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 97

CHAPTER 7
SOCIAL THINKING AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Forming Impressions of Others (APA Goals 1, 4)

• Cite the five sources of information people use to form impressions of others.
• Understand the key differences between snap judgments and systematic judgments.
• Define attributions and describe two attribution-based expectancies that can distort
observers’ perceptions.
• Recognize four important cognitive distortions and how they operate.
• Identify some ways in which perceptions of others are efficient, selective, and consistent.

The Problem of Prejudice (APA Goals 4, 8)

• Explain how “old-fashioned” and modern discrimination differ.
• Understand how authoritarianism and cognitive distortions can contribute to prejudice.
• Clarify how intergroup competition and threats to social identity can foster prejudice.
• Describe the operation of several strategies for reducing prejudice.

The Power of Persuasion (APA Goals 4, 7)

• Cite the key elements in the persuasion process and how each one operates.
• Discuss the evidence on one-sided versus two-sided messages and the value of arousing
fear or positive feelings in persuasion.
• Explain how the two cognitive routes to persuasion operate.

The Power of Social Pressure (APA Goal 1)

• Summarize what Asch discovered about conformity.
• Discuss the difference between normative and informational influences on conformity.
• Describe Milgram’s research on obedience to authority and how to resist inappropriate
demands of authority figures.

Application: Seeing Through Compliance Tactics (APA Goals 3, 9)

• Describe compliance strategies based on the principles of consistency and reciprocity
• Discuss how the principle of scarcity can increase a person’s desire for something.
98 CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Forming Impressions

A. Person perception is the process of forming impressions of others

B. Key sources of information

1. Appearance
2. Verbal behavior
3. Actions
4. Nonverbal messages
5. Situations

C. Snap judgments versus systematic judgments

1. Snap judgments are those that are made quickly and based on only a few bits of
information and preconceptions; they may not be accurate
2. Systematic judgments involve taking time to observe the person in a variety of
situations and to compare the person’s behavior with that of others

D. Attributions are inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior,
others' behavior, and events
1. Three key dimensions of attributions
a. Internal/external
b. Stable/unstable
c. Controllable/uncontrollable
2. Types of attributions people make about others can have major impact on social
interactions
3. People are selective about making attributions; most likely to make them in specific
cases
a. When others behave in unexpected or negative ways
b. When events are personally relevant
c. Motives underlying someone’s behavior are suspicious

E. Perceiver expectations
1. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek information that supports one's beliefs
while not pursuing disconfirming information
a. For first impressions "believing is seeing" rather than "seeing is believing"
b. Confirmation bias also occurs via selective recall to fit one's view of others
c. Presenting people with information that is inconsistent with their perceptions and
preferences can encourage them to engage in more divergent thinking
2. Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when expectations about a person cause the
person to behave in ways that confirm the expectations
a. Three steps involved in a self-fulfilling prophecy
1) Perceiver has initial impression of someone (target person)
2) Perceiver behaves toward target person in a way that is consistent with
expectations
3) Target person adjusts behavior to perceiver's actions
b. Perceiver mistakenly attributes target person's behavior to internal causes

F. Cognitive distortions
1. Social Categorization
 99

a. People tend to perceive those similar to themselves as members of ingroup ("us")

and those dissimilar as members of outgroup ("them")
b. Categorizing has important consequences
1) Attitudes tend to be less favorable toward outgroup members
2) The outgroup homogeneity effect occurs when we see outgroup members
as being much more alike and seeing members of one's ingroup as unique
individuals
3) Heightens visibility of outgroup members when only a few of them are in a
large group
4) People are even likely to see outgroup members as looking more like each
other than they actually do
2. Stereotypes are widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of
their membership in a particular group
a. Some examples include ethnicity, race, gender
b. Also based on physical appearance (e.g., what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype)
1) Attractive people are perceived more favorably than justified
2) Although cross-culturally people associated attractiveness with positive
qualities, cultural values determine which qualities are considered desirable
c. Stereotypes can exist outside a person’s awareness and occur automatically
d. Exerting self-control is one way to reduce prejudice
e. Imagining an encounter between oneself and an outgroup member can reduce
hostile feelings linked to stereotyping
f. The persistence of stereotypes
1) Function to reduce complexity to simplicity
2) Confirmation bias
3) Self-fulfilling prophecy
3. Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to explain other
people's behavior as the result of personal, rather than situational, factors
a. Different from stereotyping because it's based on actual behavior
b. Making attributions is a two-step process
1) Occurring spontaneously, observers make an internal attribution
2) Only with cognitive effort and attention, observers weigh the impact of the
situation and adjust their inference
c. Evidence suggests that the two steps may link to different types of brain activity
d. Americans (reflecting individualistic culture) tend to use internal attributions
more so than Hindus, Chinese, Japanese, or Koreans (reflecting collectivistic
culture)
4. Defensive attribution is a tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one
feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way

G. Key themes in person perception

1. Efficiency
a. People prefer to exert minimal cognitive effort and time
b. Result is error-prone judgments
2. Selectivity
a. "People see what they expect to see"
b. Lecturer labeled as "warm" or "cold" results in varied ratings
3. Consistency
a. Primacy effect occurs when initial information carries more weight than
subsequent information
b. Initial negative impressions may be especially hard to change
100 CHAPTER 7

II. The Problem of Prejudice

A. Prejudice versus discrimination

1. Prejudice is a negative attitude toward members of a group
2. Discrimination involves behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members
of a group
3. Tend to go together, but that is not always the case
4. Prejudices and stereotypes can be triggered without conscious awareness and can
have consequences for behavior

B. "Old-fashioned" versus modern discrimination

1. Over the past 40 years, prejudice and discrimination in the U.S. has diminished,
racial segregation is no longer legal
2. "Old-fashioned" discrimination against minority groups has declined
3. More subtle forms of prejudice and discrimination have emerged
a. With modern discrimination, people may privately harbor negative attitudes
toward minorities but express them only when they feel justified or safe
b. Aversive racism is an indirect, subtle, ambiguous form of racism that occurs
when the conscious endorsement of egalitarian ideals is in conflict with non-
conscious, negative reactions to minority group members

C. Causes of prejudice
1. Authoritarianism
a. Early research identified an authoritarian personality type, characterized by
prejudice toward any group perceived to be different from one’s self
b. Now termed right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), it is characterized by
authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism
c. RWA correlates with prejudice and discrimination
d. Two key factors underlie RWA prejudice
1) Organizing social world into ingroups and outgroups
2) Tendency toward self-righteousness, fear of change
e. Social dominance orientation (SDO) involves preference for inequality among
groups, hierarchy, domination
2. Cognitive distortions and expectations
a. Social categorization predisposes people to divide the social world into
ingroups and outgroups
b. Although racial stereotypes have declined in the last 50 years, they still occur
c. People are particularly likely to make the fundamental attribution error when
evaluating targets of prejudice
d. Perceiving negative characteristics as being dispositionally based due to group
membership is labeled as the ultimate attribution error
e. Defensive attributions, when people unfairly blame victims of adversity to
reassure themselves that the same thing won’t happen to them, can contribute to
prejudice
f. Expectations can also foster and maintain prejudice
3. Competition between groups
a. Based on early research by Muzafer Sherif and colleagues (Robber’s Cave
summer camp study)
b. Effects of competition on prejudice often occurs in the real world
c. Perception of threats to ingroup more problematic than actual threats
4. Threats to social identity
 101

a. Social identity theory states that self-esteem is partly determined by one’s social
identity or collective self, which is tied to one’s group memberships
b. Threats to social identity provoke prejudice and discrimination
c. Most common response is to show in-group favoritism
d. Outgroup derogation may also occur, to criticize outgroups perceived as
threatening
e. "Ingroup love" not "outgroup hate" underlies most discrimination
f. Ingroup favoritism is often subtle and can be triggered by arbitrary and
inconsequential factors, such as shared musical tastes
5. Stereotype threat
a. Occurs when individuals are the targets of a stereotype by others to characterize
the group they belong to
b. Feelings of stereotype vulnerability can undermine group members’ performance
on academic tests,

D. Reducing prejudice
1. Cognitive strategies
a. Stereotypes may kick in automatically, unintentionally
b. But can intentionally inhibit stereotyping, prejudice with shift from automatic
processing to controlled processing, or from mindlessness to mindfulness
2. Intergroup contact
a. Based on principle of superordinate goals (or cooperative interdependence):
requiring two groups to work together to achieve a mutual goal
b. Four necessary conditions for reducing intergroup hostility
1) Groups must work together for common goal
2) Must be successful outcomes to cooperative efforts
3) Group members must have opportunity to establish meaningful connections
4) Must ensure equal status contact
c. To test the contact hypothesis in a field study, white college students were
randomly assigned to share a dorm with a white or a black roommate
1) Students in the interracial rooms did report less satisfaction with their
roommates than those with same-race assignments
2) But more positively, students living in the interracial rooms were found to be
less prejudiced across time compared to those with same-race living
arrangements

III. The Power of Persuasion

A. Persuasion defined
1. Persuasion involves the communication of arguments and information intended to
change another person's attitudes
2. Attitudes are beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas
a. Beliefs are thoughts and judgments
b. The "feeling" component refers to positive/negative aspect of attitude, as well as
strength of feeling

B. The elements of the persuasion process

1. Source is the person who sends a communication
a. Credibility of source is important factor
1) Expertise can give a person credibility
2) Trustworthiness of source is even more important than expertise
102 CHAPTER 7

b. Likeability also increases effectiveness of source

1) Physical attractiveness can affect likeability
2) Similarity of source to target also an important factor
2. Message is the information transmitted by the source
a. Two-sided arguments generally more effective than one-sided arguments
1) One-sided arguments work only when audience is uneducated about issue
2) One-sided arguments work if audience is favorably disposed to message
b. Arousal of fear may increase effectiveness of message if people feel susceptible
to the threat, within limits
c. Generating positive feelings can be effective
3. Receiver is the person to whom the message is sent
a. Mood can matter: optimistic people process uplifting messages better than
pessimists
b. Some people have a need for cognition, the tendency to seek out and enjoy
effortful thought, problem-solving activities, and in-depth analysis. Such people
are more likely to be convinced by high-quality arguments rather than superficial
analyses
c. Forewarning may reduce effectiveness
d. People display disconfirmation bias when evaluating arguments incompatible
with their existing beliefs
e. People from different cultures respond to different themes in persuasive
messages

C. The whys of persuasion

1. According to the elaboration likelihood model, an individual’s thoughts about a
persuasive message (rather than the message itself) determine whether attitude
change will occur
2. When people are distracted, tired, etc., they may be persuaded by cues along the
peripheral route, the usual route of persuasion
3. With the central route, the receiver cognitively elaborates on the message
4. Two requirements for central route to override peripheral route
a. Receivers must be motivated to process message
b. Receivers must be able to understand message
5. Attitudes formed via central route are longer lasting, better predict actual behavior

IV. The Power of Social Pressure

A. Conformity and compliance pressures

1. Conformity occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure
2. We are apt to explain the behavior of other people as conforming but not think of
our own actions this way
3. The dynamics of conformity are illustrated by classic experiment in which Solomon
Asch examined effect of group pressure on conformity in unambiguous situations
a. Participants varied considerably in tendency to conform, although 28%
conformed on more than half the trials
b. Two important factors were group size and unanimity
1) Conformity increased as group size increased from two to four, peaked at
seven, then leveled off
2) Group size had little effect in presence of another dissenter, underscoring
importance of unanimity
4. Conformity versus compliance
 103

a. Later studies indicated that Asch's participants were not really changing their
beliefs
b. Theorists concluded that Asch's experiments evoked a type of conformity, called
compliance (when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even
though their private beliefs have not changed)
5. The whys of conformity
a. Normative influence operates when people conform to social norms for fear of
negative social consequences
b. Informational influence operates when people look to others for how to behave
in ambiguous situations
6. Resisting conformity pressures
a. Conformity can range from harmless fun to tragic consequences
b. The bystander effect is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide
help when others are present than when they are alone
c. Suggestions for resisting conformity pressures include
1) Pay more attention to social forces
2) Try to identify one other dissenter
3) Consider inviting along a friend with similar views

B. Pressure from authority figures

1. The dynamics of obedience: Stanley Milgram demonstrated the power of obedience
(a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually
from someone in a position of authority)
a. A "teacher" (participant) was instructed to administer electric shocks to a
"learner" (confederate)
b. Although apparatus was fake, participant thought he was administering
increasingly stronger shocks
c. Twenty-six of 40 participants (65%) administered all 30 levels of shock
2. The causes of obedience
a. Demands on participants were escalated gradually
b. Authority figure claimed responsibility
c. Subjects evaluated their actions on how well they were living up to expectations
of authority figure, not in terms of the victim
3. To obey or not to obey
a. With “crimes of obedience,” social pressures can cause morally repugnant
behavior
b. Aligning oneself with supportive others can decrease obedience to risky
demands

V. Application: Seeing through Compliance Tactics

A. The consistency principle

1. The foot-in-the-door technique involves getting people to agree to a small request to
increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later
2. The lowball technique involves getting someone to commit to an attractive
proposition before its hidden costs are revealed

B. The reciprocity principle

1. Reciprocity principle: the rule that one should pay back in kind what one receives
from others
2. Norm is so powerful, it works even when
104 CHAPTER 7

a. Gift is uninvited
b. Gift comes from someone you dislike
c. Gift results in an uneven exchange
3. Reciprocity-based influence tactics include
a. The door-in-the-face technique, which involves making a very large request that
is likely to be turned down to increase the chances that people will agree to a
smaller request later
b. Other examples such as free samples, business dinners

C. The scarcity principle

1. Telling people they can’t have something makes them want it more
2. Reactance occurs when people want what they can’t have
3. Examples include “limited supplies,” “time is running out”

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Our perceptions of other people are influenced by their physical appearance, including the
clothes they wear. Can you think of some examples of how your perceptions are affected
by the way people dress? How do you think your attire affects others' perceptions of you?

2. What are everyday examples of the self-fulfilling prophecy at work? For instance, if you
expect rude service from a cashier versus expecting friendliness? If you expect a blind date
to be boring versus fun?

3. In the textbook, the authors suggest that because people know that verbal behavior is more
easily manipulated than nonverbal behavior, they often rely on nonverbal cues to determine
the truth of what others say. Do you find yourself relying on nonverbal cues in social
situations? What specific nonverbal cues do you think are “dead giveaways” for certain
thoughts or attitudes?

4. Do you think there may be gender differences in the ability to identify and make use of
information from nonverbal behavior? Can you cite an example or two to support your
answer?

5. Evidence indicates that people tend to attribute their own behavior to situational (external)
causes, and observers tend to attribute the same actions to the individual's dispositional
(internal) qualities. Can you think of some explanations for these tendencies?

6. Do you tend to think of attractive people as more competent and better adjusted than those
who are less attractive? Why do you think this is the case?

7. Given that perceptual inaccuracies promote racial prejudice, what do you think could be
done to reduce problems that occur as a result of racial prejudice, particularly in schools?

8. Some researchers suggest that elections are determined mainly by the public's impressions
of the candidates rather than the candidates' views on important issues. Do you think this is
the case? If so, what are some possible explanations for this behavior on the part of voters?
 105

9. Can you think of any specific advertisements that you think would be particularly effective
in getting people to purchase products? Describe the qualities these ads have that make
them so effective, referring to the list of persuasive techniques from the applications section
of the textbook.

10. When you think of advertising and spokespersons, what people come to mind? What source
factors seem to make these individuals particularly strong as spokespersons?

11. In what situations is obedience to authority desirable or even necessary? In what situations
can it be problematic?

12. In your opinion, what are the main ethical problems with Stanley Milgram's study of
obedience to authority? Do you think the scientific contributions of the study outweigh the
ethical concerns?

13. How could the findings of the Robber’s Cave study be applied to problems with prejudice
and discrimination among children in today’s schools?

14. The Application section discusses several compliance tactics. When and where have you
seen any of these in use? Did they appear to be effective?

15. Blind obedience to authority can have disastrous consequences. So, why does obedience
exist? Does it serve a purpose in society? How can one draw the line between appropriate
and inappropriate types of obedience?

DEMONSTRATIONS AND ACTIVITIES

Campus Stereotypes and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies (APA Goals 4, 9): In order to make
students aware of how universal the cognitive activity of stereotyping is, ask them to list the
qualities that they associate with the following people:

Football Player (Athlete)

Engineering Major
English Major
Cheerleader
Drama Club Member
Honor Student
Part-time Student
Freshman
Single Mother
Fraternity Brother/Sorority Sister

After the students have listed the qualities for themselves, have them call out their answers and
list them on the board. Although there will be some variations, there will most likely be many
qualities in common identified by most students in the room, even though (upon further
questioning) the students will also acknowledge that the members of each group who are known
to them are far more diverse than the stereotypes that are held. They will also be compelled to
admit that they hold the stereotypes. This is instructive because people so often are reticent to
admit this, as they automatically associate the relatively neutral, universal categorizing activity of
stereotyping with prejudice.
106 CHAPTER 7

Discussing the qualities that are present in the group members is also an interesting way to
introduce the notion of the influence of role on behavior (in other words, it may be unclear to all
of us the degree to which that people in each category have the qualities because of the
expectation that they should be that way).

The What-Is-Beautiful-Is-Good Stereotype (APA Goals 4, 9): The textbook discusses how
attractive people are often seen as more competent, better adjusted, etc. than unattractive people.
Students often react to this information with disbelief, convinced that no one would evaluate
people in such a shallow manner. If you conduct this exercise before discussing person
perception, you can "catch" your students using the stereotype, making the point in convincing
fashion. Obtain a yearbook from your school that is several years old (or collect pictures from the
Internet) and have a group of students from another class select five pictures each of attractive
and unattractive men and women. You may also want to include some pictures from the middle
of the attractiveness spectrum so that the difference between the two groups of pictures isn't too
obvious. You could tell your students that before you begin the chapter dealing with person
perception, you want to examine their ability to perceive certain characteristics in others.

Show your class the pictures you have cut from the yearbook and have them rate each picture
using the rating scale shown below (or your own version). You might want to tell your class that
because the pictures are of former students, you know the actual characteristics on which they are
being rated. The question of interest, of course, is how the ratings of the attractive individuals
differ from those of the unattractive individuals. The results should provide clear support for the
"what-is-beautiful-is-good" stereotype.

Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unfriendly
Reliable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unreliable
Intelligent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unintelligent
Popular 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unpopular
Modest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Not modest
Sociable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unsociable
Honest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dishonest
Athletic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unathletic

The Fundamental Attribution Error (APA Goal 1): Watson (1987) developed this
demonstration based on an experiment conducted by Ross, Amabile, and Steinmetz (1977). To do
the exercise, you need to form pairs of students who do not know each other very well and have
them sit together. Tell them they are going to play a game in which one person is the contestant
and the other is the quiz master. Randomly determine each role by flipping a coin. You might
assign those whose names are closer to the beginning of the alphabet to "heads" and the others to
"tails" so that all pairs can be assigned at the same time.

Have the quiz masters make up five challenging general-knowledge questions (e.g., the capital of
a distant state, the U.S. President in a certain year) or use questions from a game like Trivial
Pursuit. Have each quiz master ask his or her contestant the questions and immediately say
whether the answers are correct or not. Then have everyone anonymously fill out a question sheet
like the one shown below.

After you have collected the sheets, you can explain the purpose of the exercise. Tally the results
on the board by the role played, contestant or quiz master. Generally, contestants will be rated as
having less knowledge than quiz masters. You can discuss how the ratings show that students are
ignoring the situation and attributing behavior to dispositional factors (i.e., knowledge). Have
 107

students imagine playing the game a second time, with the roles reversed and discuss how their
attributions might change. Explain to them that the exercise is set up in such a way that it favors
the quiz master and places the contestant at a disadvantage, thus evoking the fundamental
attribution error.

Question Sheet

Did you: Give questions

Ask questions

Compare how knowledgeable your partner seems relative to yourself. Be as honest as

possible. Your answer will be kept confidential.

My partner is much I am much more

more knowledgeable 1 2 3 4 5 knowledgeable

Ross, L.D., Amabile, T.M., & Steinmetz, J.L. (1977). Social roles, social control, and biases in
social-perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 485-494.

Watson, D.L. (1987). The fundamental attribution error. In V.P. Makosky, L.G. Whittemore, &
A.M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 135-
137). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Culture, Persuasion, and Advertising (APA Goal 8): To conduct this activity, you'll need an
array of visual advertisements. These can easily be found online through an image search. You
can gather these images yourself, or have the students find advertisements themselves as part of
the activity. Choose a general category of product, such as beverages or automobiles, and collect
advertisements from various countries and across various decades. During your classroom
presentation of persuasion, remind the students about the qualities associated with collectivistic
and individualistic cultures. Then share the various ads with them and ask them to help you
categorize each as individualistic or collectivistic in their focus. Keep a running tally to determine
whether advertisements from more collectivistic cultures tend to promote conformity and
advertisements from the United States (a highly individualistic culture) tend to promote
uniqueness. Along with the cross-cultural comparison, you can look at whether advertisements in
the past century in the United States have shown a shifting focus from conformity to uniqueness.

Although you can find many advertisements through a general online search engine, following is
a list of sites with various types of advertisements:

http://tobaccofreekids.org/adgallery/ Search tobacco advertising by country

http://www.plan59.com/ American advertisements from the 1950s
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html Historic advertisements archived by the Library of
Congress

Obedience in the Classroom (APA Goal 5): Hunter (1981) and Halonen (1986) developed an
exercise that you can use before you discuss obedience to make the topic more meaningful to
your students. Halonen suggests using this exercise on the first day of class; Hunter suggests
using another instructor to conduct the exercise if it is not the first day of class.

First, you should make some requests that seem perfectly normal in the context of the classroom
(e.g., asking everyone to move toward the front of the room, asking students to remove
108 CHAPTER 7

everything from the top of their desks). You should gradually make the requests stranger (e.g.,
require notes to be taken only in pencil, have students take off their watches, have everyone raise
a hand on which they have a ring). Finally, the requests should escalate to complete bizarreness,
so that people look silly by complying (e.g., have people with blonde hair stand up and face the
back of the room while the rest of the class applauds, have students flap their arms and cluck like
a chicken).

Ask students why they did what you requested. Typically, you will find that the instructor is
perceived as an authority figure that should be obeyed. You should then be able to generate a
lively discussion focusing on obedience. For example, should authority figures always be
obeyed? How can blind obedience to authority be overcome? Once students have experienced an
obedience situation themselves, Milgram's research becomes more credible, more interesting, and
easier to understand.

Halonen, J. (1986). Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions.

Hunter, W.J. (1981). Obedience to authority. In L.T. Benjamin, Jr., & K.D. Lowman (Eds.),
Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology (pp. 149-150). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.

Blaming the Victim (APA Goals 1, 3): Bloyd (1990) developed this exercise based on a story
from Dolgoff and Feldstein (1984). Read your class the following story:

Once upon a time, a husband and a wife lived together in a part of the city separated by a river
from places of employment, shopping, and entertainment. The husband had to work nights. Each
evening, he left his wife and took the ferry to work, returning in the morning

The wife soon tired of this arrangement. Restless and lonely, she would take the next ferry into
town and develop relationships with a series of lovers. Anxious to preserve her marriage, she
always returned home before her husband. In fact, her relationships were always limited. When
they threatened to become too intense, she would precipitate a quarrel with her current lover and
begin a new relationship.

One night, she caused such a quarrel with a man we will call Lover 1. He slammed the door in
her face, and she started back to the ferry. Suddenly, she realized that she had forgotten to bring
money for her return fare. She swallowed her pride and returned to Lover 1's apartment. But
Lover 1 was vindictive and angry because of the quarrel. He slammed the door on his former
lover, leaving her with no money. She remembered that a previous lover, who we shall call Lover
2, lived just a few doors away. Surely he would give her the ferry fare. However, Lover 2 was still
so hurt from their old quarrel that he, too, refused her the money.

Now the hour was late and the woman was getting desperate. She rushed down to the ferry and
pleaded with the ferryboat captain. He knew her as a regular customer. She asked if he could let
her ride free and if she could pay the next night. But the captain insisted that rules were rules and
that he could not let her ride without paying the fare.

Dawn would soon be breaking, and her husband would be returning from work. The woman
remembered that there was a free bridge about a mile further on. But the road to the bridge was
a dangerous one, known to be frequented by highwaymen. Nonetheless, she had to get home, so
she took the road. On the way a highwayman stepped out of the bushes and demanded her money.
 109

She told him that she had none. He seized her. In the ensuing tussle, the highwayman stabbed the
woman, and she died.

Thus ends our story. There have been six characters: Husband, Wife, Lover 1, Lover 2, Ferryboat
Captain, and Highwayman. Please list, in descending order of responsibility for this woman's
death, all the characters. In other words, the one most responsible is listed first; the next most
responsible, second; and so on.

After students have followed the instructions at the end of the story, list the characters on the
board, ask for a show of hands for each of the six characters, and record the results. Bloyd reports
that about half will typically choose the wife first and half will list the highwayman first. Those
choosing the wife will often give such reasons as, "she deserved it," or "she was asking for
trouble." Basically, they are blaming the victim.

A simple change in the story can produce dramatically different results. If the wife is a widow
who works at night to make money to support her children and has to get home before the
babysitter leaves, the highwayman is blamed more often. His behavior has not changed, however.
This result makes it clear that the wife is being blamed because of her morals.

You can use this exercise to generate some interesting class discussions about rape, crime,
poverty, etc. Also, the exercise helps sensitize students to the tendency to blame the victim, which
can be related to the fundamental attribution error, or the “just world” hypothesis.

Bloyd, J.R. (1990, October). Blaming the Victim. Presented at the Mid-America Conference for
Teachers of Psychology, Evansville, IN.
Dolgoff, R., & Feldstein, D. (1984). Understanding Social Welfare (2nd ed.). New York:
Longman.

Application: Compliance Techniques (APA Goals 4, 7): Based on the Applications section in
the chapter, ask students to create a skit that demonstrates how various compliance techniques
could be used to sell a particular product, or to ask a friend for a specific favor. Handout 7.1 is a
worksheet to guide this process. You can have students complete the worksheet only or also
present their ideas in the form of a skit or role-playing.

On this same topic, you might consider bringing in various advertisements from magazines and
newspapers. Students can identify ways that compliance techniques are attempted in these
advertisements, or discuss other examples that come to mind as they view the sample
advertisements.

Self-Assessment: Argumentativeness Scale (APA Goal 9): This scale, a copy of which appears
in the Personal Explorations Workbook, is designed to measure one aspect of a person's social
influence behavior. Specifically, it assesses one's tendency to argue with others in persuasive
efforts. Studies of the scale's validity show that it correlates well with other measures of
communication tendencies and with friends' ratings of subjects' argumentativeness. After
administering the scale to your students, you can discuss how the scores might be related to a
person's tendency to be persuaded by others.

Self-Reflection: Can You Identify Your Prejudicial Stereotypes? (APA Goals 5, 8): This
exercise, appearing in the Personal Explorations Workbook, provides students with a structured
reflection on self-identified stereotypes.
110 CHAPTER 7

VIDEOS

American Experience: A Class Apart. Built around the 1954 legal case Hernandez v. Texas, the
film interweaves the stories of its central characters with a broader story of the civil rights
movement. It brings to life the post-World War II struggle of Mexican Americans fighting to
dismantle the discrimination targeted against them. PBS, 2009, 60 minutes.

Anatomy of Prejudice: Jane Elliott's Seminar on Race. This program documents one of
Elliott’s diversity training seminars, modeled on an experiment she first conducted as a third-
grade teacher in 1968. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2009, 49 minutes.

Blink. This documentary examines the dramatic story of one-time white supremacist leader
Gregory Withrow, and in so doing explores the underlying themes of violence, racism, and
domination in American life and culture. Berkeley Media LLC, 2000, 57 minutes.

Brownsville, Black and White. This documentary explores the complex history of interracial
cooperation, urban change, and social conflict in Brownsville, a neighborhood of Brooklyn, New
York, from the 1930s to the present. Berkeley Media LLC, 2002, 83 minutes.

Candid Camera: Social Psychology. This program features humorous scenarios from Candid
Camera that illustrate basic themes and principles in social psychology, including conformity,
compliance, obedience, construction of social reality, persuasion, and expert influence. Insight
Media, 1994, 58 minutes.

The College Eye: The Angry Eye. This DVD shows Jane Elliott’s blue-eyed/brown-eyed
experiment set in a college environment. Insight Media, 2001, 35 minutes.

Conformity. Offering illustrative examples, this program examines the psychological concept of
conformity, defines the two types of conformity, and explores research and theory related to the
phenomenon. Insight Media, 2008, 19 minutes.

Conformity: In the Real-Life Lab. This ABC News program explores conformity, highlighting
neurological research that helps explain conformity and sheds light on the relationship between
group and individual behavior. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 10 minutes.

Confronting Discrimination and Prejudice. Encourage students to explore biases and

stereotypes with this group of ABC News segments. Each scenario puts actors into exchanges
with unwitting bystanders, generating a wide range of responses—from overt hostility toward
other races and cultures to acts of genuine compassion. Films for the Humanities and Sciences,
2008, 37 minutes.

Obeying or Resisting Authority: A Psychological Retrospective. Social psychologist Jerry

Burger interprets the findings of a recent re-creation of the Milgram obedience experiments. Also
included are the 1971 Stanford prison experiment and the 2004 event in which a McDonald’s
manager and her fiancé strip-searched and abused an employee. Original footage is included,
along with present-day commentary from Philip Zimbardo. Films for the Humanities and
Sciences, 2007, 35 minutes.
 111

Persuasion in Everyday Life. This program examines the forces that influence personal
judgments and beliefs. It shows how taste tests, the actions of others, laugh tracks, shop-at-home
television networks, and placebos influence opinions and actions. Insight Media, 2007, 25
minutes.

Prejudice: More Than Black and White. In this program, Susan Fiske of Princeton University
and Mahzarin Banaji of Harvard University, representatives from such tolerance groups as the
Council on American-Islamic Relations, and victims of prejudice share their insights into and
experiences with prejudice. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2008, 35 minutes.

The Psychology of Evil. Philip Zimbardo shares insights and graphic unseen photos from the
Abu Ghraib trials. Then he talks about the flip side: how easy it is to be a hero, and how we can
rise to the challenge. TED DVD on Demand, 2008, 23 minutes.

Psychology of Power. This program explores the nature of power and considers such issues as
balance, influence, responsibility, and abuses of power. It outlines the sources of power and
discusses normative and informational influences. Insight Media, 2008, 23 minutes.

Quiet Rage: The Stanford Prison Experiment. This DVD documents Philip Zimbardo’s
landmark study in which he created a mock prison, randomly dividing a group of students into
prisoners and guards. It shows how the behavior of each group rapidly conformed to assigned
roles. Insight Media, 1990, 50 minutes.

Race and Sex: What We Think (But Can’t Say). Our subconscious mind categorizes people by
details such as gender, race, and age. Can prejudice be overcome? What is the “stereotype
effect”? Is it possible to visually perceive sexual orientation? This ABC News program seeks
answers to these and other questions by exploring various lines of research. Films for the
Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 39 minutes.

Racial Stereotypes in the Media. This program examines the relationship between mass media
and social constructions of race from political and economic perspectives while looking at the
effects media can have on audiences. Films for the Humanities and Sciences Production, 2008, 42
minutes.

Sexual Stereotypes in the Media. This program illustrates some of the commercial, cultural,
psychological, and sociological forces that have shaped sexual stereotypes in the media. Films for
the Humanities and Sciences Production, 2008, 38 minutes.

Them and Us: Cultural Awareness. Explaining that prejudice is rooted in a need to distinguish
between “us” and “them,” this video explores the mental processes used to evaluate other
cultures. It shows how cognitive habits can lead to prejudices. Insight Media, 2007, 25 minutes.

Zimbardo Speaks: The Lucifer Effect and the Psychology of Evil. In this lecture, Zimbardo
discourses on theories of conformity, prejudice, aggression, social influence, and antisocial
behavior. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2008, 127 minutes.
112 CHAPTER 7

CENGAGE LEARNING VIDEOS

Implicit Association Test. Psychology: Research in Action Videos (Volume I). This video
explains the research of Mahazin Banaji using the Implicit Association Test to explore
discrepancies between our conscious and unconscious attitudes towards groups of people. 6
minutes.

Reducing Racial Prejudice. Research in Action Videos (Volume I). This program summarizes
research by Jay Van Bazel and others on implicit racial bias and how these negative attitudes can
be reduced. 7 minutes.

Sexual Prejudice. Research in Action Videos (Volume I). This video provides an overview of
Gregory Herek’s research on the psychological processes behind heterosexuals’ attitudes toward
gay people and links between sexual prejudice and other forms of prejudice. 6 minutes.

HELPFUL WEBSITES

Confirmation Bias. This article provides an overview of the bias with several example and links
to related topics. http://www.skepdic.com/

Introduction to Social Influence. This portion of the Working Psychology website offers an
introduction to social influence, persuasion, compliance, propaganda, "brainwashing," and related
ethical issues. http://www.workingpsychology.com/

Psybersite. Miami University’s “Psybersite” contains tutorials on a variety of topics related to

social psychology. http://www.units.muohio.edu/psybersite/

Social Psychology Network. This site includes links to topics related to prejudice and
discrimination, gender, culture, social influence, interpersonal relations, group behavior,
aggression, and more. http://www.socialpsychology.org/

Social Psychology News. Science Daily Mind and Brain provides news about research in social
psychology. http://www.sciencedaily.com/

Society for Personality and Social Psychology. This site provides a list of links in the areas of
personality and social psychology. http://www.spsp.org/

Solomon Asch Center. This website hosted by Bryn Mawr College includes an overview of the
work of Solomon Asch, as well as additional social psychology resources.
http://www.brynmawr.edu/

Stanford Prison Experiment. This site includes a slide show, descriptions, and discussion
questions concerning Philip Zimbardo’s simulated prison study. http://www.prisonexp.org/

Stanley Milgram. An informative website describing the man and his research.
http://www.stanleymilgram.com/
 113

Confirmation Bias. This website provides many teaching lessons, activities, and demonstrations
including a detailed description for a classroom activity illustrating the confirmation bias.
http://www.devpsy.org/

Project Implicit. This Harvard University site provides an array of implicit association tests in a
variety of areas such as age, gender, race, sexuality, skin tone, and religion.
http://implicit.harvard.edu/

Resources for the Teaching of Social Psychology. John Mueller’s faculty webpage includes a
link to a wide array of resources such as assignments, activities, and examples of concepts.
http://jonathan.mueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Läksi Lauri laitumelle,
Meni turmio metälle:
"Anna nyt jalo Jumala,
Tuo varsin vakainen luoja,
Anna ampujan aloa, 5
Pyssyn pyytäjän ereä!"

Niin tuli salon sisälle,

Kulki korven kainalohon,
Siinä ennätti eränsä,
Sattu luotsi saalihinsa: 10
"Liekö ahmo tahi ilves,
Waiko korpikontikainen."

Pisti ruutia pivosen,

Puolen koproa kopisti,
Puisti putkensa sisähän. 15
Luotti luoin liukkahasti,
Päälle ruutien rutosti,
Anto pyssyn pyykähellä,
Pahat jauhot paukkahella.
Olipa ahmo tahi ilves, 20
Tahi korven kontikainen,
Jo nyt kaatu kaunihisti,
Kuusen juurehen kumohon;
Kaatu korven kainalohan,
Riitavaaran rintasuolle. 25

Kävi kohta kahtomahan,

Wikevästi viipotteli:
"Woi polonen päiviäni!
Häiykö härän se tuotti,
Lempo lehmän kannetuisen, 30
Wääräsäären väilähytti;
Kun on juuri julkisesti
Tuohon kaatunut kumohon,
Kompastunut kuoliaksi."
Läksi Lauri laitumelta 35
Allapäin, pahoilla mielin,
Matin matkalla tapasi.
Huusi Matti matkan päässä:
"Tule tänne tuttavani!
Sanomahan saalistasi — 40
Ahmanko Jumala anto,
Ilveksenkö maan isäntä?"

Lauri varsin vastoapi:

"Ei ollut ahmo, eikä ilves;
Ammuin korpikoppeloa, 45
Mehtomuoria mänösin."

"Etkö nähnyt härkeäni,

Koukkusormea tavannut;
Katehessa on kauan ollut,
Kontion kotitiloilla." 50

"Hiis on nähnyt häkkiäsi,

Lempo lehmäsi vasoja."

Tuli turmio metältä,

Huuru hurjalta viralta,
Häiy härän ammunnalta; 55
Akka päältä arvelepi,
Waimo varsinki sanopi:
"Mi lie tullut miesparalle,
Kun on huuru huolissansa,
Miesparka pahoilla mielin; 60
On kun Tuonelta tulisi,
Manalalta matkoaisi,
Wähän kuollutta parempi,
Kaonnutta kaunihimpi."
Oli aikoa vähäsen, 65
Piti tuuman tultuansa
Akan kanssa kahenkesken,
Sano ainosen asian:
"Hävitin härän Matilta,
Kaasin korven kainalohon, 70
En luullut häiyä häräksi,
Katoin korven kontioiksi."

Sitte kielsi kiivahasti,

Warotteli vaimoansa,
Puhumasta kellenkänä. 75
"Ei piä Eskolle sanoa,
Ollille ei ollenkana,
Eikä virkota väheä,
Emännälle ensinkänä;
Tuosta Tahvo tietä saisi, 80
Marketta mahin pitäisi."

Woiko vaimo vaiti olla,

Akka suunsa aukomatta;
Mutso munalle sanopi,
Kuren kaula kauemmaksi; 85
Tuli se Ollille tutuksi,
Siitä ilmi Eskollenki.

Matti mielellä pahalla

Hakemass' on härkeänsä,
Eläintänsä etsimässä; 90
Sunna kulki suorämehet,
Kontiona korpinotkot,
Karhuna pahimmat paikat,
Waan ei löynnyt härkeänsa,
Palasi pahoilla mielin, 95
Nuuksun lammelle nuristen. —

Olli aamulla sanopi

Kaiken mahtinsa Matille,
Wielä neno viisahasti,
Olli Mattia opetti: 100
"Ala sie astua kylälle,
Wiikiölle viipotella,
Eikö saisi suinimiestä.
Ota Yrjänä yheksi,
Tuomas toiseksi valios; 105
Miestä kaksi kahtomahan,
Kolmansi kohottamahan,
Neljäs tietä neuomahan,
Tuonne korven kainalohon,
Riitavaaran rintasuolle, 110
Ahon puolelle puroa."

Läksi Matti marsimahan,

Alko astua kylälle,
Wiipotella Wiikiölle:

"Ain' on nähty nuita näitä, 115

Kyllä kuultu kummiaki,
Täm' on kumma kuulematta,
Näkemättä näihin asti —
Lauri härkäni hävitti,
Ampu varsin vainajaksi, 120
Tuonne korven kainalohon,
Riitavaaran rintasuolle."
"Lähe nyt Yrjänä yheksi,
Tuomas toiseksi tulepi,
Koonnutta kahtomahan, 125
Hävinnyttä härkeäni."

Miehet lähtevät metälle,

Käyvät korven kainalohon,
Riitavaaran rintasuolle;
Tuoss' on härkä turvillansa, 130
Kuusen juuressa kumossa.
Katellahan, käännellähän:
"Tuost' on luoti luiskahtanna,
Tinapalli paiskahtanna,
Saanut juuri julkisesti, 135
Mennyt sisähän sivusta,
Syössyt syämehen syvälti."

Kulu aikoa vähäsen,

Kulu tuskin puoli kuuta,
Jopa Matti mahtavasti 140
Käski Lauria lakihin,
 Saatti tuonne Saastamoista,
Lieksan keskelle ketoa,
Kupehelle kuulun järven.
Tuolla Lauri tuomittihin, 145
Saastamoinen saatettihin,
Härkä maksaa Matille,
Ruunun sakko päälle saaha.

Lauri laista tultuansa,

Härkäpeus hävittyänsä, 150
Alko Tahvolla tapella,
Eessä Eskon leimahua:
"Te sen saattia sanoiksi,
Te sen ilmi ilmottia;
Te oletta vielä viekkahammat, 155
Kun koko kyläni miehet.
Kaikki naiset naapurini."

Nousi tuosta juttu toinen,

Keräjissä uuet käynnit;
Lauri laissa voitettihin, 160
Taasen saatihin sakolle.

Sitte sieltä tultuansa

Ei hän tahtonut tapella,
Toiste lähteä toralle.

Sanain selvityksiä nykyseen runoon: v. 5. aloa s.o. osaa, saalista,

v. 6. ereä y.k. oloa. v. 10. sattu, yhty, tuli luoksi, tykö. v. 11. ahmo,
ahma, osma, komppi, metsässä elävä pienemmän koiran suuruinen,
ruoanahne, otus. v. 12. kontikainen, kontio, ohto, karhu. v. 15. puisti,
pudisti; putkensa, pyssynpiippunsa. v. 16. luotti, lähetti, työnti, pani.
v. 17. rutosti, äkisti, terävästi. v. 18. pyykähellä, ääntää, paukkua. v.
27. vikevästi, terävästi, joutuen, viipotteli, juoksi pitkillä askeleilla, v.
31. väilähytti, väläytti, vilautti. v. 45. koppeloa, naarasta metsoa
(metsästä), v. 46. mehtomuoria y.k. koppeloa, v. 49. kadoksissa,
eksyksissä. v. 52. vasoja, vasikoita. v. 54. huuru, polonen, vaivanen,
raukka. v. 58. mi, mikä. v. 78. mirkata, lausua, v. 84. mutso, pulskia
vaimo, muori, v. 91. sunna, sutena, v. 98. mahtinsa, voimansa,
tietonsa. v. 103. suinimiestä, syynimiestä. v. 116. kummiaki,
ihmeitäsi. v. 130. turvillansa, kuonollansa, nokallansa, v. 140.
mahtavasti, isosti, röykkiästi, pöykkiästi. v. 144. kuulun, mainion,
ulompanasi tutun, v. 152. leimahua, teiskaella, loiskia, teparrella,
tepastella. v. 153. saattia, saatitta, v. 154. ilmottia, ilmotitta. v. 157.
naiset, vaimot. v. 164. toralle, tappelolle, riidoille.

Suomalaisista.

Ettei nykynen Suomi aina ole Suomen kansalta asuttu, on varsin

epäilemätön asia; epätietosemmat olemma siitä, miltä paikoilta, mitä
teitä ja minä aikoina ensimmäisiä Suomalaisia maahan tuli ja mitä
ihmisiä maassa heitäki ennen asukseli. Näistä aineista otamma nyt
itsekustaki vähin tarinoitaksemme.

Ensiksi missä oli Suomen kansan alkuperänen koti? —

Sanoisimma Asiassa, mutta siitä tiedosta emme tulisi paljo entistä
viisaammaksi, jos emme kerällä armellenkan voisi osottaa niitä
seutuloita eli maisemia, joilla he Asiassa asuivat. Sillä Asian
satakansanen maaosa, länttä vasten Punamerestä, Keskimerestä ja
Euroopan itäsiltä rajoilta Turkin ja Wenäjän maasta alkava juoksee
pituuttansa tuhatki penikulmaa itään ja koilliseen, lemeyttänsäki
pohjasesta etelään eli Jäämerestä Indiamereen 800 penikulman
paikoilla ulottuen. Niin mitä jälkiä lähtisimmä Suomalaisten alkukotia
Asian avaralla mailla hakemaan ja onko meillä ees minkälaisia
johdajohdattavaisia jälkiä? On tosiaanki, vaikkei paljo tuntuvampia,
kun että niiltä kyllä voisi mies eksyäki. Senlaisina jälkinä pidämmä
esinnä vanhanaikuisten histori oitsiain lauseita, joista kuitenki
opimma, Euroopalaisten kansain Asiasta nykysille asemillensa
tulleen, vaikka muuten ne kyllä vähä antavatki tästä asiasta tietoja.
Osottavampia viittoja, saamma Suomen kielestä ja sen muiden
kielten rinnoin tutkimasta. Sillä etäällä ulompana Suomesta
löydämmä vieläki usiampia kansoja, jotka kielensä vuoksi ovat
Suomen heimolaisia ja mailman aikoina samasta pesästä lähteneitä,
kun Suomalaisetki. Näitä heimokansoja myöten tulee meidän
Suomalaisten alkukotia etsiessämme kulkea ja sen ohessa seurata
niitä maisemia, joita myöten esivanhempaimme, kerran liikkeelle
saatua, olis ollut sovelias ja luonnollisin edemmä siirtyä ja viimmen
tänne peräytä. Niin näitä tiedustelemaan lähtiessä virkamma vähän
esinnä

Suomalaisten nykysistä asunnoista ja erittäin rajoista.

Suomalaiset nykyään asuvat muotoansa kolmiloppisessa, pian

saareksi verrattavassa maassa, jonka on pohjana eli alana, lännestä
itään, Suomenlahti, Nevajoki, Laatokan meri ja Svirijoki; itäkoillisena
sivuna, eteläkaakosta pohjasluoteesen, Anuksen maa ja
Oniegameri, Wuigojärvi, Wienameren Oniegalahti ja Kantalahti ynnä
Lappi (Imandra, Nuotta ja Enari järviensä kanssa); länsiluoteisena
sivuna, etelälounasta pohjaskoilliseen, Pohjanlahti, Tornion, Muonion
ja Tenon joki. Etelästä pohjaseen eli alasivun keskipaikoilta,
Haminan ja Wiipurin kaupunkien tienoilta Utsujokeen, joka on
viimmenen huippu pohjan alla, taitaisi linnun lentää tulla 100
penikulmaa ja 75 Turun edustalta Oniegameren eteläpäähän, jotka
tämän kolmilopenalasivussa ovat, toinen länteen, toinen itäänpäin,
äärimmäisiä paikkoja. Kumpanenki sivu suorinta ei tekisi täyttä
110:tä penikulmaa ja yhteen lukein koko maan rajat ei kolmeakan
sataa penikulmaa, vaikka, paljo enemmän mutkinensa. Lähdemmä
nyt eritellen näitä rajoja muutamin mutkinensaki tunnustelemaan.

Penikulmain
ja virstain luku
Mitä suorinta tavallista
Ala- eli eteläsivussa. suuntaa tietä tietä

A. Ahvenamaan länsipuolelta
Turkuun Ikoi. 15 25
B. Turusta Eiknäisiin kaa. 8,3 14,1
Eiknäisistä Helsinkiin Ikoi. 8,5 10,6
Helsingistä Porkoon koi. 4,5 5,7
Porvosta Lovisaan Ikoi. 3 4,6
Lovisasta Haminaan. Ikoi. 4,8 6,8
Haminasta Wiipuriin Ikoi. 7,6 11
Wiipurista Pietariin kaa. 11 13,3
Pietarista Nemajoen seutua
Laatokan meren kaakkopäähän Ikoi. 3,5
Laatokan kaakkorantaa
Wolkkojoen suulle I. 6
Yhtärantaa eelleen Svirijoen
suulle Pkoi. 5,8
Svirijoen seutua Oniegameren
kaakkopäähän. Ikoi. 12
Itäkoillisessa sivussa.

A. Oniegameren halki päästä

päähän Poventsan linnan
seuduille Pluo. 23
Eelleen Anusselkosen
poikki Wuigo-joen suulle P. 4
Wuigojärven poikki
Ontojoen niskalle luo. 7
B. Ontojoen vartta mainitun
joen suulle Oniegalahden
lounaskaarteessa
Wienameren rannalla. Pkoi. 4,5
Eelleen nimitetyn lahden
länsirantaa Karjalan
Kemijoen suulle. P. 8
Eelleen Wienameren
länsirantaa Kantalahden
kupeelle. P. 10
Kantalahden lounasrantaa
Koutajoen suulle. Pluo. 12
Eelleen Nivajoen suulle
lahden perässä. P. 9
C. Kantalahden perästä
Imandra järven etelä-
lounasten päähän. Pkoi. 2
Imandrajärven halki
päästä päähän. Pkoi. 10
Eelleen tunturin poikki
Kuolajärven rannoille. luo. 3
Kuolajärven poikki
 luode'rannalle. luo. 1,5
Eelleen Enarijärven
kaakkorannalle. luo. 10
Enarin rantoja järven
pohjaspäähän. Pkoi. 10
Eelleen Skora- ja Tenojoen
yhdyntä paikoille Utsujoen
pitäjän pohjassupussa. Pluo. 6

Länsiluoteisessa sivussa.

A. Turusta Naantaliin. Lluo. 1,3 1,9

Naantalista
Uuteen kaupunkiin. luo. 5 7,6
Uudesta kaupungista
Raumaan. P. 3,5 5,6
Raumasta Poriin. Pkoi, 3,9 6
Porista Kristiinaan. Pluo. 8,4 9,7
Kristiinasta Kasköön. luo. 1,3 3,8
Kasköstä Waasaan. Pkoi. 7,7 8,1
Waasasta Joensuuhun. luo. 6,7 8,7
Joensuusta Pietarsaareen. Pluo. 1,6 1,7
Pietarsaaresta Kokkolaan. luo. 2,5 5,4
Kokkolasta Braaheen. koi. 11,4 14
Braahesta Ouluun. koi. 5,7 8,4
Oulusta Tornioon. luo. 10,5 15,2
B. Torniosta Torniojoen
vartta Muoniohaaraan
asti. P. 14
Muoniojokea Muonio
 niskaan ja
Kättösuantoon. P. 12

C. Eelleen Enaritunturin
poikki Karasjoen
(ja Enarijoen) päihin. Pkoi. 4,5
Eelleen Karasjoen ja
Enarijoen Tenojoeksi
yhdyntään. koi. 10
Eelleen Tenojokea
Skorajoen yhdyntään
Utsujoen pitäjän
pohjasperukalla. koi. 10

Sanoimma voivan Suomen kansan nykyistä asuntopaikkaa

saareksi verrata ja millä ehdolla, sen näemmä seuraavasta näiden
rajojen yhteenlaskusta, joka osottaa pitkältäkö itsekussaki sivussa
on merta eli suurempia järviä, jokea, ja maataki.

Merta Jokea Maata Summa

Sivu P. W. P. W. P. W. P. W.
Eteläpuolinen 74 5 15 5 90
Itäkoillinen 90 5 4 5 25 120
Länsiluoteinen 69 5 46 4 5 120
Yhtehensä 234 5 66 29 5 330

Penik. = P. Wirst.= W.

Näitä rajoja pituuttansa myöten yhteen laskeissamme juuri

ihmeeksi havatsimma eteläsivun alkuperäistä arveloamme myöten
tekevän 90 penikulmaa 2 virstaa, itä-koillisen 119 penik. 5 v. ja
länsiluoteisen 120 penik. 5 virstaa, joita lukuja emme olle hitaat
oikasemaan, jotta tulivat täysikymmenluvulla 90 eteläsivu ja toisista
kumpanenki 120 penik. pitkiksi. Näin koko rajasta, joka yltä
ympäritse on 330 penik. täytetään 300 penik. meriltä, isommilta
järviltä eli jo'ilta, eikä kun 30 penik. mannermaalta ja ei tätäkän, jos
näillä maataipalilla löytyvät pienemmät järvet ja joet lukuun
ottaisimma. Waan 300 on kymmenen kertaa suurempi kun 30, jonka
tähden hyvin voimmaki Suomalaisten asuntomaata saareksi
verrailla, samate kun mitä muutaki paikkaa, joka kymmeneltä
puolelta olisi vesiltä piiritetty, vaan yhdellä manterehen liitettynä.

Emme kuitenkan ole näitä rajoja niin tarkon määrätä voineet, ettei
selvää suomenpuheellista kansaa paikottain asuisi ulompanaki ja
muukalaisia kansoja sisäpuolella, niin eteläsivussa C—rajan tienoilla
ja itäkoillisessa pitkin pituuttansa, joissa kummassaki asukselee,
missä Suomalaisia ulkopuolella, missä, jos kohta vähemminki,
Wenäläisiä meidän puolella. Jälkimmäisen sivun pohjasimmassa
päässä löydämmä taas Lapin kansan Suomalaisten seassa.
Länsiluoteisen sivun B—rajoilla elää pitkin pituuttansa muutaman
penikulman leveydeltä Suomalaisia Ruotsin alla kuuluvina ja sen
lopulla Kättösuannolta alkain pistäksen itse Suomen aluettaki
Könkämäjokea myöten Ruotsin ja Norjan väliin lähes 20 penik.
pitkältä, vaikkei kun juuri muutamaisen leviältä. Mainitun sivun C—
rajoilla tapaamme Suomalaisia ja Lappalaisia sekasin ja saman
sivun B—rajoilla ikäskun eteläsivunki A—rajoilla löytyy taasen
merirannoilla eräitä ruotsalaisia pitäjiä. Se myös pitää meidän
nimittää, että tässä on koko Suomen kansa rajotettu, eikä erityisesti
niin kutsuttu Suomen maa, jonka osa eteläsivusta, C—rajan kohdalta
ja pian koko itäkoillinen sivu tulisi paljo sisämpänä käymään.
 [Sanan Saattajota Wiipurista pyydämmä jossai lehdessänsä
ilmottamaan, jos hänen paremmasta tiedostansa mitä erehdystä olisi
eteläsivun C— ja itäkoillisen sivun A—rajojen nimissä tapahtunut ja
sekä siltä että keltä hyvänsä toivomma muitaki oikasemia, erittäin
virstaja penikulma määrissäki. Wienamerelle, jota myös Selti-
mereksi ja Kemimereksiki sanotaan, taitais yhtähyvin sopia nimi
Walkiameri. Oniegamerta sanovat paikon Sunkumereksi ja
Poventsan mereksiki, vieläkö tuolla jotai muutaki nimeä olisi?]

Ennen tämän rajakirjotuksen peräti heitettyä mainitsemma, jäävän

etelä sivulla Suomenlahden rannoille 2 Maaherran lääniä, Uuden
maan ja Wiipurin läänin, länsiluoteisille suvulle 3 lääniä Pohjanlahta
pitkin, Porin, Waasan ja Oulun läänin, viimmeksi nimitetty aina
Lappiinki asti Pohjanlahden perältä ulottuva. Näiden kummallasi
nimitetyillä sivuilla olevien läänien keskellä jääpi Turun lääni Suomen
lounaskulmaan, Pohjanja Suomenlahden kainaloon ja siitä halki
maan koillista suuntaa esinnä Hämeen lääni, sitte Mikkelin, sen
jälkeen Kuopion ja tästä Pohjoseen päin kääntyen viimmen Kajaninki
lääni.

Näiden itsekunki läänin rajoista emme tällä kerralla tee'kän

parempaa selvää, sen vaan nimittäen, olevan Turun ja Porin
lääneillä yhteisin Maaherran ja samate Oulun ja Kajanin lääneillä
yhteisen, josta maaherroja Suomessa ei tule olemaan usiampaa kun
8, ollen läänejä 10.

Jo nimitetyistä kaupunkiloista ovat Turun lääniä Turku (13,500),

Naantali (800) ja Uusi kaupunki (2000); Uuden maan lääniä Eiknäisi
(1,500), Helsinki (11,000), Porko (3000) ja Lovisa (3000); Wiipurin
lääniä Hamina (2000), Wiipuri (4000), ennen nimittämättömiä:
Lappeenranta, Saiman rannalla (600), Käkisalmi (600) ja Sordavala
(300), molemmat viimmimainitut Laatokan rannalla; Porin lääniä
Rauma (2000), Pori (5000) ja ylempänä Tamperi (2000); Waasan
lääniä Kristiina (2000), Kasko (700), Waasa (3,500) Joensuu (1000),
Pietarsaari (1,500) ja Kokkola (2,500); Oulun lääniä Braahe (1,500),
Oulu (5,000) ja Tornio (700). Ennen nimittämättömiä ovat Hämeen
lääniä Hämeenlinna (2,300); Mikkelin lääniä Heinola (1000),
Savonlinna (400); Kuopion lääniä Kuopio (2000) ja Kajanin lääniä
Kajani (400).

Itsekunki kaupungin asukasten luku, jota nimen jälkisellä

numerolla olemma kokeneet osottaa, ei niin ole kohdalleen voitu
saada, ettei toisinaan tämä meidän osotuslukumme oikiasta
varsinaisesta luvusta muutamilla sadoillaki isommissa kaupungeissa
eroaisi. Wiimmeisestä viisimuotisesta väenarvosta on nyt viisi vuotta
kulununnaki, jolla ajalla, semminki menneinä tautisina vuosina, on
väenluku paljoki taitanut muuttauta. Tänä vuonna toimitetun
väenarvon ilmitullen saamma tilan nähdä, joko paljonki näissä näin
osotetuissa kaupunkien asukasten luvuissa olemma erehtynnä.

Kaupunkeja Suomenmaassa nimiönsä myöten on 29 ja jos entisen

Taavitin kaupunginki, joka nyt on autiona, lukisimma, tulisi niitä
täyteen kolmekymmentä.

*****

Kun ihminen eli luontokappale eksyy suunnaltaan, ettei löydä

mihinkän, vaan kiertelee yksiä jälkiään, sanovat Suomalaiset hänen
olevan metsän peitossa. Ja sillon pitää lukea Isä meidän, Herra
siunatkoon, Walmö Herra ja muita rukouksia, siitä seikasta päästä.
Auttaisivatko minuaki, en voi arvata, vaan senlaiseen metsän
peittoon jo lienenki joutununna. Sillä mieleni oli alusta, lähtiä
Suomalaisten jälkiä alkukotiinsa, vaan poikkesin tieltä ja tulin
kiertelemään Suomen metsissä, joita kaskipoltto, tervaruukki ja muu
huoleton menetys eivät vieläkän ole voineet niin tykkynänsä hävittää,
ettei niihin toisinaan peittäyisiki. Pitää siis tällä kerralla heittää
toimeni, Suomalaisia alkupesäänsä seurata, sen tieten, jos konsa
yrittäisinki, en kuitenkan pääsis ulos Suomesta, jonka monisataset
järvet, joet, vuoret ja tunturit kyllä vuodenki pidättäisivät lähtöäni ja
toinen eli kolmaski menisi muita seutuja, kyliä, pitäjiä ja kaupunkeja
katsellessa taikka kirkkoja, seurakuntia, kihlakuntia, hippakuntia ja
muita kuntia luetellessa. Ja niin aikanani, ennen pahemmin
eksymättä ja peittäymättä, lopetan tämän aineeni mainion
Ruotsalaisen Dumbomi nimisen viisaan tavalla, joka kerran
saarnaamaan yrittäessä, eikä esipuheesta edemmäksi tullen, ilman
pitempiä arveloita sihen päättiki saarnansa. Waan minkä olisin jo
päällenki voinut kirjottaa, kirjotan vasta viimmesiksi sanoikseni:

Parturiunt montes, nascetur — ridiculus mus.

Horatius.

suomeksi:

Wuori se synnyttää, oli syntyvä — melkiä hiiri.

Satuja.

1. Susi ja Akka.
 Susi näljissään juoksenteli kylän tienoilla ruokaa etsimässä. Niin
muutamassa talossa kuuli äitin lastansa toruvan, uhkaamalla hukille
työntää, ellei vaikenisi ja muuten olisi kauniisti. Susirukka odotteli
kaiken päivän, vaan kuuli illalla äitin toisilla sanoilla lastansa
puhuttelevan. "Ka niin lapseni, sano sillon äiti, en enää hukalle sua
anna'kan, vaan jos hukka tulee, niin lyömmä kuoliaksi." Sen kuultua
juoksi hukka tiehensä ja sano: "siinä tuvassa toista puhutaan, toista
ajatellaan."

Toinen kieli, toinen mieli.

2. Kaksi Hevoista.

Ruuna ja tamma olivat yhdellä taipalella kuormavedossa. Waan

tammalla oli raskaampi, ruunalla keviämpi. Niin muutamassa
mäessä rukoili tamma ruunalta apua, ellei peräti uupuisi. Toisen ei
auttaessa uupuki hän ja kuoli paikalla. Waan ajaja pani koko hänen
kuormansa ruunan vedettää ja päälliseksi kuolleen tammansa
irtikiskotun nahanki. Sillon sano ruuna: "Woi vaivanen, kun en
toveriani ajallansa auttanut! Nyt on minulla koko hänen kuormansa
vedettävä ja päälliseksi nahkaki."

Ellös kiellä killinkiä, taikka taalari menepi.

3. Talonhiiri ja Metsähiiri.

Talonhiiri kävi metsähiirtä tervehtimässä. Tämä hankki

vieraallensa ruokaa, mitä parahinta löysi, koottuja jyviä, tähkiä,
terhoja ja muuta senlaista. Toinen parempaan tottunut söi minkä
vähäsen ja kysäsi: "tämmönenkö se teillä elämä ainaki on?" Sitte
kuultuansa, ei paremmankan olevan, puhutteli hän toista taloon
muuttamaan eikä nälkään kuolemaan metsässä. Lähtiki toinen
toisella päivällä talonhiiren elämää katsomaan. Tämä vei hänen,
isoon ruokapuotiin ja käski syödä, mitä mielensä teki. Waan hiirten
parahallansa syödessä tuli väki puotiin. Talonhiiri kyllä sievästi
lymyttihen loukkohon, vaan metsähiiri luullen jo viimmesen päivänsä
tulleen, hyppäsi esinnä kauan pitkin seiniä ei tieten minne pistäytä
piiloon. Kuitenki jäi hän väeltä havatsematta. Sitte väen viimmenkän
puodista mentyä sano metsähiiri toiselle: "jää hyvästi taloinesi
tavaroinesi ja kiitä vastaki onneasi, minä sitä en kaipaa, enkä
kadehdi, enkä toiste toivottele." Ja niin läksi hän matkaan, vaikka
kyllä toinen kielsi häntä yön selkään pitkälle taipalelle lähtemästä.
Kotiin tultua kysy toinen metsähiiri: "hyväkö oli talonhiirellä elämä?"
Tähän vastasi hän vanhalla sanalaskulla:

"Hyvä herroissa elämä, vaan on päälle vaarallinen, kanssa

kaulalle kamala."

Suomen kansan Arvutuksta,

1. Illan ees, aamun taas.

2. Mies musta, nenä nykerä, perehen leipä takana.

3. Yks sano tous tous, toinen sano tous tous, kol- mas sano tous
tous, neljäs sano tous tous; viies sano viuh vauh.
 4. Lyhyt mänty mättähällä, mesimöykky männyn päässä.

5. Punikki punanen lehmä, kevytsarvi, keikkoselkä, juoksi puhki

puiset salmet, halki vaarat haihatteli.

Osviittoja. 1. akkunan lauta (eli luuku). 2. Mies. s.o. avain; nenä

s.o. rengas (eli koukku). 3. Yks, toinen jne. s.o. hevosen jalat; viies
s.o. häntä. 4. Mänty s.o. Muuramen kasvu (eli varsi); mesimöykky
s.o. lakka (muurain, marja). 5. Punikki s.o. suksi; punanen s.o.
tervattu; lehmä s.o. salossa kulkeva; kevytsarvi s.o. hoikkaeli
pystöpäinen; keikkoselkä s.o. jalkava eli kaareva keskeltä; juoksi s.o.
hiihti.

Lisäyksiä suomalaiseen sanakirjaan.

P. nimukoita. Antiaiset, (monik.), häät morsiamen lähtö- eli

antipaikalla (Kaj.) hentuset lasten syödä, niink. nisuleivät, sämpylät,
rusinat jne (Häm.) Kattilakunta, talo, perhe, huonekunta; on sillä
maalla (paikalla) viisiki kattilakuntaa (Kaj.), koru, korunen, lasten
pideltavä, mielentehty kalu (Satak.) loma, rako, välipaikka (Karj.).
säidenliihe (-heen), rospuutta, kelirikko (Kaj.), tarhila, sepel, vanta,
vannikka, kranssi (Wien.). uppu, vaikia keli paljon lumen aikana
(Kaj.), vero, luku, nimi, puoli (T.Y.P.A.L.E. sioissa); kenen verolla sinä
täällä olet? (Kaj.).

M. nimukoita. Eräs (rään), muutama, monikas, monikahta, monas,

monias, moniahta, joku, yksi (An,), jäperä, upera, kestävä, yrittävä,
luja, vahva; j. hevonen (Kaj.), karu, huono, kehno, kolkko; k. maa,
tie, kylä, niitty, paikka jne (Kaj.), maukia, kupia, kuvukas, kuperias,
pullokas, pullerias; kellonlasi on m. (Karj.). säällinen, rehti,
rehellinen, pätevä, kelpo, varsinainen; s. mies, asia, työ (Häm.)
vapera, lujaton, vavahteleva, kiikahteleva, heiluva, pyöriä; v. puu,
porras, vene; on vapera tapulia salvata (Kaj.).

[Tähän laatuun aiomma miksi ei joka seuraavan kuun osaan

outoja eli jollai oudolla tavalla käytettäviä suomalaisia sanoja
selvityksillänsä panna. Hallintapäätettä ei ole kun epävertasissa
tapauksissa osotettu, esimerk. sanassa säidenliihe, (Hall, -heen, ei -
hteen). Monik. viittoo sanan vaan monikossa sillä osotuksella
käytettämän ja An. Anuksen (Olonetsin) maalta, Häm. Hämehestä,
Kaj. Kajanin seuduilta, Karj. Suomen Karjalasta, Satak. Satakunnan
tienneiltä, Wien. Wienan (Arkangelin) läänistä sanan esinnä
muistoksi kirjotetun, josta kuitenkan ei seuraa, sen ei muuallaki
käyvän. Tiettävästi on monella muullaki, kirjoista eli kansan suusta
kerätyitä, sanakirjassa ei löytyviä suomalaisia sanoja. Jos he niitä
minulle Kajaniin laittasivat, niin olisin mielelläni ne heidän nimillänsä
seuraavilla kuilla julkaseva ja samate minkä saisi outoja sanalaskuja,
arvutuksia, puheenparsia, tietoja Suomen maasta, elämästä ja
tavoista eripaikoilla, suomal. runoja ja muita senlaisia, kuitenkan ei
muita, kun kansan tehtyjä runoja. Ainaki olisi siitä hyvä hyödytys ja
päälliseksi tulisi kirjani lukioille mielusemmaksi.]

Suomen kansan Sanalaskuja.

1. Aura atroja parempi, kirnunmäntä tarpomia.

Atro eli atrain on raudasta tehty, moniväkänen, pitkävarrellinen

kalaniskuase, jota toisissa arinaksi ja ahinkaaksiki sanotaan. Tätä