and d pass. Within
the cylinder A the opening of the small tube d is closed
with a disk of Swedish filter paper. The lower part of
the small tube is d connected by means of a rubber
tube carrying a pinch-cock C, with another small tube
e which passes through the stopper f. In carrying out
the process the weighed quantity of soil is placed in
the upper cylinder and afterwards the measured
quantity of the solution, the whole thoroughly mixed
and the cylinder closed. The valve C is then opened, a
given quantity of the solution, but not all, is made to
drop into the lower cylinder and the valve C is then
closed. The liquid which has passed into the lower
cylinder as well as that which remains in the upper
cylinder, is thoroughly stirred and the quantity of the
Figure 15. material remaining in both liquids determined and the
absorbing power of the soil estimated from their
Zalomanoff’s difference. It does not appear that this method of
Apparatus estimation of the absorption power possesses any
for special advantages over the old and far simpler
Determining
Absorption method of shaking in a flask.
of Salts by 134. Method of Müller.—The method of
Soils. Müller[97] for illustrating absorption is carried out by
means of the apparatus shown in Fig. 16. A glass
cylinder A about 750 centimeters long and four to five centimeters
wide is closed at each end with rubber stoppers with a single
perforation. The cylinder A is for the reception of the soil with which
the experiment is to be made. Before using, the lower part of it is
filled with glass pearls or broken glass and above this a layer of glass
wool is placed about one centimeter thick. The object of this is to
prevent the soil from passing into the small tube below. As soon as
the soil has all been placed in the cylinder A the upper part of the
tube is also filled with glass wool. The cylinder A is connected with
the pressure bottle B by means of a rubber tube and the small glass
bulb tube shown in the figure. The bottle B should have a content of
about two liters. It is filled with the standard
solution of the material of which the
absorption coefficient is to be determined.
At c the rubber tube is connected with a
glass T one arm of which is provided with a
piece of rubber tubing which can be closed
by means of a pinch-cock. At c a screw
pinch-cock is placed which can be used to
regulate the flow of the solution from B to A.
By opening the pinch-cock at e on the short
arm of the T piece, a sample of the original
liquid can be taken and this can be
compared with the part which runs to b. If it
is desired for instance, to show that
potassium carbonate has been absorbed by
the soil the two bulbs shown on the small
glass tubes connecting with A can be filled
with red litmus paper. This paper will at
once be turned blue in the lower bulb while
in the upper one it will retain its original
color because the liquid in passing through
the soil will have lost its alkaline reaction.
The solutions used should be very dilute.
The apparatus is designed for lecture Figure 16.
experiments and not for quantitative Müller’s Apparatus to
determinations. Show Absorption of
135. Method of Knop.—For rapid Salts by Soils.
determination of the absorption coefficient
of the soil Knop’s method may be used.[98]
The fine earth which is employed is that which passes a sieve with
meshes of half a millimeter. From 50 to 100 grams of this soil are
mixed with from five to ten grams of powdered chalk and with about
twice the weight of ammonium chlorid solution of known strength,
viz., from 100 to 200 cubic centimeters. The ammonia solution
should be of such a concentration that the ammonia by its
decomposition for each cubic centimeter of the liquid evolves exactly
one cubic centimeter of nitrogen. This solution is prepared by
dissolving in 208 cubic centimeters of water one gram of ammonium
chlorid. With frequent shaking the solution is allowed to stand in
contact with the soil for forty-eight hours. The whole is now allowed
to settle and the supernatant clear liquid is poured through a dry
filter. From the filtrate twenty to forty cubic centimeters are removed
by a pipette, and evaporated to dryness in a small porcelain dish,
with the addition of a drop of pure hydrochloric acid. The
ammonium chlorid remaining in the porcelain dish is washed with
ten cubic centimeters of water into one of the compartments of the
evolution flask of the Knop-Wagner azotometer. It is decomposed
with fifty cubic centimeters of bromin lye and the nitrogen estimated
volumetrically. The difference between the amount of nitrogen in
this material and that of the original material will give the amount of
absorption exercised by the fine earth. This number, without any
further calculation, can be taken as the coefficient of absorption.
136. Method of Huston.—The salt solutions recommended by
Huston[99] are sodium phosphate (Na₂HPO₄), potassium chlorid,
potassium sulfate, ammonium sulfate and sodium nitrate.
The solutions should be approximately tenth normal, the actual
strength in each case being determined by analysis. The phosphorus
is determined as magnesium pyrophosphate in the usual way, the
potash as potassium platinochlorid, the ammonia by collecting the
distillate from soda in half normal hydrochloric acid and titrating
with standard alkali, and the nitrate by Warington’s modification of
Schlösing’s method for gas analysis. The details of these methods of
determination will be given later. One hundred grams of the sifted,
air-dried soil are placed in a rubber stopped bottle and treated with
250 cubic centimeters of the solution to be tested. The digestion is
continued for forty-eight hours in each case, the bottles being
thoroughly shaken at the end of twenty-four hours. At the end of the
treatment the solutions are filtered and the salts determined in
aliquot portions. The details of this method are essentially those
already described.
137. Statement of Results.—Duplicate analyses should be made
and the tabulation of the data is illustrated in the following analyses
by Huston: