TECHNICAL DIGEST 9

HANDLING AND
ERECTION OF

9
STEEL JOISTS AND
JOIST GIRDERS

1
MARCH 2008
The information presented in this publication has been developed by Michael
Winarta, Engineering Manager, and Greg Davis, Design Engineer, New Millennium
Building Systems, in conjunction with the SJI’s Health and Safety Committee and
Perry S. Green, PhD, Technical Director of the Steel Joist Institute and is produced
in accordance with recognized engineering principles and is for general information
only. The SJI and its committees have made a concerted effort to present accurate,
reliable, and useful information on the erection of steel joists and Joist Girders.
The information contained in this digest should not be used or relied upon for
any specific project without competent professional assessment of its accuracy,
suitability and applicability by a licensed professional engineer or architect. The
publication of the material contained in this Technical Digest is not intended as
a representation or warranty on the part of the Steel Joist Institute. Any person
making use of this information does so at one’s own risk and assumes all liability
arising from such use.

Federal Regulations Governing Erection of Joist Products

Steel joists and Joist Girders must be erected in accordance with the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), U.S. Department of Labor 29 CFR
Part 1926 Safety Standards for Steel Erection. The erection of Open Web Steel
Joists is governed by Section 1926.757 of this Federal Regulation. The information
contained in the Technical Digest is intended to complement the Federal Regulation
and to assist the erector in compliance with the regulation.

Copyright © 2008

by

Steel Joist Institute

All rights reserved. This Technical Digest or any part thereof must not be
reproduced in any form without the written permission of the Steel Joist Institute.

Printed in the United States of America

Third Edition
Second Printing – July 2013
 Technical Digest 9
HANDLING AND ERECTION OF
STEEL JOISTS AND JOIST GIRDERS

Steel Joist Institute

234 W. Cheves Street
Florence, SC 29501
Phone: (843) 407-4091
www.steeljoist.org
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The development of this and other Steel Joist Institute Technical Digests is the result
of the combined effort of numerous people and organizations. The chief author of the
first edition of Technical Digest No. 9 was E.T.E. Sprague, a former SJI Managing
Director, whose 30 years of experience in the steel joist industry provided him with
the requisite background for preparing such a publication.

The second edition of Technical Digest No. 9 was prepared by Cary Andrews, former
Engineering Manager, SOCAR, Florence, SC, the Institute’s Erection Committee and
the SJI’s Technical Director, Perry S. Green, PhD, and has been carefully reviewed
by members of the Steel Erectors Association of America. Much of the revised
information is a direct result of the changes that have been adopted in the workplace
based on the new Occupational Safety and Health Administration safety standards
issued in 2001.

This third edition of Technical Digest No. 9 has been prepared by Michael Winarta,
Engineering Manager and Greg Davis, Design Engineer, New Millennium Building
Systems, Butler, IN and Perry S. Green, PhD, Technical Director in conjunction with
SJI’s Health and Safety Committee. The main purpose of this revision is to include
information related to SJI’s newest composite steel joist series, the CJ-Series.

The primary acknowledgement must go to the erectors themselves, those individuals

who risk their lives in order to answer a distant calling to “walk the iron” and to
experience the freedom of standing above the crowd. To them, most respectfully, we
doff our hard hats.

FOREWORD
Technical Digest No 9 concerns itself with the proper handling and erection
procedures to be employed in the field to make certain that these products are not
damaged, that they perform as specified, and above all, to ensure the safety of the
steel erectors.

This Technical Digest is another addition to the series of Steel Joist Institute
publications designed to give the reader information regarding the application
and usage of Steel Joists, Joist Girders and Composite Steel Joists. These
digests serve to highlight specific areas of design and/or application for the
benefit of architects, building inspectors, building officials, designers, engineers,
erectors, students and others.

i
 Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................... i

FOREWORD ..................................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... ii

BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION........................................................................... iv

GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................................... vi

Chapter 1 PRODUCTS ..................................................................................................1

Chapter 2 PRE-ERECTION MEETING .........................................................................8

Chapter 3 LOADING AND SHIPPING ...........................................................................9

Chapter 4 RECEIVING, UNLOADING AND STORING ...............................................12

Chapter 5 ERECTING JOIST PRODUCTS .................................................................21

Chapter 6 FIELD INSPECTION ................................................................................... 46

Chapter 7 PANELIZED ERECTION .............................................................................49

Chapter 8 BRIDGING ..................................................................................................59

Chapter 9 MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS – COMMON FIELD ISSUES .........................67

Chapter 10 SUMMARY - DO’S AND DON’TS ...............................................................72

ii
 Table of Contents

REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................74

Appendix A Standard Hand Signals for Controlling Crane Operations ......................76

Appendix B Standard Specifications for Open Web Steel Joists, K-Series ............... 78

Appendix C Standard Specifications for Longspan Steel Joists, LH-Series and

Deep Longspan Steel Joists, DLH-Series...............................................87

Appendix D Standard Specifications for Joist Girders ................................................97

Appendix E Standard Specifications for Composite Steel Joists,

CJ-Series …..........................................................................................101

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 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
The first known application of steel joist construction was in the Bank of the State
of New York building that was erected in 1855 at Williams St. and Exchange Place
in New York City. The architect, James Renwick, developed a type of floor joist that
was comprised of two 1/16 in. riveted wrought iron web plates with 4 x 1/8 in. top
and bottom plates riveted to the web to form the joist. The building was razed in
1903. During the period 1885 to 1920 various proprietary and patented joist designs
were manufactured including the O’Shea Joist in Chicago, St. Louis Joist, Berger
Joist, Truscon Steel Joist, and the National Strip Steel Joist. All these joists had solid
sheet steel for their webs and it was not until 1923 that the first “open web” steel
joist appeared. The Massillon Bar Joist consisted of five bars: Two top chord bars,
two bottom chord bars and a web bar. The web bar was bent to proper dimensions
and the assembly arc welded at panel points into a Warren truss configuration. The
design of each end of the joist gave it flexibility of span.

In June 1928, the Steel Joist Institute was formed by a group of joist manufacturers,
Concrete Steel Co., New York, NY, Gabriel Steel Co., Detroit, MI, Kalman Steel
Corporation, Bethlehem, PA, The Macomber Steel Co., Canton, OH, and Truscon
Steel Co., Youngstown, OH. The original purposes for which the Institute was founded
were to standardize the methods of design and details of construction, to promote
proper building regulations and to disseminate information relative to the proper use
of steel joists. In December of that same year the Steel Joist Institute adopted the
Standard Specification of Steel Joists, and in August 1929 the first standard loading
table applicable to the design of joists by all member companies was approved. This
loading table was later adopted as Simplified Practice Recommendation R 94-30 of
the United States Department of Commerce. In April 1931 the first Code of Standard
Practice was adopted.

The SJI’s first Catalog, Steel Joist Construction - A Handbook for Architects and
Engineers on the Uses and Properties of Steel Joists, was published January
1932. The catalog contained information on Open Web Steel Joists, Standard
Specifications and Code of Standard Practice of the Steel Joist Institute, Handling
and Erecting Steel Joists, Standard Steel Joist Loading Tables and Properties of
Steel Joists. That catalog, in addition to the over 40 other catalogs that have been
published subsequently by the SJI, contains information related to the proper handling
and erection of steel joists. In 1932 the SJI provided recommendations on unloading,
hauling, piling (storing), setting joists, decking, construction loads, centering, reinforcing
for the top slab, wood sleepers, placing of concrete, and mechanical trades. Today,
each of the current Standard Specifications for Open Web Steel Joists, K-Series; for
Longspan Steel Joists, LH-Series; and Deep Longspan Joists, DLH-Series has a
section on Erection Stability and Handling while the Standard Specification for Joist
Girders has a section on Handling and Erection.

iv
Today, steel joists and Joist Girders are widely used products primarily in commercial,
industrial and institutional buildings. However, until this technical digest was first
published in 1987, no definitive handbook on their handling and erection had been
written. Since the original publication date, there have been numerous changes
and innovations in the use of steel joists. Among these changes have been the
introduction of new or expanded joist products, innovations in building materials
and systems, changes in design philosophy, and the adoption of new building
codes and federal regulations. Therefore, for these reasons the Steel Joist Institute
determined that an extensive revision to this Technical Digest No. 9 was required.

If a joist manufacturer is asked, “How good are your products?” the answer almost
certainly would be: “only as good as their installation.” A joist manufacturer can
design and build joist products with remarkable intrinsic strength, but whether
or not these products can deliver this strength is largely dependent on how well
they are handled from the time they leave the manufacturing facility until they are
permanently installed in the field.

The purpose of this digest is to present a clear and concise guide for the safe
installation of open web steel joists and Joist Girders. Though it is not possible
to include every conceivable joist application or field condition that could be
encountered, the reader should come away with a basic knowledge of open web
steel joists and Joist Girders and a general understanding of the SJI recommended
safe practices for handling, storing and erecting these products.

One of the most important aspects of safe erection of joist products is proper
bridging. Bridging is a component of the steel joist system that braces the joists
against unanticipated horizontal movement during erection as well as during the
placing of construction loads. A lateral displacement of the joist may mean that
the construction load caused the joist to distort, roll over, or shift from its intended
position resulting in both the ironworkers and joists falling. Much attention will
be given to this critical component. Additionally, as a result of changes in code
provisions and design requirements, bridging may be an integral part of the initial
as well as final structural system.

This digest does not attempt to address all hazards that may be present in a particular
construction environment. Pre-job planning and development of site-specific plans
that identify hazards are very important. The implementation of systems and
procedures to eliminate those hazards completes this process. Contained in the
technical digest is a discussion of several different types of systems used to protect
employees, but regardless of the type selected it should be designed by a qualified
person and employees should be trained in the proper use of the system.

v
 GLOSSARY
NOTES:

Terms in Bold and their definitions come from the AISC AND AISI STANDARD,
“Standard Definitions for Use in the Design of Steel Structures,” 2004 Edition, First
Printing - April 2005.

* These terms are usually qualified by the type of load effect, e.g., nominal tensile
strength, available compressive strength, design flexural strength.

† The definitions provided for these terms come from the OSHA Steel Erection
Standard Part §1926.757 – Open Web Steel Joists.

Accessories. Structural components related to the design, fabrication and erection

of joists and Joist Girders including, but not limited to sloped end bearings, extended
ends, ceiling extensions, bridging and bridging anchors, headers and bottom chord
lateral bracing for Joist Girders.

Anchored Bridging†. The means that the steel joist bridging is connected to a
bridging terminus point.

ASD (Allowable Strength Design). Method of proportioning structural components

such that the allowable strength equals or exceeds the required strength of the
component under the action of the ASD load combinations.

ASD Load Combination. Load combination in the applicable building code intended
for allowable strength design (allowable stress design).

Allowable Strength*. Nominal strength divided by the safety factor, Rn/Ω.

Applicable Building Code. Building code under which the structure is designed.

Bay. The distance between the main structural frames or walls of a building.

Bearing. The distance that the bearing shoe or seat of a joist or Joist Girder extends
over its masonry, concrete or steel support.

Bearing Plate. The steel plate used for a joist or Joist Girder to bear on when it is
supported by masonry or concrete supports. The plate is designed by the Specifying
Professional to carry the joist or Joist Girder reaction to the supporting structure.

vi
Bottom Chord Extension (BCX). The two angle extended part of a joist bottom chord
from the first bottom chord panel point towards the end of the joist.

Bridging. In general, a member connected to a joist to brace it from lateral movement.

See also Diagonal Bridging and Horizontal Bridging

Bridging Clip†. A device that is attached to a steel joist to allow the bolting of the
bridging to the steel joist.

Bridging Terminus Point†. A wall, beam, tandem joists (with all bridging installed
and a horizontal truss in the plane of the top chord) or other element at an end or
intermediate point(s) of a line of bridging that provides an anchor point for the steel
joist bridging.

Buckling. Limit state of sudden change in the geometry of a structure or any of its
elements under a critical loading condition.

Buckling Strength. Nominal strength for buckling or instability limit states.

Bundle. The banding together of joist products, bridging, and decking into certain
sizes, weights, pieces, lengths, etc. to expedite shipping, unloading and storage,
and erection at a job site.

Buyer. The entity that has agreed to purchase material from the manufacturer and
has also agreed to the terms of sale.

Camber. An upward curvature of the chords of a joist or Joist Girder induced during
shop fabrication. Note, this is in addition to the pitch of the top chord.

Cantilever. The portion of a joist product that extends beyond its structural support.
A lateral brace may need to be provided at the end of the cantilever to ensure it is
stable during erection and under load.

Ceiling Extension. A bottom chord extension except that only one angle of the joist
bottom chord is extended from the first bottom chord panel point towards the end
of the joist.

Centering. The material placed over the joists used for cast in place slabs and may
be ribbed metal lath, corrugated steel sheets, paper backed welded wire fabric,
removable centering or any other suitable material capable of supporting the slab
at the designated joist spacing. Centering shall not cause lateral displacement to
the top chord of joists during installation or damage to the joists during removal or
placing of the concrete.

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Choker†. A wire rope or synthetic fiber rigging assembly that is used to attach a load
to hoisting equipment or device.

Chords. The top and bottom members of a joist or Joist Girder. When a chord is
comprised of two angles there is usually a gap between the members.

Clear Span. The actual clear distance or opening between supports for a joist,
that is the distance between walls or the distance between the edges of flanges
of beams.

Collateral Load. All additional dead loads other than the weight of the building, such
as sprinklers, pipes, ceilings, and mechanical or electrical components.

Competent Person†. One who is capable of identifying existing and predictable

hazards in the surroundings or working conditions which are unsanitary, hazardous
or dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them.

Connection. Combination of structural elements and joints used to transmit forces

between two or more members. See also Splice.

Connector†. An employee who, working with hoisting equipment, is placing and

connecting structural members and/or components.

Constructability†. The ability to erect structural steel members in accordance with

Subpart R without having to alter the over-all structural design.

Construction Load†. (for joist erection only) Any load other than the weight of the
employee(s), joists and the bridging bundle (see OSHA Regulations 1926.757(d)
(1), (d)(2) and (d)(3)).

Deck. A floor or roof covering made out of galvanized, painted, or unpainted gage
metal attached by welding or mechanical means to joists, beams, purlins, or other
structural members.

Design Load. Applied load determined in accordance with either LRFD load
combinations or ASD load combinations, whichever is applicable.

Design Strength*. Resistance factor multiplied by the nominal strength, φRn.

Diagonal Bridging. Two angles or other structural shapes connected from the top
chord of one joist to the bottom chord of the next joist or anchorage to form an ‘X’
shape. These members are almost always connected at their point of intersection.

viii
Diaphragm. Roof, floor or other membrane or bracing system that transfers in-
plane forces to the lateral force resisting system.

End Anchorage. The proper attachment of the ends of a joist product to masonry,
structural concrete or structural steel.

End Diagonal or Web. The first web member on either end of a joist or Joist Girder
which begins at the end of the top chord and ends at the first bottom chord panel
point. For an underslung joist the end diagonal begins at the seat.

End Support. The masonry, structural concrete or structural steel that supports the
ends of joist products and is capable of carrying the loads transmitted to it by the
joist products.

Erection Bridging†. The bolted diagonal bridging that is required to be installed prior
to releasing the hoisting cables from the steel joists.

Erector. The entity that is responsible for the safe and proper erection of the materials
in accordance with all applicable codes and regulations.

Extended End. The extended part of a joist top chord with the seat angles also being
extended from the end of the joist extension back into the joist and maintaining the
standard end bearing depth over the entire length of the extension.

Fall Restraint System†. A fall protection system that prevents the user from
falling any distance. The system is comprised of either a body belt or body harness,
along with an anchorage, connectors and other necessary equipment. The
other components typically include a lanyard, and may also include a lifeline and
other devices.

Filler. The material placed between the chords and/or webs at certain intervals to
ensure that the cross-section acts as a built-up member (also spacer or batten if
placed on the outside of the chords or webs). The material may be a short piece of
angle, round bar, or other type of steel shape.

Flexural Buckling. Buckling mode in which a compression member deflects laterally

without twist or change in cross-sectional shape.

Flexural-Torsional Buckling. Buckling mode in which a compression member

bends and twists simultaneously without change in cross-sectional shape.

Girt. Horizontal structural member that supports wall panels and is primarily
subjected to bending under horizontal loads, such as wind load.

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Gravity Load. Load, such as that produced by dead and live loads, acting in the
downward direction.

Header. A structural member located between two joists or between a joist and a
wall which carries another joist or joists. It is usually made up of an angle, channel,
or beam with saddle angle connections on each end for bearing.

Hoisting Cable. A chain, strap or cable that is attached at each end which is used to
facilitate the moving and lifting of joist products, bridging, decking, etc.

Hoisting Equipment†. Commercially manufactured lifting equipment designed to

lift and position a load of known weight to a location at some known elevation and
horizontal distance from the equipment’s center of rotation. ‘Hoisting equipment’
includes but is not limited to cranes, derricks, tower cranes, gin poles and gantry
hoist systems. A “come-a-long” (a mechanical device, usually consisting of a chain
or cable attached at each end, that is used to facilitate movement of materials
through leverage) is not considered ‘hoisting equipment.’

Horizontal Bridging. A continuous angle or other steel shape connected to the top
and bottom chord of a joist.

Inspector. An independent person hired to verify that the erection of a structure is

in accordance with the Site-Specific Erection Plans including the Joist Placement
Plans and the deck placement drawings.

Instability. Limit state reached in the loading of a structural component, frame

or structure in which a slight disturbance in the loads or geometry produces
large displacements.

Joint. Area where two or more ends, surfaces or edges are attached. Categorized
by type of fastener or weld used and the method of force transfer.

Joist. A structural load-carrying member with an open web system which supports
floors and roofs utilizing hot-rolled or cold-formed steel and is designed as a simple
span member. Currently, the SJI has the following joist designations: K-Series
including KCS, LH-Series and DLH-Series, and CJ-Series.

Joist Girder. A primary structural load-carrying member with an open web system
designed as a simple span usually supporting equally spaced concentrated loads
of a floor or roof system acting at the panel points of the member and utilizing hot-
rolled or cold-formed steel.

Joist Placement Plans. Drawings that are prepared depicting the interpretation
of the Contract Documents requirements for the material to be supplied by
the Seller. These floor and/or roof plans are approved by the Specifying
Professional, Buyer or Owner for conformance with the design requirements.

x
The Seller uses the information contained on these drawings for final material
design. A unique piece mark number is typically shown for the individual placement
of joists, Joist Girders and accessories along with sections that describe the end
bearing conditions and minimum attachment required so that material is placed in
the proper location in the field.

Joist Substitute. A structural member who’s intended use is for very short spans (10
feet or less) where open web steel joists are impractical. They are usually used for
short spans in skewed bays, over corridors or for outriggers. It can be made up of
two or four angles to form channel sections or box sections.

Lateral Buckling. Buckling mode of a flexural member involving deflection normal to

the plane of bending.

Lateral-Torsional Buckling. Buckling mode of a flexural member involving deflection

normal to the plane of bending occurring simultaneously with twist about the shear
center of the cross section.

Limit State. Condition in which a structure or component becomes unfit for

service and is judged either to be no longer useful for its intended function
(serviceability limit state) or to have reached its ultimate load-carrying capacity
(strength limit state).

Load. Force or other action that results from the weight of building materials,
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movement, or
restrained dimensional changes.

Load Effect. Forces, stresses, and deformations produced in a structural component

by the applied loads.

Load Factor. Factor that accounts for deviations of the nominal load from the actual
load, for uncertainties in the analysis that transforms the load into a load effect, and
for the probability that more than one extreme load will occur simultaneously.

Local Buckling**. Limit state of buckling of a compression element within a

cross section.

LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design). Method of proportioning structural

components such that the design strength equals or exceeds the required strength
of the component under the action of the LRFD load combinations.

LRFD Load Combination. Load combination in the applicable building code

intended for strength design (Load and Resistance Factor Design).

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Material. Joists, Joist Girders and accessories as provided by the Seller.

Nailers. Strips of lumber attached to the top chord of a joist so plywood or other
flooring can be nailed directly to the joist.

Nesting. The positioning of joist products so that when they are bundled together
the chords of one member fit tightly against or overlap the chords of the adjacent
member in the bundle. Once the strapping that is used to bundle the joists together
is cut the joists become de-nested.

Nominal Load. Magnitude of the load specified by the applicable building code.

Nominal Strength*. Strength of a structure or component (without the resistance

factor or safety factor applied) to resist the load effects, as determined in accordance
with the Standard Specifications.

OSHA. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration is the federal government
agency whose purpose is to save lives, prevent injuries, and protect the health of
the workers of America.

Owner. The entity that is identified as such in the Contract Documents.

Permanent Load. Load in which variations over time are rare or of small magnitude.
All other loads are variable loads.

Personal Fall Arrest System†. A system used to arrest an employee in a fall from a
working level. A personal fall arrest system consists of an anchorage, connectors,
a body harness and may include a lanyard, deceleration device, lifeline, or suitable
combination of these. The use of a body belt for fall arrest is prohibited.

Purlin. Horizontal structural member that supports roof deck and is primarily
subjected to bending under vertical loads such as dead, snow or wind loads.

Qualified Person†. One who, by possession of a recognized degree, certificate, or

professional standing, or who by extensive knowledge, training, and experience,
has successfully demonstrated the ability to solve or resolve problems relating to
the subject matter, the work, or the project.

Quality Assurance. System of shop and field activities and controls implemented by
the owner or his/her designated representative to provide confidence to the owner
and the building authority that quality requirements are implemented.

Quality Control. System of shop and field controls implemented by the seller and
erector to ensure that contract and company fabrication and erection requirements
are met.

xii
Required Strength*. Forces, stress, and deformations produced in a structural
component, determined by either structural analysis, for the LRFD or ASD load
combinations, as appropriate, or as specified by the Standard Specifications.

Resistance Factor, φ. Factor that accounts for deviations of the actual strength
from the nominal strength, deviations of the actual load from the nominal load,
uncertainties in the analysis that transforms the load into a load effect and for the
manner and consequences of failure.

Safety Factor, Ω. Factor that accounts for deviations of the actual strength from the
nominal strength, deviations of the actual load from the nominal load, uncertainties
in the analysis that transforms the load into a load effect and for the manner and
consequences of failure.

Seller. A company certified by the Joist Institute engaged in the manufacture and
distribution of joists, Joist Girders and accessories.

Service Load. Load under which serviceability limit states are evaluated.

Serviceability Limit State. Limiting condition affecting the ability of a structure to

preserve its appearance, maintainability, durability, or the comfort of its occupants
or function of machinery, under normal usage.

Site-Specific Erection Plan. OSHA has defined a site-specific erection plan in

§1926.752(e) as one that shall be developed by a qualified person and be available
at the work site. This site-specific erection plan is one where employers elect, due to
conditions specific to the site, to develop alternate means and methods that provide
employee protection in accordance with OSHA §1926.753(c)(5), §1926.757(a)(4)
or §1926.757(e)(4).

Span. The centerline-to-centerline distance between structural steel supports such

as a beam, column or Joist Girder or the clear span distance plus four inches onto
a masonry or concrete wall.

Specified Minimum Yield Stress. Lower limit of yield stress specified for a material
as defined by ASTM.

Specifying Professional. The licensed professional who is responsible for sealing

the building Contract Documents, which indicates that he or she has performed or
supervised the analysis, design and document preparation for the structure and has
knowledge of the load-carrying structural system.

Splice. Connection between two structural members joined at their ends by either
bolting or welding to form a single, longer member.

xiii
Spreader Bar. A specially designed structural steel member attached to hoisting
equipment that may be used to lift joist, bridging, or decking bundles at two points.

Stability. Condition reached in the loading of a structural component, frame or

structure in which a slight disturbance in the loads or geometry does not produce
large displacements.

Stabilizer Plate. A vertical steel plate at a column inserted between the end of a
bottom chord of a joist or Joist Girder (see OSHA Regulations 1926.757(a)(1)). A
stabilizer plate may also be provided when the structural support is at a wall.

Standard Specifications. Documents developed and maintained by the Steel Joist

Institute for the design and manufacture of open web steel joists and Joist Girders.
The term “SJI Standard Specifications” encompasses by reference the following:
ANSI/SJI-K1.1 Standard Specifications for Open Web Steel Joists, K-Series;
ANSI/SJI-LH/DLH-1.1 Standard Specifications for Longspan Steel Joists,
LH-Series and Deep Longspan Steel Joists, DLH-Series;
ANSI/SJI-JG-1.1 Standard Specifications for Joist Girders; and
ANSI/SJI-CJ1.0 Standard Specifications for Composite Steel Joists,
CJ-Series.

Strength Limit State. Limiting condition affecting the safety of the structure, in which
the ultimate load-carrying capacity is reached.

Structural Drawings. The graphic or pictorial portions of the Contract Documents

showing the design (size or type of structural elements), location and dimensions of
the work. These documents generally include plans, elevations, sections, details,
connections, all loads, schedules, diagrams and notes.

Tagged End. The end of a joist or Joist Girder where an identification or piece mark
is shown by a metal tag. The member must be erected with this tagged end in the
same position as the tagged end noted on the placement plan.

Tie Joist. A joist that is bolted at or near a column. When the joist is bolted at a
column it may be referred to as a column joist.

Top Chord Extension (TCX). The extended part of a joist top chord. This type of
extension only has the two top chord angles extended past the joist seat.

Torsional Buckling. Buckling mode in which a compression member twists about its
shear center axis.

xiv
Unbraced Length. Distance between braced points of a member, measured between
the centers of gravity of the bracing members.

Variable Load. Load not classified as permanent load.

Webs. The vertical or diagonal members joined at the top and bottom chords of
a joist or Joist Girder to form triangular patterns.

Yield Strength. Stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation

from the proportionality of stress to strain as defined by ASTM (also referred to
as yield stress).

xv
 1
Chapter 1
PRODUCTS

There are two broad categories of open web products, Joist Girders which are considered
primary load-carrying members and joists which are considered secondary load-carrying
members (see Figure 1.1). Joists, or more correctly Open Web Steel Joists, are also known
as bar joists, shortspans, longspans or composite joists. Joists are those structural members
in a steel framing system that are designed to carry the gravity load acting over a floor or
roof being supported and transfer that load through their end supports to structural steel
beams or Joist Girders that are directly supported by structural steel columns.

The Steel Joist Institute’s Standard Specifications Load Tables and Weight Tables for
Steel Joists and Joist Girders currently consist of four joist products:

• K-Series including KCS Joists and Joist Substitutes commonly referred to as Bar
Joists or Shortspans;
• LH-Series Joists commonly referred to as Longspans;
• DLH-Series Joists commonly referred to as Deep Longspans; and
• Joist Girders

Figure 1.1 Joist Product Identification

1
The Steel Joist Institute’s Standard Specification for Composite Steel Joists Weight Tables
and Bridging Tables currently consists of one joist product:

• CJ-Series Composite Joists

All joists consist of the following basic elements: a top chord, bottom chord, interior
diagonal and/or vertical pieces called web members and end bearing seats as illustrated
in Figure 1.2. Today, chords using back to back angles with a gap in between is most
common while the webs can be made of continuous solid round bar, single angles,
crimped angles, double angle members, cold-formed channels or other steel members
depending on the size, length and load-carrying requirements of the joist as well as joist
manufacturer preference. In all cases the web members are connected to the top and
bottom chords by welding.

Figure 1.2 Basic Joist Elements, a) Crimped Angle Web; b) Round Bar Web

Joists are designed as either underslung or with square-ends (see Figure 1.3). Underslung
joists are supported at their ends through end bearing seats while square-ended joists
are supported at the ends of the bottom chords. For the underslung condition the bearing
seat is at the top chord while there is no typical bearing seat at the bottom chord for
the square-end condition. Additionally, underslung and square-end joists may have their
top chords pitched either one way or two ways as shown in Figure 1.4. Joists can also
be designed for a sloped condition. As the slope of the joist increases from 1/4:12 to

2
something greater, e.g. 4:12, the joist manufacturer will build the joist with appropriately
sloped bearing seats.

Figure 1.3 Standard Joist Seats, a) Underslung Joist, b) Square End Joist

Figure 1.4 Underslung and Square End Configurations of

Pitched Joists, LH-Series, DLH-Series and Joist Girders

3
1. Standard SJI Products

The following sections provide a more in-depth description of each of the standard
SJI products.

A. Open Web Steel Joists, K-Series

Depths for Open Web Steel Joists range from 8 inches through 30 inches, at 2-inch
increments; spans range from 8 feet (or less using joist substitutes) up to 60 feet.
Although both the Open Web Steel Joists and the Longspan joists include lengths
from 21 feet to 60 feet, there are several features that help to differentiate the two
joist products.

Open Web Steel Joists are usually top bearing (or underslung) as shown in Figure
1.2. The standard bearing depth is 2 1/2” for the Open Web Steel Joists. The web
systems shown in Figure 1.2b consist of lengths of solid rounds bent into V’s and
welded to the chords or individual web members welded to the chords. This is a
standard Warren type configuration (no verticals). Figure 1.2a shows a modified
Warren truss type configuration that is characterized by the use of vertical and
diagonal web members, where the web members may be solid rounds, crimped
angles, single or double angles, or cold-formed steel shapes.

The top and bottom chords and web members of Open Web Steel Joists are normally
comprised of hot rolled angles or cold-formed sections.

The joints are usually connected by welding, which can vary from hand-held “stick”
welding (SMAW), semi-automatic gas metal arc welding (GMAW) also called MIG,
or flux core welding (FCAW), to totally automatic resistance welding.

An example of an Open Web Steel Joist designation is: 18K7 where “18”
denotes the nominal joist depth in inches; “K” is the joist series; and “7” is the chord
number designation.

B. Longspan Joists, LH-Series

Depths for Longspan Joists range from 18 inches through 48 inches and lengths
from 21 feet to 96 feet. These joists can be underslung or square ended; their chords
can be parallel, or the top chord can be single pitched or double pitched (see Figure
1.4). The standard bearing depth for an underslung Longspan Joist is 5 inches.

The top and bottom chords and web members are normally comprised of hot
rolled angles or cold-formed sections. The webs consist of angles – single, double
or crimped, rounds, squares, or other steel shapes. The most common web

4
 configurations are either Warren or modified Warren, but other truss configurations
are possible. In all cases, the joints where the webs are connected to the chords are
made by various recognized welding methods as specified above.

An example of a Longspan Joist designation is: 40LH13 where “40” denotes the
nominal joist depth (at mid-span) in inches; “LH” is the joist series; and “13” is the
chord number designation. The joist depth at mid-span is specified whether the joist
has parallel chords, or has a single pitched or double pitched top chord.

C. Deep Longspan Joists, DLH-Series

Deep Longspan Joists are an extension of the Longspan Joists, with depths
ranging from 52 inches through 72 inches and lengths from 61 feet to 144 feet.
The standard bearing depth for an underslung Deep Longspan Joist is 5 inches
for chord number designations 10 through 17 and 7 1/2 inches for chord number
designations 18 and 19.

An example of a Deep Longspan Joist designation is: 56DLH15 where “56” denotes
the nominal joist depth in inches at mid-span; “DLH” is the joist series; and “15” is
the chord number designation.

D. Joist Girders
Joist Girders are primary structural members that have been designed as simply-
supported trusses. They usually bear on columns and support the concentrated
loading from the steel joists which run perpendicular to them. The top and bottom
chords and web members of Joist Girders are typically comprised of hot rolled angles
or cold-formed sections. The web system configurations are typically modified
Warren type, but may have other configurations, depending on the magnitude of
joist loads and spacings. The standard bearing depth is 7 1/2 inches for underslung
Joist Girders. Joist Girder depths vary from 20 inches to 120 inches, and lengths run
from 20 feet to 120 feet. The chords can be parallel, or the top chord can be either
single pitched or double pitched.

An example of a Joist Girder designation is: 36G9N6K where “36” denotes the nominal
Joist Girder depth at mid-span in inches; “G” indicates that it is a Joist Girder; “9N”
denotes that there are 9 joist spacings; and “6K” means that the concentrated load
at each panel point or joist location is 6 kips (unfactored) from an Allowable Strength
Design. If the designation were “9F” it would mean that the concentrated load at
each panel point or joist location is 9 kips (factored) from a Load and Resistance
Factor Design.

5
E. Composite Steel Joists, CJ-Series
Composite Steel Joists are similar to K-, LH- and DLH-Series joists with depths
ranging from 10 inches through 96 inches and spans through 120 feet. These joists
have parallel chords with underslung or square ends. Standard bearing depths are
2 ½ inches, 5 inches and 7 ½ inches. The Composite Steel Joists are capable of
supporting larger loadings due to the attachment of the concrete slab to the top
chord of the composite joist. Shear connection between the concrete slab and steel
joist is typically made by the welding of shear studs ranging in diameter from 3/8
inch to 3/4 inch thru the steel deck to the underlying Composite Joist.

An example of a Composite Steel Joist designation is: 30CJ2188/1168/420 where “30”

denotes the nominal joist depth in inches; “CJ” is the joist series; “2188” denotes the
total factored composite design load capacity in pounds per linear foot; “1168” denotes
the total factored composite live load capacity in pounds per linear foot; and “420”
denotes the total factored composite dead load capacity in pounds per linear foot.

2. Non-Standard SJI Products

In addition to the standard SJI products described above, the member firms of the
Steel Joist Institute may produce non-standard products such as: Barrel Joists,
Bowstring Joists, Gable Joists, Scissor Joists and other special truss configurations
(see Figures 1.5 and 1.6) as well as joist products over 144 feet in length and depths
greater than 72 inches. These are not “standard” Steel Joist Institute products and
should be erected in accordance with the American Institute of Steel Construction
Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges Section 7. Erection (AISC
2005) and the OSHA Regulations 1926.756 Beams and Columns.

Figure 1.5 Non-standard SJI Barrel Joists

6
Figure 1.6 Non-standard SJI Gable Joists in a
Fink Truss Configuration

7
 2
Chapter 2
PRE-ERECTION MEETING

On larger projects, it may be beneficial for the contractor to hold a pre-erection meeting.
Shortly after the structural fabricator, joist supplier and erector are selected, a meeting
should be held to determine shipping schedules, site access, storage of joist products,
routing considerations for over-length joists (which may necessitate field splicing of multi-
piece joists), use of sequencing, boundaries of sequences, and other related topics. This
meeting may include an owner’s representative, the contractor, fabricator, and erector.
Other crafts such as masonry, concrete and trades involved in underground utilities may
need to be included in the meeting.

Once the area where erection will begin is determined, several factors must be considered.
They include the capacity and reach of the cranes, their access and movement, as well
as a clean laydown area. The owner’s need to have specific areas completed early,
availability of materials and foundation schedule are also important. Proper access roads
for delivery trucks and erection equipment should be agreed upon. The AISC Code of
Standard Practice for Buildings and Bridges (AISC 2005) and the OSHA Regulations
1926.752 speak very clearly in regard to proper access to the construction site.

The pre-erection meeting should be where the Q.C. plan is established and the quality
requirements for welding are reviewed with the erector. Other items such as the drawing
approval schedules, number of loads per day, suggested delivery times, field splicing of
multi-piece joists, bundling and tagging, possible panelization, and the number of “crane-
days” for each sequence should be addressed. The erector should determine how much
erection time will be required for each sequence and schedule deliveries to minimize
downtime for the crane. Effective communication of sequencing and other delivery related
issues is critical to the success of the project. This information should be relayed to the
joist manufacturer at the earliest possible date.

8
 3
Chapter 3
LOADING AND SHIPPING

TAGGING AND PREPARING FOR SHIPMENT

Steel joists and Joist Girders are manufactured on production lines. After a joist product
(this term will be used throughout the Technical Digest to include joists and Joist Girders)
is manufactured, a metal tag is attached to one end. Normally, this tag is wired to the
end web member, either the diagonal member for underslung products, or the vertical
member for joists with square-ends (see Figure 3.1). The information contained on the
metal tag includes:

1) The joist manufacturer’s name.

2) The joist manufacturer’s job number.
3) The erection mark (such as J1 or T3). This mark allows the erector to identify
the product and to place it correctly in the structure in accordance with the Joist
Placement Plans. Some joists are not symmetrical, consequently it is imperative
that the “Tag End” of a joist be placed as indicated on the Joist Placement Plans.

Figure 3.1 Joist Information Shown on Metal Tag

The handling of joist products begins in the joist plant immediately after the joists have
been manufactured. Depending on size and length, several joists or Joist Girders
are bundled together with metal strapping and a paper or plastic tag listing the mark
numbers contained in the bundle is usually attached to the bundle. They are painted,
when required, and moved to a covered location where they are allowed to air dry. The

9
standard shop paint is intended to protect the steel for only a short period of exposure
in ordinary atmospheric conditions and shall be considered an impermanent and
provisional coating.

When a delivery date has been set, the joist products are loaded onto flat bed trailers.
The joist bundles are chained or strapped down to the trailer once the trailer has been
loaded. Joist products are usually shipped upside down. This provides greater stability to
the bundles since the top chord is usually a heavier member than the bottom chord; and,
in the more common underslung condition, the top chord extends the entire length of the
joist or Joist Girder, while the bottom chord is shorter in length. Also, the lowest possible
center of gravity is achieved when the joist products are loaded in this manner.

There are occasions when the joists may be shipped in a “top chord up” fashion or
bundled “one up/ one down”. These cases may be necessary due to job site or shipping
considerations.

LOADING AND SHIPPING

Since the vast majority of joists are shipped by truck, attention will be concentrated on this
means of delivery. Most shipments are made by trucks pulling flat bed trailers. However,
some shipments, particularly LTL (less than truck load) loads, are loaded onto closed-
sided trailers.

Flat Bed Trailer - Shipment of joist products on flat bed trailers is by far the most common
form of conveyance. A few of the obvious reasons are:

• Loading and unloading is much simpler than by any other means of shipment.
• Far greater flexibility of loading is possible in regards to the bulk, length, weight and
height of the shipment.
• Delivery is made directly to the job site.
• Timing of job site arrival can be estimated with reasonable accuracy.

During the loading operation, the joist bundles are placed on the bed of the trailer, usually
filling out the complete width of the bed. Spacers (normally wooden slats called dunnage)
are usually placed on top of each layer of joists, perpendicular to their length. Additional
bundles are then placed on top of the spacers until the load is complete. When the loading
operation is complete, the entire load is chained (or strapped) down to prevent shifting or
overturning (see Figure 3.2).

Closed Trailer - The loading of joists onto closed trailers can be difficult, since the loading
crane cannot simply lower the joists in place. Instead, the crane must balance the joist

10
bundles on the end of the trailer bed, then “slide” them to the interior, hopefully without
gouging the trailer bed too badly or damaging the joists. With a small number of short,
light joists, this does not present a major problem. However, the loading of a full shipment
of joists in a closed trailer is strongly discouraged.

Open Top Trailer - Also known as “Rag Tops”, these trailers also lend themselves to
the loading of joists for LTL shipments since the lifting crane can simply lower the joist
bundles into place once the tarpaulin top has been rolled back. For shipping fuller loads,
difficulties regarding the positioning of bundles, the removing of lifting cables or slings,
and the danger to the personnel inside the trailer body, are all present.

Figure 3.2 Loaded Delivery Truck with Joists in

Upside Down Position

11
 4
Chapter 4
RECEIVING, UNLOADING
AND STORING

GENERAL

The handling of joist products must be accomplished with care and expertise, and with
the aid of proper equipment.

It is impossible to list every occurrence and type of improper handling of joist products
(such as pulling joists off the back of a trailer or shoving them off the side of a truck).
Suffice it to say that care must be exercised in any type of handling procedure regarding
joist products.

Joists and Joist Girders are not monolithic products; they are not like a rolled or extruded
structural shape, such as a beam, channel, angle or solid round. Joists and Joist Girders
are manufactured products, comprised of various components that have been cut, bent,
and shaped in such a manner that when the pieces are assembled and connected to
one another the final product is created. Unlike solid structural members, joist products
have spaces, separations and openings between their various parts. Because of this,
joist products are more susceptible to damage and it is important that they be handled
with care.

RECEIVING

Delivery of joist products to job sites by trucks pulling flatbed trailers is the most common
method (see Figure 4.1). Chains or straps are used to secure the entire load to the trailer.
The chains or straps prevent the load from falling off the side of the trailer and prevent the
load from shifting during transit.

The following three procedures should be considered mandatory regardless of the method
of conveyance of the joist products from the manufacturer to the job site.

1) Inspection of the load for indicators of possible instability such as shifted product or
broken banding.
2) Inspection of the joist products for evidence of physical damage.

12
 3) Verification of items being delivered by comparison with the piece count and
description on the Delivery Ticket or Bill of Lading.

When a truck arrives, the load should be inspected before releasing the chains or straps
that are securing the load. Bundles may have shifted in transit and could be in danger of
falling off the truck or the banding straps may be broken causing the bundle to separate or
“de-nest”. Such de-nesting can produce a dangerous situation. If these or other signs of
instability are present, steps must be taken to assure that joist products will not fall when
the chains or straps are released. Once the stability of the load is confirmed, the chains
or straps may be released and the unloading process can proceed.

Figure 4.1 Loaded Truck Arriving at Jobsite for Unloading

A general inspection for any damage to the joist products is quite simple at the time of
receipt and it is critical that someone check the shipment for damage. The receiving party
should look for any permanent bend or deformation in the chords, web members or end
bearing seats. Broken welds, displaced or bent web members, or any other deficiency or
damage should be noted on the receiving documents and reported to job site supervision.
The manufacturer will not be responsible for damage to the product unless a notation
is made on the delivery documents. The manufacturer should be notified immediately if
damaged material is detected.

A piece count also should be made of all joists, Joist Girders and accessories at the time
of receipt. Such count should be checked against the delivery documents to ensure that

13
all items have been included in the shipment. A piece count is neither difficult nor time-
consuming and is invaluable in preventing job delays later on in the event that some material
is missing. As in the case of damage, unless notation is made on the delivery documents, the
manufacturer will not be responsible for claims of missing material. Diligence in this process
will assure that all of the joist products and accessories listed on the delivery documents
have arrived at the job site in good condition.

UNLOADING

Joist products are typically unloaded by either crane or forklift. Whenever possible, joist
products should be unloaded by bundles. Care must be exercised to ensure that the
removal of any given bundle does not cause another bundle to fall. The entire top layer
of joist products should be unloaded first, beginning with the outer bundles. Subsequent
layers should be unloaded the same way.

Bundles should be lifted off the truck and placed down gently. They should never be
dropped. If, in the process of receiving or unloading, it is determined that any of the joist
products arrived in a damaged condition, a notation should be clearly entered on the
delivery documents and the manufacturer should be notified so that the damage can be
repaired or the product replaced as quickly as possible.

Bundles should never be lifted by their strapping. The banding material is not designed
to carry the bundle’s weight. A banding strap may hold initially, but it can break without
warning, seriously injuring workers, damaging equipment or the joist products. Sorting
hooks should never be used for unloading or erecting joist products.

UNLOADING WITH A CRANE

Care must be taken to ensure that the capacity of the unloading crane is not exceeded.
The preferred rigging method is to use two chokers configured in a basket hitch and two-
way spreaders (see Figure 4.2). Cables or chokers should be run through the inside of the
inverted V shape in the web system, taking care not to damage the chords or webs. The
attachments should be equally spaced from each end and should be made to the chords
of the joists at or near panel points. When lifting points are being located, it is important to
remember that the bottom chord is often “up”, because many joist products are loaded for
delivery upside down to lower the bundle’s center of gravity. In this way damage to any of
the joists or Joist Girders is reduced and the load is more stable for shipping.

14
 Figure 4.2 Lifting with a Crane Using Two Chokers Configured
in a Basket Hitch and Two-way Spreaders

The use of spreader cables is preferred because it provides a “two-point” attachment,

thereby producing a stable load. A “one-point” attachment to the bundle is less desirable
because it requires precise location of the balance point and if the hoisting cable slips the
load will tilt and become unstable.

Care must be taken to not rig joist products for hoisting in any manner that may damage
chord or web members. Damage to the chords or webs can produce twisting and distortion
and may affect load carrying capacity. Any damage that occurs should immediately be
brought to the attention of supervisory personnel. Crane operators must meet current
OSHA requirements for training and certification (see OSHA 1910.180(b) General
requirements.).

UNLOADING WITH A FORK TRUCK

When joist bundles are unloaded using a fork truck (see Figures 4.3 and 4.4), care must
be taken to ensure that the capacity of the lift is not exceeded. The fork truck operator must
be sure to adjust the spacing of the forks to prevent damage to chord or web members.
The operator must be sure that the load is balanced. Figure 4.5 shows a load that is
NOT properly balanced. The operator in this situation should lower the bundle and adjust
the fork location so as to produce a balanced load. Care must also be taken to ensure
that the forks do not damage the joists. Figure 4.6 shows a lift where one of the forks is
“wedged” between two web members. This lifting technique may be helpful in preventing
the bundle from shifting but the webs could be damaged. Figure 4.7 shows better fork
placement. All safety and procedural issues covered in the crane section apply equally

15
well to fork trucks. Forklift operators must meet current OSHA requirements for training
and certification (see OSHA 1910.178(l)(1) Safe operation.).

Figure 4.3 Unloading a Bundle of Joist Girders with a

Fork-type Lift Typically Available on Construction Sites

Figure 4.4 Storing a Bundle of Joist Girders with a

Fork Type Lift on Proper Timbers

16
 Figure 4.5 Improper Joist Handling – Load is Not
Balanced on the Forks

Figure 4.6 Improper Joist Handling – Fork on the Left is Wedged

Between Two Web Members and Could Damage the Webs

17
 Figure 4.7 Proper Joist Handling - Forks Have Solid
Contact with the Joist Chords and Do Not Put Unnecessary
Pressure on the Web Members

ADDITIONAL UNLOADING CONSIDERATIONS

Many factors can complicate unloading activities and procedures. Poor site conditions, lack
of access to unloading zones, inadequate product lay-down areas, equipment problems,
special joist product dimensions and shipping configuration for non-standard products
are examples of the kinds of issues that may require extra attention. Proper planning for
these and similar conditions is critical to a smooth and safe unloading process. It is not
possible to discuss every conceivable condition or situation that may arise, but several of
the more common issues are addressed below.

Bundle is too heavy – If the equipment available to unload the joist products is not of
sufficient capacity to safely lift the bundle, it may be necessary to break the bundle on
the truck. Personnel conducting the unloading operation must exercise extreme caution
in this situation to ensure that the bundle to be broken, as well as the rest of the load,
remains secure as the individual pieces are removed from the bundle and unloaded.

Long and slender joists – A standard Deep Longspan joist may be 144 feet long. Once the
joists are installed and braced, they have great strength. However, handled singly they can
be very flexible and unpredictable. Determination of lifting points and rigging techniques by
a qualified person is critically important for such products. The erector must be aware of the

18
possibility that the joist could “fold-up” under its own weight if not lifted and handled properly.

Joists are loaded flat – It is not unusual for non-standard joist products to be specified at
depths that can not be loaded and transported in a vertical position. The alternative is for the
joists to be loaded and shipped in the horizontal or flat position. Unloading personnel must
be aware that the joists are particularly vulnerable to damage in this position and should
be rotated to a vertical position for handling as soon as practical in the unloading process.

Joists are loaded right side up – Much has been said about joist products being loaded
and shipped upside down. There are occasions when safety and efficiency considerations
make it better to load and ship joists right side up. The unloading crew should be aware
of this and not turn these joists over prior to storing or erection.

Standard bridging bundle weight – Joist manufacturers supply bridging in bundles

shipped to the job site. The maximum weight of these bundles as required by the OSHA
Regulations cannot exceed 1000 pounds (454 kg). The compact nature of bridging
bundles makes it easy to underestimate the weight of the bundles. Lifting equipment
operators should be aware of this requirement as an aid to safe lifting and handling.

JOB SITE STORAGE OF JOIST PRODUCTS

Joist products should be stored in a location that is removed from job site traffic routes.
Joists and accessories should be set on proper timbers so that they are free from contact
with the ground. For the first layer, place the timbers under panel points at equal distances
from the ends. Turning the tags in the same direction will aid in identifying members
and make sorting easier. When joist bundles are stacked, timbers should be placed
approximately at panel points and in line with the previously placed timbers below. Note
however, it is preferable to not stack joists unless space is limited. It is also advisable to
limit the height of the stack to assure stability.

Joists should be stored in the same position in which they are shipped. Joists that are
shipped vertically should be stored vertically and joists that are shipped flat should be
stored flat. When joists are stored horizontally, the chords are more apt to be damaged,
and sweep or distortion of the joists is more likely to occur. Additional timbers may be
required on the ground and between the joists to help prevent this damage. If banding
straps have been broken or stretched and the joists have become de-nested, the joists
should be re-secured to prevent damage.

Joist products are supplied with a shop coat of paint, when specified, that complies with
the Steel Joist Institute’s Standard Specifications Load Tables & Weight Tables. The typical
shop applied paint that is used to coat steel joists and Joist Girders is a dip applied, air
dried paint. The paint is intended to be an impermanent and provisional coating which will

19
protect the steel for only a short period of exposure in ordinary atmospheric conditions.
In some cases joist products are supplied unpainted. Standard shop practice is to supply
Composite Steel Joists unpainted as paint may potentially hinder the installation of field
welded shear studs to the joist top chord. The length of time any joist product is exposed
to the weather while being stored at the jobsite should be limited, whether or not the joist
products are shop painted.

20
 5
Chapter 5
ERECTING JOIST PRODUCTS

The Steel Joist Institute publishes standards on various products. Because handling and
erection requirements differ from one product to another, these products will be considered
separately. It bears repeating that each of the Steel Joist Institute’s standard products
is an open web truss, designed in accordance with the appropriate specifications, and
manufactured by joining various component members into the proper configuration; in
short, pieces put together to create a product. Because of this, these products must be
handled with greater care than a rolled structural shape such as a beam or channel.
Another common characteristic of all of these joist products is that, until they are correctly
and completely installed they are inherently unstable. Complete installation includes
attachment of joist products to supporting structural elements and the installation and
anchorage of all required bridging or other bracing.

JOIST GIRDERS

Joist Girders are primary structural members that are normally supported by columns;
they can, however, bear on steel plates on masonry or concrete supports. They can be
underslung and rest on the top or side of the columns or be square-ended and frame into
the columns. On the Joist Placement Plans, Joist Girders are given a mark number for
erection placement purposes and that same corresponding number will be found on the
tag attached to the girder itself.

Joist Girders, unless otherwise specified, are cambered in accordance with the chart
shown in Chapter 9 Miscellaneous Topics - Camber. The top chord can be either parallel
with the bottom chord; single pitched, or double pitched. In many instances Joist Girders
are not loaded symmetrically; consequently, it is imperative that the “Tag End” of a Joist
Girder be placed as indicated on the Joist Placement Plans. Often, when Joist Girders
are very long (e.g. >100 feet), they may be shipped in two or more pieces and assembled
at the job site. When this occurs, the mates must be properly matched as marked from
the joist manufacturer; otherwise the pieces will not fit correctly. As with all joist products,
Joist Girders usually come bundled upside down. They should be stored properly, kept off
the ground and protected from the elements.

21
Joist Girders must be erected singly. They are to be properly hoisted with attachments
placed at top chord panel points. Both ends of the Joist Girders are to be attached to
supports immediately after the girders are set. Since Joist Girders are not bridged, they
are normally prevented from overturning by means of a vertical stabilizer plate at the
bottom chord (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(1) and Appendix D, Section 1004.5). These plates
“knife in” between the bottom chord angles that are spaced apart (see Figure 5.1). A
stabilizer plate is required to be provided on each column. The stabilizer plate must be
a minimum of 6 inches by 6 inches and must extend at least 3 inches below the bottom
chord of the Joist Girder. If a stabilizer plate cannot be used because of an interference
or other constructability issue, some other means of laterally stabilizing the girder must
be provided (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(2)). Do not weld the Joist Girder bottom chord to the
stabilizer plate unless called for on the joist placement plans or in the contract documents.
Any final connection of the bottom chord to the column should be in accordance with
instructions from the Specifying Professional.

Figure 5.1 Joist Girder Bearing on Column

with Vertical Stabilizer Plate

Joist Girders must bear a minimum of 4 inches on steel supports and a minimum of 6
inches on steel plates supported by masonry or concrete, (see Appendix D, Section
1004.4). The minimum end anchorage must be either two 1/4 inch fillet welds 2 inches
long, or two 3/4 inch diameter bolts (see Appendix D, Section 1004.6). The Joist
Placement Plans and the project structural drawings should be checked for specific
details or requirements.

When Joist Girders are used to provide lateral stability to the supporting member, the final
connection shall be made by welding or as designated by the Specifying Professional.

22
Particular attention must be paid to the setting of square ended Joist Girders right side up.
In most cases, the first diagonal web member from the support end of the girder runs from
the top chord at the point of support down to the bottom chord (see Figure 5.2). If doubt
remains as to the proper orientation of the Joist Girder, the Joist Placement Plans should
be checked and/or the joist supplier should be contacted.

Joist Girders directly support the steel joists which bear on them. Typically, joists are
placed at top chord panel points of the Joist Girder. It is important that the joist spacing
be checked prior to placing the joists on the Joist Girder. This can be accomplished by
taping “in the air” or by marking the Joist Girder on the ground. It is usually safer and more
efficient to measure on the ground. When placing joists on a Joist Girder, the Erector
should set them with care so that the girder is neither laterally displaced nor forced out of
plumb. The joists should be attached to the girder as they are set. Since Joist Girders are
not “bridged” as are joists, some bracing is normally required for the bottom chord (the
top chord of the girder is braced by the attachment of the joists bearing on them). The
Joist Placement Plans will indicate the location of the bracing, commonly referred to as
“loose struts” or a “BCB” (Bottom Chord Brace), that will be separate pieces of material
(furnished by the joist supplier) to be attached either by bolting or field welding from the
bottom chord of the joist to the bottom chord of the Joist Girder. Additional bracing near
the first bottom chord panel points of the girder may be required (see Appendix D, Section
1004.9). No loads are to be placed on the Joist Girder until the joists are in place and
attached to the girder (see Appendix D, Section 1004.5). When construction loads are
then placed either on the joists or the girder, such loading must not exceed the capacity
of these products (see Appendix D, Section 1005).

Figure 5.2 Proper Orientation of Square-ended Joist Girder

When a Joist Girder is being removed from a bundle, care should be taken to assure
that the remaining girders in the bundle are still secure and stable. Hook the cable at the
midpoint of the bottom of the girder to remove it from the bundle. The preferred method

23
to turn a girder over is to lift it by the bottom chord, lay it horizontally on timbers, unhook
and then re-hook to the top chord for hoisting to the Connectors. Make sure the mark
number on the tag is checked before sending it to the Connectors. Also, check the Joist
Placement Plans if you’re not sure of the proper orientation of the girder. It is necessary to
make sure that the structure is stable prior to the start of Joist Girder erection (see OSHA
1926.757(a)(5)). Careful attention to these details will make it much easier to erect the
Joist Girders and maintain proper bay spacing.

Typically, Joist Girders are connected to columns. The first girder can be erected with
Connectors working from man lifts or ladders (see Figure 5.3) although OSHA does permit
Connectors to work directly from the structure when they will be 30 ft. or less above a
lower level (see OSHA 1926.760). Each erection company must determine what type of
fall protection to use for a given project in accordance with current OSHA regulations.
Some companies rely heavily on man lifts while others prefer to use lanyards and lifelines.
Always make sure the identification tag end on the Joist Girder is properly oriented before
making the connection. As each girder is lowered into place, one Connector makes the
first end. Then, the other Connector makes the other end. Only after the seat at each end
is attached, and each end of the bottom chord is restrained by the column stabilizer plate
may the hoisting lines be released (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(1)).

Figure 5.3 Single Point Lift of Joist Girder Being Set

on Two Columns; Bottom Chord “Knifed-in” Between
Stabilizer Plates Attached to Columns

24
COLUMN JOISTS

Joists located at or near column lines are referred to as OSHA Column Joists, tie joists, strut
joists or “OC” joists. The current OSHA safety standard requires that, where columns are
not framed in at least two directions with solid structural steel members, joists at column
lines shall be field bolted and the joist bottom chords must be restrained by a vertical
stabilizer plate (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(1)). The bearing seats of Column Joists will always
be provided with slotted holes so that the bolts can be inserted at the time of joist placement.
Where constructability does not allow a steel joist to be installed directly at the column, the
OSHA safety standard states that an alternate means of stabilizing the tie joists shall be
installed on both sides near the column (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(2)).

It is important that the bay spacing be checked prior to erecting the Column Joists. This can
be accomplished by taping “in the air” or by verifying the Column-to-Column dimension on
the ground. It is usually safer and more efficient to measure on the ground.

The effective date of the current OSHA Safety Standards for Steel Erection, 29 CFR
Part 1926 is July 18, 2001. That standard contains Column Joist requirements in
1926.757(a)(3) Where steel joists at or near columns span 60 feet (18.3 m) or less,
the joist shall be designed with sufficient strength to allow one employee to release the
hoisting cable without the need for erection bridging. On March 22, 2002, an “Inspection
policy and procedures for OSHA’s steel erection standards for construction” was issued
and subsequent to that, on July 18, 2003 an OSHA Notice “Extension of enforcement
policy on column joists” was issued. The effective date of that enforcement policy was
originally extended to July 18, 2004, or until a new directive was to be issued. OSHA
has now extended this policy indefinitely. The policy is as follows: “for all joists at or near
columns that span 60 feet or less, employers will be considered to be in compliance with
1926.757(a)(3) if they erect these joists either by: (1) installing bridging or otherwise
stabilizing the joist prior to releasing the hoisting cable, or (2) releasing the cable without
having a worker on the joists.”

The SJI has conducted extensive research to develop design methods in an effort to
meet the original OSHA provision for Column Joists (Emerson 2001 and Ziemian et al
2004). The research was to produce design procedures for SJI member companies to
use in the design of Column Joists. In attempting to develop the design procedures,
it was necessary to make assumptions regarding field conditions that could affect the
strength of Column Joists. After careful consideration of the wide range of variability in
field conditions, the SJI member companies determined that for some joist lengths there
are no existing joist designs that would provide the necessary stability (even with the
stabilizer plate). Therefore, OSHA not withstanding, the SJI can not recommend that
employees ever be allowed on unbridged Column or tie joists. SJI member companies
use the DANGER TAG shown in Figure 5.4 to warn the erection companies not to allow
employees on Column Joists that have this tag.

25
 Figure 5.4 Typical Danger Tag Attached to Every
Column Joist by the Joist Manufacturer

If the Column or tie joist spans more than 60 feet it needs to be set in tandem with an
adjacent joist with all bridging installed unless an alternative method of erection is used
that provides the same stability. This alternative method needs to have been designed
by a qualified person and be included in a site-specific erection plan (see OSHA
1926.752(e)). A site-specific erection plan allows the employer to develop alternative
means and methods that provide employee protection equivalent to the provisions of
the federal regulations (see OSHA 1926.752(e), 1926.753(c)(5), 1926.757(a)(4) and
1926.757(e)(4)).

SHORT SPAN JOISTS – K-SERIES AND KCS

Prior to erection, the joists should have been stacked in bundles, possibly upside down,
at the job site as described in Chapter 4. The bundles should be placed so that the joist
tags discussed in Chapter 3 are accessible to the Erector. When the Erector begins the
process of placing joist products on the structure, there are several initial safety factors to
remember. Proper handling and rigging techniques must be used as previously discussed
in Chapter 4. This includes never lifting joist bundles by their strapping and never lifting

26
joists by their webs. Always keep hands and fingers away from pinch points. Remember,
joist products are often shipped and stored upside down. If this is the case, they must be
turned “right side up” to erect.

The issue of erection stability is critically important for these products. The type and
quantity of bridging required to maintain stability during erection is defined in the Steel
Joist Institute’s Standard Load Tables. In the body of the K-Series Load Table, RED
shading is used to indicate Erection Bridging requirements as a function of span and
product designation (e.g. 26K8). Erection Bridging is defined in the OSHA safety standard
as “the bolted diagonal bridging that is required to be installed prior to releasing the
hoisting cables from the steel joists” (see OSHA 1926.751). The preamble to the Load
Table states that “where the joist span exceeds the unshaded area of the load table, the
row of bridging nearest the mid-span shall be diagonal bridging with bolted connections at
the chords and intersections.” Each K-Series joist must be placed in accordance with the
Joist Placement Plans and held with the hoisting equipment until both sides of the bearing
seat on one end of the joist can be attached and the required bolted diagonal erection
bridging is installed. The bridging row(s) must be anchored to prevent lateral movement
of the joist (see Appendix B, Section 6). The final attachment of the joist ends can then
be made by either bolting or welding to the support structure as shown on the contract
structural drawings.

In bays where Erection Bridging is not required, it may be permissible to land the joists
in bundles. Before this can be done, joists must be sorted out on the ground and proper
numbers placed in bundles for erection. Be careful when cutting the straps. Keep hands
and feet clear. Joists may move and sometimes fall over when the straps are cut. Typically,
four to six joists will be hoisted in a bundle, depending on the actual number required in
the bay. Make sure all of the tags are turned in the proper direction as joists are not always
symmetrical. Check that the ends are even and all the joists are in proper sequence to
be spread out on the building. Refer to the Joist Placement Plans for proper joist spacing
and length of bearing.

The spacing of joists in bays must be marked on supporting beams or Joist Girders. This
is typically done after members are erected, but with proper planning can be done on the
ground. The final locations must be in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans.

When erecting joists in bundles, Connectors should land the bundle on the supporting
structure as close as possible to the center of the bay (see Figure 5.5). Check for proper
bearing at each end before releasing the hoisting cables. When releasing the cables, be
sure to hold them until they clear the bundle or the crane operator swings the boom away
from the bundle so that they don’t hang up. After the cables are released, make sure all
the joist ends are sitting flat on their supports. If necessary, use a spud wrench to shift
the joists into the flat position. If the joists are not to be spread and attached promptly, the

27
bundle should be re-secured to prevent unintentional movement to keep them from falling
(see OSHA 1926.757(a)(6)).

Figure 5.5 Landing a Bundle of Joists Near the Center of a Bay

In the case where all of the joists in a bundle are the same length and are to be placed
in the building next to one another, the bundle may be lifted and set in place on the
building. A joist bundle should never be lifted by the strapping. If the bundle has been
stored upside down it must be turned right side up (with care) on the ground before lifting
for placement on the building. In order for this method to be utilized, the following three
conditions must apply:

1) All of the joists in the bundle are turned the same way - that is, they are not bundled
one up, one down, etc.
2) All of the joists are the same length.
3) None of the joists are staggered lengthwise in the bundle.

If the joists are being erected in bundles, the bundling straps can be broken after the
bundle has been placed on the supporting structure, prior to release of the hoisting cables.

If the above three conditions do not apply, the joist bundles must first be turned right side
up (if stored upside down), then broken open on the ground, with care being taken not to
damage the joists as the bundling straps are broken. The joists can then be lifted onto the
building individually by attachment of hooks or cables to the top chord, at top chord panel

28
points, and placed in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans. In certain situations
it may be advantageous for joists to be rebundled and hoisted as a group. Remember,
each joist has a metal, embossed tag that carries the erection mark number, the contract
number and the name of the joist manufacturer; the mark number on the joist tag needs
to be matched with the mark number on the Joist Placement Plans for proper placement.
In those instances where a joist is not symmetrical, the Joist Placement Plans will indicate
where the “Tag End” of the joist is to be placed. The “Tag End” is that end of the joist to
which the metal tag is attached.

If the joist end bears on a concrete or masonry support, it must rest on a steel bearing
plate, anchored to the masonry unit, for a minimum distance of 4 inches. If the joist
end is resting on a steel support, it must bear a minimum of 2 1/2 inches (see
Appendix B, Section 5.3). The Joist Placement Plans should be checked for specific end
bearing details.

Immediately after each subsequent joist is set in its proper position, both sides of the joist
bearing seat at one end of the joist must be attached (see Figure 5.6). This is one of the
most important safety procedures that can be practiced in the erection of joists. This initial
attachment provides additional stability to the joist, thus making it safer for the Erector to
complete the joist installation (see OSHA 1926.757(b)(3)).

Ironworkers on each end should work closely together when spreading joists. This is
typically accomplished by sliding individual joists to their final marked location. Great care
should be taken to maintain equal bearing at the ends. When the joists are in the correct
location, both sides of one end should be attached as soon as possible. Attachment of the
K-Series joist to a Joist Girder or other structural member may be made by either bolting
or welding in accordance with current SJI Specifications (see Appendix B, Section 5.6)
and the OSHA safety standard (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(8) and (b)(1)).

When K-Series joists are used to provide lateral stability to the supporting member, the
final connection shall be made by welding or as designated by the Specifying Professional.

Some Erectors may choose to string, “Christmas Tree” or employ multiple lift rigging of
several individual joists. Whenever this type of joist erection is implemented, a qualified
person should do the rigging and sound practices should always be followed. This method
should not be used to hoist multiple bundles of joists.

Bridging is a critical component of the steel joist system. Its purpose is to brace the joists
against lateral movement during erection and placing of construction loads. For bridging to
function properly, it must be anchored. This can be accomplished by securing the bridging
to a fixed object such as a wall, steel beam or other stable portion of the structure. OSHA
refers to this anchorage point as a bridging terminus point (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(10)).

29
Depending on the type and length of the specified joists, two conditions must be met
before the hoisting cables may be released or any Erectors are allowed out on the joists:

1) Required Erection Bridging must be installed; and

2) Both sides of at least one end of the joist must be attached to the supporting structure
(see Figure 5.6).

On steel joists that do not require erection bridging as shown by the unshaded area of the
Load Table, only one employee shall be allowed on the steel joists unless all bridging is
installed and anchored.

Figure 5.6 Joist Seat Attachment to Support Structure at Least at One End
on Both Sides of the Seat Immediately Upon Final Placement

The Erection Bridging may be installed from a man lift. For the specific requirements
of the joists being erected, consult the Joist Placement Plans and the SJI K-Series
Specifications. Sometimes, center X-type bridging is bolted to the joists on the ground.
This may be more easily accomplished by laying the joist down horizontally, attaching
the X-Type bridging to the joist and then placing a bolt through the bridging at their
intersection. Then the joist can be erected. As the crane stabilizes the joist, an Ironworker
attaches the loose end of the bridging to the previously erected joist already up on the
structure. This may be done by standing on a walk-board bearing on the bottom chords
of previously erected and bridged joists.

30
The joist nearest the end of the building should be bridged first, with the ends of the
bridging rows being properly anchored. Installation should start at one end of the joist
and progress to the other end of the joist. The joist should be straightened laterally and
aligned vertically by the Erectors as the bridging rows are being installed. Once the joist
is straight, the bridging should be welded or bolted. The far ends of the bridging rows
should also be anchored.

With respect to horizontal bridging, the amount furnished allows for a minimum lap length
of 2 inches to 4 inches, plus an additional percentage more; drops of 3 feet or more
should always be used. For X-type bridging, the exact numbers of pieces are furnished,
designated with mark numbers which correspond to these same numbers shown on the
Joist Placement Plans.

In certain design applications, the joists are designed to bear on the bottom chord. This
produces a “top heavy” condition. Therefore, they must be braced with an additional row
of X-type bridging at or near the bearing support as they are being erected as shown in
Figure 5.7.

Before going out on any joist, be sure that at least one end is attached on both sides and
required Erection Bridging has been installed and anchored. Going out on unsecured
joists is unsafe. Finally, attach the other end of the joist by welding or bolting both sides.

Figure 5.7 Required X-type Bridging at Support for Bottom Bearing Joists

31
If joists don’t fit or there is an interference with other materials, do not cut or alter the
joists. Written permission and instructions from the joist manufacturer and the Engineer
of Record must be obtained prior to making any necessary field modifications to the joist
products (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(7)).

LONGSPAN AND DEEP LONGSPAN JOISTS – LH- AND DLH-SERIES

As with K-Series and KCS Joists, Longspan (LH-Series) and Deep Longspan (DLH-
Series) Joists are usually delivered upside down and strapped in bundles. Each joist has
a metal embossed tag which carries the contract number, the erection mark number,
and the manufacturer’s name. The joists should be stored properly off the ground and
protected from the elements as described in Chapter 4.

Once again, the issue of Erection Bridging is very important. In the body of the LH- and
DLH-Series Load Tables, shading is used to indicate Erection Bridging requirements as
a function of span and product designation (e.g. 32LH06). Erection Bridging is the bolted
diagonal bridging that is required to be installed prior to releasing the hoisting cables. The
load table shading is RED, BLUE or GRAY. RED shading indicates a single row nearest
mid-span, BLUE shading indicates two rows nearest the third points for spans of 60 feet
or more, but less than 100 feet, and GRAY shading indicates all rows for spans of 100 feet
through 144 feet. Each joist must be placed in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans
and held with the hoisting equipment until both sides of the bearing seat on one end of the
joist can be attached and the required bolted diagonal erection bridging is installed. The
bridging row(s) must be anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist (see Appendix
C, Section 105). The final attachment of the joist ends can then be made by either bolting
or welding to the support structure as shown on the contract structural drawings.

A quite common and effective practice of erection, when bolted diagonal bridging is used,
is for two or more joists to be bridged on the ground, and then hoisted onto the building
(using hooks and/or cables at top chord panel points) as a unit (see Figure 5.8). Once on
the structure, the joists are set and spaced correctly, both sides of the seat on one end
attached, then straightened laterally and aligned vertically as the bolted diagonal bridging
is tightened.

Another common practice is to erect the joists singly with the bolted bridging loosely
attached to one side of the joist. Once the first joist is properly set and attached, the next
joist is hoisted onto the building with bolted diagonal bridging loosely attached to one
side of it. When the second joist has been properly set and attached to its support, the
bridging from the previous joist is connected to it (see Figure 5.9). This procedure should
be continued to the end of the joist run. Once the entire run is set and straightened, the
bridging bolts need to be tightened.

32
 Figure 5.8 Tandem Joists with X -type Bridging Being Hoisted Together

Figure 5.9 Single Joist Being Hoisted with Loose X -type Bridging Attached

33
In regards to the setting of Longspan and Deep Longspan Joists, greater attention to
correct placement must be exercised than in the case of Shortspan Joists (K-Series and
KCS Joists) because:

• There is more likelihood that these joists are not symmetrical; and
• The X-type bridging rows are fixed. When the joists are not symmetrical, the Joist
Placement Plans will indicate where the “Tag End” of the joist is to be placed.

Longspan and Deep Longspan Joists bearing on concrete or masonry supports in the
building must bear on steel plates, anchored to the masonry unit for a minimum distance of
6 inches (unless special conditions exist); if resting on steel supports, a minimum bearing
length of 4 inches is required (see Appendix C, Section 104.4). The Joist Placement Plans
and the project structural drawings should be checked for specific details.

Under no circumstances are construction loads of any description to be placed on

unbridged joists. In addition, Erectors are cautioned that many joists are laterally unstable
until properly bridged. Extreme care should be exercised until the joists are properly
bridged and the bridging and the joists are properly anchored.

As with Shortspan Joists (K-Series and KCS Joists), both sides of the Longspan or Deep
Longspan Joist bearing seat on one end of the joist must be attached as soon as possible
after the joist is in the correct location on the structure (see Figure 5.6). This is one of the
most important procedures in the erection of joists. It provides greater stability to the joist
and prevents the joist from being accidentally bumped or blown off the building.

When LH- or DLH-Series joist are used to provide lateral stability to the supporting
member, the final connection shall be made by welding or as designated by the Specifying
Professional.

The joists should be completely bridged immediately after final placement and end
attachment is completed in accordance with OSHA and SJI requirements. The Joist
Placement Plans indicate the number of rows of bridging required. For bolted diagonal
bridging, the location of the bridging rows is usually fixed by the bridging clips that are
welded to the joists.

For Longspan and Deep Longspan Joists, bridging is specified as follows (see Appendix
C, Section 104.5):

For spans up through 60 feet (18288 mm), welded horizontal bridging may be used
except where the row of bridging nearest the mid-span is required to be bolted diagonal
bridging as indicated by the RED SHADED area in the Load Table. For spans over 60 feet

34
(18288 mm) bolted diagonal bridging shall be used as indicated by the BLUE and GRAY
SHADED areas of the Load Table.

Hoisting cables shall not be released until the following bolted diagonal bridging is
properly installed:

Span Bolted Diagonal Bridging

33 feet up through 60 feet
Over 60 feet up through 100 feet
Over 100 feet
(see Appendix C, Section 105)
As indicated by RED shading in the Load Table;
One row nearest mid-span
As indicated by BLUE shading in the Load Table;
Two lines nearest the third points
As indicated by GRAY shading in the Load Table;
All lines

The joist nearest the end of the building should be bridged first, with the ends of the
bridging rows being properly anchored. Installation should start at one end of the joist
and progress to the other end of the joist. The joist should be straightened laterally and
aligned vertically by the Erectors as the bridging rows are being installed. Once the joist is
straight, the bridging should be welded or bolted. The far ends of the bridging rows should
also be anchored.

With respect to horizontal bridging, the amount furnished allows for a minimum lap length
of 2 inches to 4 inches, plus an additional percentage more; drops of 3 feet or more
should always be used.

For X-type bridging, the exact numbers of pieces are furnished, designated with mark
numbers which correspond to these same numbers shown on the Joist Placement Plans.
Each bridging connection to the joist must be able to resist the horizontal bracing force
shown in Appendix C, Section 104.5, Table 104.5-1. Where two attachment points to the
joist are utilized, each attachment must be able to resist one-half of the bracing force
given in the table.

After the bridging is installed, the final connections are made on the joist seats. These
shall be a minimum of two 1/4 inch fillet welds 2 inches long, or two 3/4 inch diameter
bolts or equivalent (see OSHA 1926.757(b)(2)).

Bottom bearing joists must be erected right side up in order to perform properly. The first
diagonal web member at the support usually runs from the top chord down to the bottom
chord as shown in Figure 5.10. Also, the camber in the joist will “bow up” the center
of the joist (see Figure 5.10). If there is any doubt regarding which is the top and bottom
of the joist, the Joist Placement Plans should be checked and/or the joist supplier should
be contacted.

35
 Figure 5.10 Profile View of Bottom Bearing Joist with Camber

For bottom bearing joists, the hoisting cables shall not be released until the ends are
restrained laterally and the bridging is installed (see Appendix C, Section 105). Normally
a row of diagonal bridging at the ends of the joists is specified in order to provide stability.
Where a bottom bearing joist is extended beyond its support to form a cantilevered end, a
row of diagonal bridging near the support should first be installed. In addition, the project
structural drawings may indicate a row of diagonal bridging in the cantilevered portion to
provide stability. Care should be exercised in installing this bridging since the cantilever
is supported at only one end.

If the joists have bottom chords extended over and connected to a column, beam, wall, or
other structure, the connection should be made in accordance with the project structural
drawings and/or instructions from the Specifying Professional.

When uplift forces are a design consideration, a row of bottom chord bridging is required
near each end of the joists (see Appendix C, Section 104.12).

Longspan and Deep Longspan Joists, LH- and DLH-Series may have a single sloped or a
double sloped top chord. In the case of a single sloped top chord, the Erector must be sure
to set the joist “right-end-to” (the Joist Placement Plans will show where the “Tag End” is
to be placed) and to place the bridging pieces in the correct location for easy erection. All
field-welding of the joists and bridging must be done with considerable care. In general, the
component members of the joists and, in particular the bridging pieces are relatively thin;
careless or heavy-handed welding can easily damage these members.

36
COMPOSITE STEEL JOISTS – CJ-SERIES

Composite Joists are usually delivered right-side up and strapped in bundles. Each joist
has a metal embossed tag which carries the contract number, the erection mark number,
and the manufacturer’s name. The joists should be stored properly off the ground and
protected from the elements as described in Chapter 4.

Once again, the issue of Erection Bridging is very important. Erection Bridging is the
bolted diagonal bridging that is required to be installed prior to releasing the hoisting
cables. For spans up through 60 feet refer to joist manufacturer’s joist placement plans
for Erection Bridging requirements. For spans over 60 feet, but less than 100 feet two
rows of Erection Bridging are required nearest the third points. For spans over 100
feet all rows are to be Erection Bridging. Each joist must be placed in accordance with
the Joist Placement Plans and held with the hoisting equipment until both sides of the
bearing seat on one end of the joist can be attached and the required bolted diagonal
erection bridging is installed. The bridging row(s) must be anchored to prevent lateral
movement of the joist (see Appendix E, Section 105). The final attachment of the joist
ends can then be made by either bolting or welding to the support structure as shown on
the contract structural drawings.

In bays where Erection Bridging is not required, it may be permissible to land the joists
in bundles. Before this can be done, joists must be sorted out on the ground and proper
numbers placed in bundles for erection. Be careful when cutting the straps. Keep hands
and feet clear. Joists may move and sometimes fall over when the straps are cut. Typically,
four to six joists will be hoisted in a bundle, depending on the actual number required in the
bay. Make sure all of the tags are turned in the proper direction. Check that the ends are
even and all the joists are in proper sequence to be spread out on the building. Refer to the
Joist Placement Plans for proper joist spacing and length of bearing.

The spacing of joists in bays must be marked on supporting beams or Joist Girders. This
is typically done after members are erected, but with proper planning can be done on the
ground. The final locations must be in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans.

When erecting joists in bundles, Connectors should land the bundle on the supporting
structure as close as possible to the center of the bay. Check for proper bearing at each
end before releasing the hoisting cables. When releasing the cables, be sure to hold them
until they clear the bundle or the crane operator swings the boom away from the bundle
so that they don’t hang up. After the cables are released, make sure all the joist ends are
sitting flat on their supports. If necessary, use a spud wrench to shift the joists into the
flat position. If the joists are not to be spread and attached promptly, the bundle should
be re-secured to prevent unintentional movement to keep them from falling (see OSHA
1926.757(a)(6)).

37
In the case where all of the joists in a bundle are the same length and are to be placed
in the building next to one another, the bundle may be lifted and set in place on the
building. A joist bundle should never be lifted by the strapping. If the bundle has been
stored upside down it must be turned right side up (with care) on the ground before
lifting for placement on the building. In order for this method to be utilized, the following
three conditions must apply:

1) All of the joists in the bundle are turned the same way - that is, they are not bundled
one up, one down, etc.
2) All of the joists are the same length.
3) None of the joists are staggered lengthwise in the bundle.

If the joists are being erected in bundles, the bundling straps can be broken after the bundle
has been placed on the supporting structure, prior to release of the hoisting cables.

If the above three conditions do not apply, the joist bundles must first be turned right side
up (if stored upside down), then broken open on the ground, with care being taken not to
damage the joists as the bundling straps are broken. The joists can then be lifted onto the
building individually by attachment of hooks or cables to the top chord, at top chord panel
points, and placed in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans. In certain situations
it may be advantageous for joists to be rebundled and hoisted as a group. Remember,
each joist has a metal, embossed tag that carries the erection mark number, the contract
number and the name of the joist manufacturer; the mark number on the joist tag needs
to be matched with the mark number on the Joist Placement Plans for proper placement.
In those instances where a joist is not symmetrical, the Joist Placement Plans will indicate
where the “Tag End” of the joist is to be placed. The “Tag End” is that end of the joist to
which the metal tag is attached.

If the joist end bears on a masonry or concrete support, it must rest on a steel bearing
plate, anchored to the masonry unit or concrete, for a minimum distance of 4 inches at
seat depths less than 5 inches and 6 inches at seat depths of 5 inches and greater, over
the masonry or concrete support (see Appendix E, Section 104.4(a)). If the joist end is
resting on a steel support, it must bear a minimum of 2 1/2 inches at seat depths less than
5 inches and 4 inches at seat depths of 5 inches and greater (see Appendix E, Section
104.4(b)). The Joist Placement Plans should be checked for specific end bearing details.

Immediately after each subsequent joist is set in its proper position, both sides of the joist
bearing seat at one end of the joist must be attached. This is one of the most important
safety procedures that can be practiced in the erection of joists. This initial attachment
provides additional stability to the joist, thus making it safer for the Erector to complete the
joist installation (see OSHA 1926.757(b)(3)).

38
Ironworkers on each end should work closely together when spreading joists. This is
typically accomplished by sliding individual joists to their final marked location. Great care
should be taken to maintain equal bearing at the ends. When the joists are in the correct
location, both sides of one end should be attached as soon as possible. Attachment of the
CJ-Series joist to a Joist Girder or other structural member may be made by either bolting
or welding in accordance with current SJI Specifications (see Appendix E, Section 104.7)
and the OSHA safety standard (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(8)).

When CJ-Series joists are used to provide lateral stability to the supporting member, the final
connection shall be made by welding or as designated by the Specifying Professional.

Bridging is a critical component of the steel joist system. Its purpose is to brace the joists
against lateral movement during erection and placing of construction loads. For bridging to
function properly, it must be anchored. This can be accomplished by securing the bridging
to a fixed object such as a wall, steel beam or other stable portion of the structure. OSHA
refers to this anchorage point as a bridging terminus point (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(10)).
Depending on the type and length of the specified joists, two conditions must be met
before the hoisting cables may be released or any Erectors are allowed out on the joists:

1) Required Erection Bridging must be installed; and

2) 
Both sides of at least one end of the joist must be attached to the
supporting structure.

On steel joists that do not require erection bridging only one employee shall be allowed
on the steel joists unless all bridging is installed and anchored.

The Erection Bridging may be installed from a man lift. For the specific requirements
of the joists being erected, consult the Joist Placement Plans and the SJI CJ-Series
Specifications. Sometimes, center X-type bridging is bolted to the joists on the ground.
This may be more easily accomplished by laying the joist down horizontally, attaching the
X-Type bridging to the joist and then placing a bolt through the bridging at their intersection.
Then the joist can be erected. As the crane stabilizes the joist, an Ironworker attaches the
loose end of the bridging to the previously erected joist already up on the structure. This
may be done by standing on a walk-board bearing on the bottom chords of previously
erected and bridged joists.

The joist nearest the end of the building should be bridged first, with the ends of the
bridging rows being properly anchored. Installation should start at one end of the joist
and progress to the other end of the joist. The joist should be straightened laterally and
aligned vertically by the Erectors as the bridging rows are being installed. Once the joist is
straight, the bridging should be welded or bolted. The far ends of the bridging rows should
also be anchored.

39
With respect to horizontal bridging, the amount furnished allows for a minimum lap length
of 2 inches to 4 inches, plus an additional percentage more; drops of 3 feet or more
should always be used. For X-type bridging, the exact numbers of pieces are furnished,
designated with mark numbers which correspond to these same numbers shown on the
Joist Placement Plans.

In certain design applications, the joists are designed to bear on the bottom chord. This
produces a “top heavy” condition. Therefore, they must be braced with an additional row
of X-type bridging at or near the bearing support as they are being erected.

Before going out on any joist, be sure that at least one end is attached on both sides and
required Erection Bridging has been installed and anchored. Going out on unsecured
joists is unsafe. Finally, attach the other end of the joist by welding or bolting both sides.

If joists don’t fit or there is an interference with other materials, do not cut or alter the
joists. Written permission and instructions from the joist manufacturer and the Engineer
of Record must be obtained prior to making any necessary field modifications to the joist
products (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(7)).

ERECTION BRIDGING

The SJI K-Series and LH- and DLH-Series Load Tables show the total safe uniformly
distributed loads for standard products at various spans. As the span increases for a
particular joist designation, the uniformly distributed load-carrying capacities decrease.
The Load Tables also indicate when the span becomes too great for a particular joist
designation to be erected without Erection Bridging. These spans are indicated by the
RED SHADED area in the K-Series Load Table, the RED or BLUE SHADED areas in
the LH-Series Load Table and the BLUE or GRAY SHADED areas in the DLH-Series
Load Table. For any of these spans, the Erector must install bolted X-type bridging (bolted
diagonal bridging), called Erection Bridging as each joist is erected. The quantity and
location of the required Erection Bridging will be defined for each joist series.

The Erection Bridging requirements for standard K-Series joists are indicated by the RED
SHADED area in the Load Table and are found in the OSHA safety standard 1926.757
Table A - Erection Bridging for Short Span Joists. This table gives the minimum span for
each short span joist designation that indicates when Erection Bridging must be installed
(see OSHA 1926.757(c) and (d)(1)). If Table A indicates that Erection Bridging is Not
Mandatory (NM), the joists can be spaced out, attached, and then bridged in accordance
with the SJI K-Series Specifications (see Appendix B Section 6).

40
If Erection Bridging is required, each short span joist must be set in its proper position
and held with the hoisting equipment until both sides of one end of the joist are attached
and the Erection Bridging is installed. The required Erection Bridging must be installed
as the row of bridging nearest the mid-span of the joist. The Erection Bridging must also
be anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(10) and
(d)(1)) prior to the hoisting cables being released. Both ends of the joist must then be
permanently fastened down.

The Erection Bridging requirements for standard LH-Series joists are indicated by the
RED or BLUE SHADED areas in the Load Table and are also found in the OSHA safety
standard 1926.757 Table B - Erection Bridging for Long Span Joists. This table gives
the minimum span for each long span joist designation that indicates when Erection
Bridging must be installed (see OSHA 1926.757(c), (d)(1) and (d)(2)). If Table B indicates
that Erection Bridging is Not Mandatory (NM), the joists can be spaced out, attached,
and then bridged in accordance with the SJI LH-Series Specifications (see Appendix C
Section 105).

If Erection Bridging is required, each long span joist must be set in its proper position and
held with the hoisting equipment until both sides of one end of the joist are attached and
the Erection Bridging is installed. Where the span of the steel joist is less than 60 feet,
the Erection Bridging must be installed as the row of bridging nearest the mid-span of
the joist. Where the span of the steel joist is over 60 feet through 100 feet, the required
Erection Bridging must be installed as the two rows of bridging nearest the third points
of the joist. The hoisting cables are not to be released until the bolted diagonal Erection
Bridging is installed and anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist (see OSHA
1926.757(d)(2)). Both ends of the joist must then be permanently fastened down.

The Erection Bridging requirements for standard DLH-Series joists are indicated by the
BLUE or GRAY SHADED areas in the Load Table. Erection Bridging is required for all
Deep Long Span Joists. Each DLH-Series joist must be set in its proper position and held
with the hoisting equipment until both sides of one end of the joist is attached and the
Erection Bridging is installed. Where the span of the steel joist is over 60 feet through 100
feet, the required Erection Bridging must be installed as the two rows of bridging nearest
the third points of the joist. Where the span of the steel joist is over 100 feet through
144 feet, all rows of bridging are considered Erection Bridging and must be completely
installed. The hoisting cables are not to be released until the bolted diagonal Erection
Bridging is installed and anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist (see OSHA
1926.757(c) and (d)(3)). Both ends of the joist must then be permanently fastened down.

41
The Erection Bridging requirements for CJ-Series joists are as indicated in Appendix
E, Section 104.5 (c). If Erection Bridging is not required, the joists can be spaced out,
attached, and then bridged in accordance with the SJI CJ-Series Specifications (see
Appendix E Section 105).

If Erection Bridging is required, each composite steel joist must be set in its proper position
and held with the hoisting equipment until both sides of one end of the joist are attached
and the Erection Bridging is installed. Where the span of the steel joist is 60 feet or less,
the Erection Bridging must be installed as the row of bridging nearest the mid-span of
the joist. Where the span of the steel joist is over 60 feet through 100 feet, the required
Erection Bridging must be installed as the two rows of bridging nearest the third points
of the joist. Where the span of the steel joist is over 100 feet all rows are to be Erection
Bridging. The hoisting cables are not to be released until the bolted diagonal Erection
Bridging is installed and anchored to prevent lateral movement of the joist (see OSHA
1926.757(d)(2)). Both ends of the joist must then be permanently fastened down.

The mark numbers of the bolted bridging are shown on the Joist Placement Plans where
they occur. Where the bundles of bridging are marked, but not the individual bridging
pieces, it is incumbent upon the Erector to identify each bridging mark number after the
bundles have been broken. This can be accomplished by comparing the lengths of the
pieces to the appropriate bridging Bill of Material. In some instances, the joist manufacturer
may place a tag on the diagonal bridging itself so that it can be placed more easily in the
correct location on the structure.

Following the attachment of one end of the joists, the bridging is installed as indicated
on the Joist Placement Plans. If Erection Bridging is required, it must be installed as
the joists are erected and before the hoisting cables are released. It is the Erector’s
responsibility to ensure that the joist is straight lengthwise, and that it is vertically plumb.
As bridging is installed, sweep in the joist should be removed (see Figure 5.11), and
vertical misalignment should be corrected (see Figure 5.12).

• At no time is more than one employee allowed on short span joists (see OSHA
1926.757 (d)(1) and Table A) until all other bridging is installed and anchored.

• At no time are more than two employees allowed on long span joists greater than 60
feet, but less than or equal to 100 feet (see OSHA 1926.757(d)(2) and Table B) until
all other bridging is installed and anchored.

• At no time are more than two employees allowed on long span joists greater than 100
feet, but less than or equal to 144 feet (see OSHA 1926.757(d)(3)) until all bridging is
installed and anchored.

42
 Figure 5.11 Plan View of Joist with Sweep (Prior to Bridging)

Figure 5.12 Cross-section View of Joist

Leaning Out-of-Plane (Prior to Bridging)

After installation of any required Erection Bridging, a row of bridging nearest one end
of the joist is installed next. Bridging installation progresses from one row of bridging to
the adjacent row until all rows have been installed and anchored properly. Each row of
bridging must be properly anchored in order to provide the restraint required to stabilize
the joists during erection.

Bolted bridging allows adjustment in joist alignment by means of slots in the bridging
itself. In some instances, bridging clips with slots are welded to the joists, in which case
the bridging may be punched with either holes or slots. The joists must be straightened
before the bolted connections are tightened. Both ends of each row of bridging must be
anchored securely.

The vast majority of bridging is welded, horizontal type. This bridging is typically furnished
as an angle shape in standard 20 foot lengths. A sufficient amount is shipped to the
jobsite to provide two inch to four inch laps, plus a percentage more to allow for short
drops; however, drops of three feet or more should be used.

43
The horizontal bridging is welded to the top and bottom chords of the joists as they are
properly aligned. Care must be exercised in welding the bridging because the materials
being welded (both the bridging and the joist chords) may be quite thin; carelessness can
result in the burning away of a portion of either the joist chord or the bridging. Therefore,
field welding shall be performed in such a manner that no damage to the joists or bridging
results. Heavy-handed welding can easily “blow-out” a portion of the joist chord or the
bridging. The SJI K-Series Specification requires that each welded bridging connection
resist a horizontal force of not less than 700 pounds (see Appendix B, Section 5.4).

After all of the bridging is installed, the final field welds are made on the bearing seats of the
joists. A minimum of two 1/8 inch fillet welds one inch long are required at each end if the final
attachment is to be welded. Otherwise, if the final attachment of the bearing seats are to be
bolted, two 1/2 inch diameter bolts at each end or equivalent are required. For joists at column
lines, bolting of the joist ends is required as described in the previous section.

For bottom bearing joists, their ends must be restrained laterally in accordance with the
SJI K-Series Specifications (see Appendix B, Section 5.4d), SJI LH- and DLH-Series
Specifications (see Appendix C, Section 104.5f) or SJI CJ-Series Specifications (see
Appendix E, Section 104.5g). This is accomplished by means of a row of diagonal bridging
placed at the ends of the joists. In those instances where the entire bottom bearing joist is
extended over its support to form a cantilevered end, a row of diagonal bridging over the
support (as previously mentioned) should first be installed (see Figure 5.13). In addition,
the Specifying Professional (Engineer of Record) may also require a row of diagonal
bridging in the cantilevered portion of the joist to provide stability. This bridging should
be installed only after the diagonal bridging over the support is installed. Care should
be exercised in installing the bridging in the cantilever since the joist is only laterally
supported at one end.

In erecting bottom bearing (or square ended) joists, it is imperative that they be erected
right side up. The first diagonal web member at the support end of the joist usually extends
from the top chord, immediately above the point of support, down to the bottom chord as
previously shown in Figure 5.10. When the joist is erected properly, and if the joist possesses
camber, the joist will “bow up” at mid-span (again, see Figure 5.10). If the joist is erected
upside down, the load carrying capacity will be reduced significantly. If there is any doubt
regarding which is the correct vertical orientation of the joist product, the Joist Placement
Plans should be checked and/or the joist supplier should be contacted.

When uplift forces are a design consideration, a row of bottom chord bridging is required
near each end of the joists in accordance with the SJI K-Series Specifications (see
Appendix B, Sections 5.6 and 5.11). For additional information on Uplift and uplift bridging
requirements the reader is referred to SJI’s Technical Digest No. 6, “Structural Design of
Steel Joists Roofs to Resist Uplift Loads”.

44
 Figure 5.13 X type Bridging Installed at Wall Bearing
of Bottom Bearing Joists with Cantilevered End

CONSTRUCTION LOADS

IMPORTANT! THE OSHA SAFETY STANDARD STRICTLY PROHIBITS PLACING

CONSTRUCTION LOADS ON UNBRIDGED JOISTS.

CONSTRUCTION LOADS ARE DEFINED IN THE OSHA SAFETY STANDARD AS

“ANY LOAD OTHER THAN THE EMPLOYEE(S), THE JOISTS AND THE BRIDGING
BUNDLES.” THE PROPER PROCEDURE FOR LANDING BRIDGING BUNDLES ON
UNBRIDGED JOISTS IS GIVEN IN THE CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS 29 CFR
PART 1926 SAFETY STANDARDS FOR STEEL ERECTION AND SPECIFICALLY OSHA
1926.757(e)(1), (2) AND (3). LANDING OF BRIDGING BUNDLES SHALL BE IN STRICT
ACCORDANCE WITH THESE PROVISIONS.

ANY ERECTOR WHO ALLOWS CONSTRUCTION LOADS TO BE PLACED ON

UNBRIDGED JOISTS IS IN DIRECT VIOLATION OF THIS FEDERAL REGULATION
AS WELL AS THE STEEL JOIST INSTITUTE’S K-SERIES SPECIFICATIONS (SEE
APPENDIX B, SECTION 6), LH- AND DLH-SERIES SPECIFICATIONS (SEE APPENDIX
C, SECTION 105) AND CJ-SERIES SPECIFICATIONS (SEE APPENDIX E, SECTION
105 AND MAY BE HELD LIABLE FOR ANY INJURIES SUSTAINED.

45
 6
Chapter 6
FIELD INSPECTION

Field inspection of steel joists can be performed properly only by personnel who
have experience with and knowledge of these products. A thorough understanding of
the job specifications and a working knowledge of the Steel Joist Institute’s Standard
Specifications are mandatory for any Inspector before beginning a job site inspection.
Particular emphasis should be placed on the SJI Standard Specifications regarding: End
Supports, End Anchorage, Bridging, Installation of Bridging, and Floor and Roof Decks.

INSPECTION OF JOIST PRODUCTS PRIOR TO ERECTION

It is strongly recommended that the joist products be inspected prior to erection. When
this is done, any questions that may arise can be answered expeditiously without affecting
jobsite progress.

The Inspector should be looking for any damage that may have occurred to the joists in
the process of storing them or moving them around the site. If damage is discovered, it
should be reported to the project superintendent immediately. If repair is necessary, see
Chapter 9, Job Site Repair of Joist Products. During this inspection, it should be noted
whether the joists are being stored in a proper manner.

INSPECTION OF JOIST PRODUCTS AFTER ERECTION

An inspection of the erected joists prior to placement of the deck is strongly recommended
in order to determine whether a proper job of erection has been done. A sample Q.C.
Field Joist Welding Checklist is shown in Figure 6.1.

First and foremost, inspect the bridging as follows:

1. Have all lines of bridging been properly anchored?
2. Is the bridging properly spaced?
3. Are the specified number of bridging rows installed? (see OSHA Regulations, SJI
Specifications, Project Contract Drawings, and Joist Placement Plans)
4. Has the horizontal bridging been properly welded in accordance with AWS D1.1
or D1.3?

46
 At all laps?
To the joist chords?
To the bridging terminus points? (see OSHA, Illustrations of Bridging Terminus
Points: Non-mandatory. Guidelines for complying with 1926.757(a)(10) and
1926.757(c)(5))
5. Has the diagonal bridging been properly bolted or welded?
To the joists?
To the bridging terminus points? (see OSHA, Illustrations of Bridging Terminus
Points: Non-mandatory. Guidelines for complying with 1926.757(a)(10) and
1926.757(c)(5))

Proceeding from the bridging, inspect for the following:

1. Are the joists spaced correctly? (see Joist Placement Plans)
2. Are the joists properly anchored down? (see OSHA Regulations, SJI Specifications
and Joist Placement Plans)
a. If the joist seats are bolted, have the bolts been properly tightened? At a minimum
the bolts should be in a snug-tight condition unless otherwise indicated by the
Specifying Professional.
b. If the joist seats are welded, are the welds in accordance with AWS? All field
welding should be in accordance with AWS D1.1 or D1.3.
3. Is there sufficient joist bearing on the structural steel beams, or the masonry or
concrete? (see OSHA Regulations, SJI Specifications and Joist Placement Plans)
4. Are bottom chord struts attached? Should they be? (Check project specifications)
5. Have any joists been damaged during erection?
6. If concentrated loads are present, are they located in accordance with the Joist
Placement Plan?
7. Are the joists laterally straight? (Is there any sweep in the joist?)
8. Are the joists aligned vertically? (Are the joists plumb?)

47
 Q.C. Joist Field Welding Checklist
Item Description Yes/No
1 Low-hydrogen electrodes are to be used for all welding
2 Electrode storage will conform to AWS D1.1
3 All bearing seat fillet welds are to be cleaned, i.e. remove all slag
and wire brush
4 Fillet welds are to conform to AWS D1.1 or AWS D1.3 profile
requirements (see Figure 5.4)
5 Cracks, incomplete fusion or overlap is unacceptable
6 A sum diameter of 3/8 inch or more porosity per 1 inch of weld is
unacceptable
7 Tack welds for bridging connections are unacceptable
8 When joist bearing seats are to be welded, preheat base metal
within 6 inches of joint to 70°F when base metal temperature is
less than 70°F and air temperature is less than 32°F
9 No welding is to be permitted in rain or snow
10 No welding is permitted when the ambient air temperature is less
than 10°F
11 Personnel welding Joist Girder seats shall be qualified for the
process being used under the AWS D1.1 Welding Code
12 Personnel welding bridging shall be qualified for the process
being used under any AWS, API or ASME Code
13 The steel erector shall submit a written quality control (Q.C.) plan
before any work is to start
14 The steel erector’s designated Q.C. representative is required
to inspect at least 20% of welds at joist bearing seats and 5% of
bridging welds
15 All Q.C. inspections shall be documented in writing

Figure 6.1 Sample Q.C. Joist Field Welding Checklist

48
 7
Chapter 7
PANELIZED ERECTION

Today, a growing number of erectors are panelizing joists on the ground prior to erection.
This is done in full or part bays, depending on the total weight of the lift and the available
crane capacity. This method of erection can be safer and more productive with proper
planning. It should be noted that panelized erection may not be viable for a given job site
because of site size, site access, or other limitations.

The following steps provide the basic means for panelization:

1. Create a work platform on the ground to simulate actual supporting members. This can
be done with “dummy” beams or Joist Girders spaced to match the actual bay size. Be
sure these members are adequately braced to prevent overturning. It’s critical that the
support frame must be square.

2. Mark the joist spacing. If several typical spaced bays are to be assembled, clamp a
plate or angle to the support frame to mark each location.

3. Place the joists on the supports, either individually or in a bundle, depending on the
size of the joists. Check the spacing and bearing of each joist. You may want to tack
weld or clamp a piece of angle to the support frame as a bearing control.

4. Before any bridging is attached, the joists should be checked for sweep. You may have
to use a “come-a-long” or other approved method to remove any observed sweep in the
joists. If bolted diagonal bridging is required as shown on the Joist Placement Plans,
spacing and alignment of the joists need to be checked prior to installing and tightening
the bridging bolts. Any required horizontal bridging shown on the Joist Placement Plans
should then be installed and welded in place. Be sure to locate the bridging for proper
lap at splice points of any adjoining panels.

5. If touch-up painting is required, it is probably easier to do it while the joists are on the
ground rather than after erection.

6. 
In certain cases, you can install roof opening frames prior to erection. Careful
measurements must be made to assure proper location of the frame.

49
7. A variety of lifting frames or beams have been used for panelized erection as can
be seen in Figures 7.1 thru 7.3. The lifting device should be designed to lift each
joist panel, be properly balanced, lightweight and easily released with minimum fall
exposure to the connector personnel. It’s important not to warp the joist panel during
hoisting.

8. When landing the joist panel, check for proper bearing. If the panel includes a tie joist,
all of its bolts must be installed prior to releasing the crane.

Figure 7.1 Panelized Erection of Joists with Top and

Bottom Rows of Bridging Installed

50
 Figure 7.2 Panelized Erection of Joists with
Bridging and Decking Installed

Figure 7.3 Panelized Erection of Joists and Joist Girders

with Top and Bottom Rows of Bridging Installed

51
There are numerous methods of panelization. Some erectors prefer to assemble full bays,
including the tie joist. Others install the tie joist prior to erecting the filler panel. Still others
panelize in 20 foot widths to accommodate standard bridging lengths. Most joist suppliers
will work with erectors, for special length bridging, as long as it can be cut from standard
stock lengths. Clear communication between the erector and joist supplier will usually
result in minimizing field cutting and splicing. Additional benefits come from less material
waste and reduced labor time.

Current OSHA regulations allow for joists to be erected in panels without supporting
members being punched for bolting. An exception is made at tie joists, which must be
punched and bolted (see OSHA 1926.757(a)(8)).

The following erection sequence (see Figures 7.4 thru 7.8) illustrates a panelized project
with steel deck attached prior to the panels being lifted into place. The bridging is all
bolted cross-bridging (in place of horizontal bridging) and is placed only where required
to stabilize the panel and meet the bottom chord slenderness requirements.

Figure 7.4 Metal Decking Being Secured to Joists Making Up

Panel Assembly; Cross-bridging Already Installed (not shown)

52
 Figure 7.5 Gradall Lift Positioning Tines to
Raise Joist Panel Assembly

Figure 7.6 Moving Joist Panel Assembly to Area Being

Constructed; Joist Cross-bridging Now Visible

53
Figure 7.7 Raising Joist Panel Assembly
into Final Position on Roof

Figure 7.8 Lowering Joist Panel Assembly

into Final Position on Roof

54
WOOD PANELIZED ROOF SYSTEM

This panelized roof system joins open web steel joists and Joist Girders with a APA Rated
Sheathing. In so doing, it utilizes the economy and strength of the steel products and
the low insulation costs, high diaphragm capacities and unique erection method of the
panelized wood roof. Figure 7.9 shows a simplified schematic diagram of the open web
steel joist and Joist Girder panelized wood roof system.

Figure 7.9 Open Web Steel Joist and Joist Girder Panelized
Wood Roof System

WOOD PANELIZED ROOF SYSTEM ERECTION

The erection procedure is critical to the system. A panelized wood roof system is one
where the sub-purlins, erection stability braces and roof decking is connected to the
steel joist with its pre-attached wood nailer while all components are on the ground. This
entire unit, comprised of the steel joist, wood nailer, sub-purlins, erection stability braces
and wood decking is then lifted into its proper place on the roof. The free edge of the
decking is positioned and nailed to the previously placed steel joist and the ends of the
joist are attached to the support structure securing the panel assembly before the hoisting
equipment is released. This is done before any load is applied to the joist and before the
next joist is placed. As with any panelized system, the Erector is responsible for the proper
and safe handling and erection of the panels so constructed. Figures 7.10 thru 7.15 show
the sequence of constructing and erecting a wood panelized roof system.

55
Figure 7.10 Constructing a Wood Panelized Joist Assembly;
Nailing Sub-purlins to Wood Nailers Connected to Joists

Figure 7.11 Installing Wood Sheathing to

Complete Panelized System

56
 Figure 7.12 Raising Panelized Assembly into Position
using Forklift Truck

Figure 7.13 Lowering Panelized Assembly into Position

onto Tilt-up Walls and Joist Girder. This is a Doubler Panel
(with two joists) to Start a Bay

57
 Figure 7.14 Subsequent Wood Panelized Assemblies Being
Placed in a Bay. Each Panel Now Only has One Joist Attached

Figure 7.15 Welder Connecting Wood Panelized

Joist Assembly to Joist Girder

58
 8
Chapter 8
BRIDGING

Bridging is a component of the steel joist system that braces the joists against lateral
displacement during erection (see OSHA 1926.757(d) Erection bridging) and placing of
construction loads (see OSHA 1926.757(e) Landing and placing loads).

The number of rows of bridging is dependent on the span of the joist, as well as the size of
the top and bottom chords. With lighter, shorter joists, fewer rows of bridging are required
to stabilize the top and the bottom chords. Without bridging, joists can easily roll over and
fall which could possibly result in a serious injury to workers on site. Joists can still fall
even when they are attached to the supporting members. When a load is applied to a joist
that is not properly restrained, the joist will tend to roll over and may collapse. Properly
installed bridging solves this problem.

Today, the most common bridging material is angle. Typical angle sizes range from 1” x 1”
up to 2 1/2” x 2 1/2”. In special applications, even larger sizes may be used. It’s important
to understand that the steel joist system will not function to support the construction loads
without bridging being in place.

The Steel Joist Institute has specifications for the type, spacing, size and number of rows
of bridging required based on the type, depth, chord number and span of a joist. There
are some joists spanning less than 30 feet that require Erection Bridging be installed prior
to releasing the crane hoisting lines while there are other joists spanning greater than 50
feet that do not require Erection Bridging. As an Erector, you should be aware that until
all the Erection Bridging is installed, the joists will not safely support you. Therefore, the
Erection Bridging must be installed prior to the installation of the balance of the bridging.
Only after all the bridging is installed and anchored can additional loads be placed on
the joists.

When joists span over 60 feet up through 100 feet, all rows of bridging must be bolted
diagonal bridging. At least two rows of bolted diagonal bridging must be installed as
Erection Bridging nearest the third points of the steel joist prior to releasing the hoisting
lines. The hoisting lines shall not be released until this bolted diagonal Erection Bridging is
installed and anchored; and even then, no more than two employees shall be allowed on
these spans until all other bridging is installed and anchored (see OSHA 1926.757(d)(2)).

59
When the span of the joist is over 100 feet, then all the rows of bolted diagonal bridging must
be installed and anchored prior to releasing the hoisting lines of the crane. No more than
two employees shall be allowed on these spans until all bridging is installed and anchored
(see OSHA 1926.757(d)(3)). For steel joists spanning over 144 feet, the erection methods
used shall be in accordance with OSHA Regulations §1926.756 Beams and columns and
not §1926.757 Open web steel joists (see OSHA 1926.757(d)(4)).

In general, bridging is either classified as horizontal or diagonal. Horizontal bridging

consists of continuous horizontal steel members attached to the top chord and the bottom
chord of each joist. Connections to the joists are made by welding or bolting. Diagonal
bridging consists of cross-bracing connected to the top and bottom chords of adjacent
joists. For the diagonal bridging to function as designed, it is essential that they are properly
connected at their intersection. Connections are made by welding or bolting. Typical
bridging details for the installation of horizontal bridging and welded or bolted diagonal
bridging are shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2. Each horizontal bridging attachment to the
joist chords must be capable of resisting a horizontal force not less than that specified
in SJI’s K-Series Specification Section 5.4, LH- and DLH-Series Specification Section
104.5 or CJ-Series Specification Section 104.5. Tables 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, and 8-4 show the
minimum required welds required for K-Series, LH- and DLH-Series, and CJ-Series
joist bridging attachment, calculated in accordance with the latest AISC Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings (AISC 2005) that meet this criteria. Values shown in brackets [
] are recommended weld leg sizes and lengths, respectively.

If the steel joists being erected are bottom chord bearing joists, special attention needs
to be taken as these joists have an even greater tendency to roll over and collapse than
the more typical top chord bearing joists. In addition to the typical number of rows of
bridging, a row of diagonal bridging is to be provided near the supports. This bridging is to
be bolted diagonal bridging and shall be installed and anchored before the hoisting lines
are released for all joists governed by OSHA 1926.757(d)(5).

The employer needs to be aware that when bolted diagonal erection bridging is required
to be installed, the following shall apply (see OSHA 1926.757(d)(6):

• The bridging shall be indicated on the Joist Placement Plans;

• The Joist Placement Plans shall be the exclusive indicator of the proper placement of
this bridging;
• Shop installed bridging clips, or functional equivalents, shall be used where the
bridging bolts to the steel joists;
• When two pieces of bridging are attached to the steel joist by a common bolt, the
nut that secures the first piece of bridging shall not be removed from the bolt for the
attachment of the second; and
• Bridging attachments shall not protrude above the top chord of the steel joist.

60
 Table 8-1 Weld to Provide Minimum 700 lb Nominal Strength for K-Series Joists

Weld TypeWeld Leg Size (in.)Minimum Weld Length (in.)

Fillet 7/64 [1/8] 7/16 [ 1 ]

Fillet 1/8 [1/8] 3/8 [ 3/4 ]
Fillet 5/32 [3/16] 5/16 [ 5/8 ]

Table 8-2* Weld to Provide Minimum 1000 lb Nominal Strength for LH- and
DLH-Series Joists, Section Numbers 02 through 12, and CJ-Series Joists

Weld TypeWeld Leg Size (in.)Minimum Weld Length (in.)

Fillet 7/64 [1/8] 5/8 [ 1 1/4 ]

Fillet 1/8 [1/8] 9/16 [ 1 ]
Fillet 5/32 [3/16] 5/8 [ 3/4 ]

Table 8-3* Weld to Provide Minimum 2000 lb Nominal Strength for LH- and
DLH-Series Joists, Section Numbers 13 through 19, and CJ-Series Joists

Weld TypeWeld Leg Size (in.)Minimum Weld Length (in.)

Fillet 7/64 [1/8] 1 1/4 [ 2 ]

Fillet 1/8 [1/8] 1 1/8 [ 1 1/2 ]
Fillet 5/32 [3/16] 7/8 [ 1 1/4 ]

Table 8-4* Weld to Provide Minimum 3500 lb Nominal Strength for

CJ-Series Joists

Weld TypeWeld Leg Size (in.)Minimum Weld Length (in.)

Fillet 7/64 [1/8] 2 1/4 [ 2 1/2 ]

Fillet 1/8 [1/8] 1 7/8 [ 2 1/4 ]
Fillet 5/32 [3/16] 1 1/2 [ 2 ]

*Tables 8-2, 8-3 and 8-4 have been created to assist the erector in determining the length
of the bridging weld needed for the joist. Different combinations of nominal force and
weld length are possible depending on the joist series requirements. Contact the joist
manufacturer for different weld combination possibilities.

61
 K-SERIES BRIDGING DETAILS

Figure 8.1 K-Series Bridging Details

62
 CJ-, LH-, AND DLH-SERIES BRIDGING DETAILS

Figure 8.2 CJ-, LH- and DLH-Series Bridging Details

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During the construction period, the employer placing a load on steel joists shall ensure
that the load is distributed so as not to exceed the carrying capacity of any steel joist
(see OSHA 1926.757(e)(1)). Before bridging can be installed, it must be landed up on the
structure. No construction loads are allowed on the steel joists until all bridging is installed
and anchored and all joist bearing ends are attached (see OSHA 1926.757(e)(2)). OSHA
requires that a bundle of bridging not exceed a total of 1,000 pounds (see Figure 8.3). In
addition, the bundle should be placed on a minimum of three joists and within one foot of
a secured end as shown in Figure 8.4 (see OSHA 1926.757(e)(3)).

Figure 8.3 Bridging Bundles Prior to

Being Landed on a Building

Before any construction loads other than a bundle of decking are landed, all the joists
must be safely and completely erected in a bay or area. This means all the bridging is in
place and anchored, and all joist bearing ends are attached (see OSHA 1926.757(e)(2)).
One exception to this is when a construction load that consists of metal decking is being

64
placed on steel joists. This can occur when all of the following conditions are met:

1) The employer has first determined from a qualified person and documented in a site-
specific erection plan that the structure is capable of supporting the load;
2) The bundle of decking is placed on a minimum of three joists;
3) The joists supporting the bundle of decking are attached at both ends;
4) At least one row of bridging is installed and anchored; and
5) The total weight of the bundle of decking does not exceed 4,000 pounds 91816 kg).
Placement of the bundle of decking shall be placed within 1 foot (0.30 m) of the bearing
surface of the joist end (see OSHA 1926.757(e)(4) and OSHA 1926.757(e)(5)).

Do not stack bundles of metal decking.

Figure 8.4 Bridging Bundle Being Placed Across

Three Joists Near Their Ends on a Building

65
In some situations, it is not practical to bridge the entire bay and/or project prior to “spotting”
or landing metal deck bundles on the joists. When this is the case, the Steel Erector must
determine, using a qualified person, that the structure is capable of supporting a load of
decking. This is done through a Site Specific Erection Plan (see OSHA 1926.752(e)). At
the very least, the joists that are supporting the bundle of decking should have the load
distributed over a minimum of three joists. In addition, both ends of the joists must be
attached in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans, as well as at least one row of
bridging installed and anchored.

Joists must be fully installed and bridged prior to placing construction loads
other than deck bundles.

66
 9
Chapter 9
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
COMMON FIELD ISSUES

CAMBER

Camber is defined as an arching or curvature. In joists it is exactly this - an upward

arching of the chords. The approximate camber for K-, LH- and DLH-Series joists and
Joist Girders is in accordance with the following table:
Length Approximate Length Approximate Length Approximate
Camber Camber Camber
(ft.) (in.) (ft.) (in.) (ft.) (in.)
20 1/4 70 2 120 6
30 3/8 80 2 3/4 130 7
40 5/8 90 3 1/2 140 8
50 1 100 4 1/4 144 8 1/2
60 1 1/2 110 5

This is mentioned here to alert the erector to the fact that the weight of the joist and deck
seldom, if ever, removes all of this camber. If the first joist is in close proximity to the end of
the structure, i.e. a non-cambered element such as a wall, the connection of the deck to the
building wall or perimeter beam may pose a problem unless prior means have been provided
to resolve this matter. This situation can make deck installation extremely difficult.

The joist manufacturer is able to provide joists with special camber upon request.

Composite Steel Joists, CJ-Series, are cambered during manufacturing. The approximate
camber is based on the deflection associated with 100% of the non-composite, unfactored
dead load plus any additional loads defined by the Specifying Professional. This amount of
approximate camber will be substantially removed during construction with the application
of the dead loads from the joists, bridging, steel deck, and concrete slab.

CONCENTRATED LOADS

In many instances, concentrated loads from HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning) equipment on the roof cannot be located accurately until after the joists
are manufactured and delivered to the job site. Frequently, the exact location of these

67
roof top units (RTUs) is not known until after the joists have been erected. A concerted
attempt should be made to locate these concentrated loads at top chord panel points on
the joists. In those cases where this is not possible, additional web members running from
the point of load down to the nearest bottom chord panel point may have to be added.
The connecting of these web members to the joist should be done in strict accordance
with instructions from the Specifying Professional, and with extreme care, ensuring that
the joist components are not damaged.

For loads hung from the bottom chords of the joists, a similar procedure should be
followed, except that any added web members should run from the point of load up to the
nearest top chord panel point. In any event, the rated capacity of a given joist must not be
exceeded by the addition of a concentrated load.

CONSTRUCTION LOADS

Once the joists have been set, bridged, and welded down properly, THEN AND ONLY
THEN can construction loads be placed on the joists. Even then, these loads should be
placed near the ends of the joists, preferably over a beam or a wall. Also, the loads must
be such that they do not cause an overloading of the joist (See Appendix B, Section 6).
Furthermore, the top chord of a joist is not designed to resist concentrated loads, so care
must be taken not to cause bending or other damage to this member.

COORDINATING OTHER STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

The joists can be used as support for many items other than just decking. Depending on
what other items the joist is supporting they may require additional reinforcing.

DECK ATTACHMENT

Following the erection of the joists and bridging, some type of deck or centering is placed
on the joists, oriented perpendicular to their length. In regards to centering, a means must
be provided to prevent lateral displacement or deformation of the top chord of the joists.
Regardless of what type of material is placed on top of the joists, the SJI Specifications
require that the attachments to the top chord of the joists be spaced at no more than 36
inches. Each connection of the decking must be capable of resisting forces as shown:
JOIST PRODUCT CHORD OR SECTION NOMINAL (UNFACTORED)
NUMBER RESISTING FORCE
K-Series Joists 300 lbs
02 thru 04 incl. 120 lbs/ft.
LH-Series and 05 thru 09 incl. 150 lbs/ft.
DLH-Series Joists 10 thru 17 incl. 200 lbs/ft.
18 and 19 250 lbs/ft.

68
CJ-Series joists will have both deck and shear connector attachment which will work
together in stabilizing the top chord of the composite steel joist. The deck shall be attached
in accordance with the Steel Deck Institute requirements prior to placing construction loads
on the composite joists. This deck attachment, together with the shear connector placed
on the composite steel joist top chord, will provide the necessary top chord lateral support
requirement for the design loading as intended by the Specifying Professional.

FIELD WELDING THRU PAINT

In accordance with the latest SJI Specifications and Code of Standard Practice (2005),
Section 3.2 Paint it states in part, “The paint is intended to be an impermanent and provisional
coating which will protect the steel for only a short period of exposure in ordinary atmospheric
conditions.” This coating is typically 1.0 mil in thickness, but possibly could vary from as little
as 0.8 mils to as much as 2.0 mils. The minimum thickness condition comes from SSPC-
Paint 15, Steel Joist Shop Primer Section 4.4 which states, “The dry film thickness of
the primer shall be as recommended by the manufacturer. If no recommendation is given,
the dry film thickness shall be a minimum of 20 micrometers (0.8 mils) unless indicated
otherwise.” Even at the upper thickness this coating is thin as compared to any field applied
paint system that might be applied to Open Web Steel Joists.

In AWS D1.1 Section 5.15 Welding to Base Metal, it states that one of the exceptions
allowing welding is, “Mill scale that can withstand vigorous wire brushing, a thin rust-
inhibitive coating, or antispatter compound may remain …” This thin rust-inhibitive coating
is essentially the same description that the SJI uses in their description of the paint and
should be interpreted as such.

Therefore, according to the current provisions in AWS, welding thru shop applied joist
paint is an acceptable practice by the Steel Joist Institute.

JOB SITE REPAIR OF JOIST PRODUCTS

If damage to the joists is discovered during the site inspection or occurs at the job site, it
should be reported immediately to the project superintendent who then should immediately
report it to the joist manufacturer.

Steel joists are designed to exacting standards and manufactured in a unique manner. A
joist manufacturer implicitly guarantees the performance of its products to safely support
the loads as called for in the SJI Standard Specifications Load Tables & Weight Tables
for Steel Joists and Joist Girders, providing, of course, that the joists have been erected
properly. If the products are altered in any way, without the manufacturer’s knowledge
and approval, their guarantee is void since the product is no longer that which was
contractually manufactured.

69
Since a joist manufacturer knows its products better than anyone else, they are in the
best position to make decisions regarding the repair of a joist. For the safety of the
public, the joist manufacturer must decide whether such repair should be made
at the job site or back at the manufacturing facility or whether replacement of the
product is required.

It is strongly recommended that, if repair or alteration at the job site is approved by the
joist manufacturer, very close supervision of this work be made, as well as subsequent
inspection and verification of such repair or alteration.

JOIST PRODUCTS SHALL NOT BE REPAIRED OR ALTERED

WITHOUT PRIOR APPROVAL OF THE JOIST MANUFACTURER
AND THE ENGINEER OF RECORD.

NON STANDARD PRODUCTS

Many joist manufacturers are building joists with a bowstring, scissor or various other
configurations which require special precautions during erection. Many of these products
have a high center of gravity relative to their bearing elevation, or in other words they are
“top heavy”. These types of products have much more of a tendency to roll over.

SECURING COMPONENTS AT THE END OF THE WORK DAY

Before leaving the job site, make sure all joists and deck have been secured to prevent
damage due to changing weather.

SHEAR STUD CONNECTORS

Shear connection between Composite Steel Joists, CJ-Series, and concrete slab is
typically made by welding shear connector studs ranging in diameter from 3/8 inch to 3/4
inch through the metal deck. See Appendix E, Section 106 and Joist Placement Plans for
installation requirements.

STANDING SEAM ROOFS

The joists that support a standing seam roof may sometimes require additional top chord
bridging to provide sufficient lateral bracing. In most instances the bridging will be more
than the standard amount from the SJI table.

70
TEMPORARY ANCHORAGE

In the event some type of temporary anchorage is used, it should be installed such that
no permanent damage to the joists occurs.

TWO-PIECE JOISTS (or MULTI-PIECE JOISTS)

When joists are of such a length that they cannot be shipped or accommodated in
one piece, they are spliced and shipped in two pieces. There may be other design,
shipping or erection considerations such as job site storage or adding joist product in
an existing building to increase the roof or floor capacity that would necessitate a joist
being manufactured in two or more pieces. Almost without exception, the joist supplier
furnishes a bolted splice, complete with high strength bolts. In assembling the joist, the
Erector must “match mates”. The joist mates will typically be marked “1A” and “1B” or
“A1” and “A2” or some similar marking to indicate mates. Two dissimilar mates may “fit”
together, but if they are not the match marked mates then proper camber or profile may
not be maintained. A suitable location at the job site must be found where the joists can
be handled safely and where the splice can be made properly on the ground. For splices
that are made on long joists, special care must be exercised in erecting these joists
to ensure that they not be allowed to bow laterally, thus possibly damaging the splice
plates. Hoisting cables must not be released until the ends of the joists are attached
and bridging is installed as required by the SJI Specifications and OSHA Regulations. In
addition, erection of two-piece steel joists in an existing building will require the joist top
chord to be laterally stabilized in accordance with the SJI Specifications. In many cases,
a field dimension of the camber requirement to match the existing joists is required. This
in turn will allow the two-piece joist top chord to be connected to the existing decking
(see Deck Attachment).

UPLIFT

If the joist has a net uplift specified then it must have uplift bridging. This bridging will
occur at or near the first bottom chord panel point on each end of the joist.

71
10
Chapter 10
SUMMARY –
DO’S AND DON’TS

DO THE FOLLOWING:

1. Follow all requirements found in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) Regulations 29 CFR 1926, Safety Standards for Steel Erection and more
specifically 29 CFR 1926.757, Open Web Steel Joists.
2. Handle all joist products with care.
3. Use proper equipment for unloading, handling and erection.
4. Verify piece count of all joist products upon delivery.
5. Inspect all joist products for damage upon delivery.
6. Report any damage to the joist supplier and to jobsite supervisors.
7. Attach cables only at panel points of joists.
8. Store joists with top chord down and with joists in a vertical position.
9. Store deep joists horizontally if they were shipped on their sides.
10. Store joists off the ground and away from jobsite traffic.
11. Protect stored joists from the elements.
12. Erect all joist products and accessories in accordance with OSHA Regulations and
Steel Joist Institute Specifications.
13. Place the “tag end” of joists as shown on the Joist Placement Plans.
14. Ensure that square-end joists are erected right side up.
15. Attach both sides of one end of each joist immediately after placement in its final
position.
16. Insert bolts at time of placement, for joists with bolted ends.
17. Field weld all joist products with care.
18. Use low-hydrogen electrodes for all welding and store them at 250°F.
19. Remove slag from all welds or at least all bearing seat welds.
20. Straighten joists both laterally and vertically as bridging is being installed.
21. Restrain and stabilize the ends of all square-end joists.
22. Securely anchor the ends of all rows of bridging.

72
23. Permanently anchor ends of joists after all bridging has been completely installed.
24. Ensure that mates are matched on spliced joists.
25. Place joists on Joist Girders in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans. It should
be noted that there are many instances where Joist Girders have been properly
designed with joists not being located exactly at the Joist Girder panel points.
26. Install the bracing from the bottom chord of the joists to the bottom chord of the Joist
Girder in accordance with the Joist Placement Plans.
27. Make permanent connections of the bottom chords of Joist Girders only as directed
by the Specifying Professional (i.e. the Registered Design Professional).
28. Make attachments of the steel deck to the top chord of the joists at a spacing of not
more than 36 inches apart and as directed by the deck placement plan.

DON’T DO THESE THINGS:

1. Don’t pull or push joists off a delivery truck, or drop them in any way.
2. Don’t lift bundles of joist products by their strapping.
3. Don’t attach cables, chains or hooks to the web members of joists.
4. Don’t store joists on their sides.
5. Don’t place construction loads on unbridged joists.
6. Don’t cause damage to the joists when field welding.
7. Don’t cut away vertical leg of bridging where bridging makes an elevation transition;
Weld separate piece of bridging at transition.
8. Don’t use tack welds to secure lower chord bridging.
9. Don’t use a burn-through technique to weld lower chord bridging.
10. Don’t overload joists.
11. Don’t place joists between panel points on Joist Girders unless specifically shown on
the Joist Placement Plans.
12. Don’t repair or alter joists without the approval of the Registered Design Professional
and/or the Joist Manufacturer.

73
 REFERENCES
American Institute of Steel Construction (2005a), AISC 303-05, Code of Standard
Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges, AISC, Chicago, IL.

American Institute of Steel Construction (2005b), Specification for the Qualification of

Steel Structures Inspectors, AISC, Chicago, IL.

American Institute of Steel Construction (2005c), ANSI/AISC 360-05, Specification for

Structural Steel Buildings, March 9, 2005, AISC, Chicago, IL.

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) (2007), North American Specification for Design
of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, Washington, D.C.

American Society of Civil Engineers (2005), ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and other Structures, Including Supplement No. 1, ASCE, Reston, VA.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (2004), ASME-B30.5, Mobile and

Locomotive Cranes, Fairfield, NJ.

American Welding Society (2006), ANSI/AWS D1.1/D1.1M Structural Welding

Code – Steel, AWS, Miami, FL.

Emerson, M. R. (2001), Stability of Unbraced Steel Joists Subject to Mid-Span Loading,

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Bucknell University in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering, Lewisburg, PA.

Federal Register, Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA), 29 CFR Part 1910.178 Powered industrial trucks. Washington, D.C.

Federal Register, Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA), 29 CFR Part 1910.180 Crawler locomotive and truck
cranes. Washington, D.C.

Federal Register, Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) (2001), 29 CFR Part 1926 Safety Standards for Steel Erection; Final Rule,
§1926.757 Open Web Steel Joists-January 18, 2001, Washington, D.C.

Steel Deck Institute (2006), SDI Manual of Construction with Steel Deck, Publication
No. MOC2, SDI, Fox River Grove, IL.

74
Steel Joist Institute (2005), 42nd Edition Catalog (contains Standard Specifications,
Load Tables and Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders: K-Series, LH- and
DLH-Series, Joist Girders), SJI, Myrtle Beach, SC.

Steel Joist Institute (2007), First Edition Catalog (contains Standard Specification for
Composite Steel Joists, CJ-Series, Weight Tables and Bridging Tables), SJI, Myrtle
Beach, SC.

Steel Joist Institute (2007), Technical Digest No. 3, Structural Design of Steel Joist
Roofs to Resist Ponding Loads, SJI, Myrtle Beach, SC.

Steel Joist Institute (1988), Technical Digest No. 5, Vibration of Steel Joist-Concrete
Slab Floors, SJI, Myrtle Beach, SC.

Steel Joist Institute (2008), Technical Digest No. 6, Structural Design of Steel Joist
Roofs to Resist Uplift Loads, SJI, Myrtle Beach, SC.

Steel Structures Painting Council (2000), Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2,
Systems and Specifications, Paint Specification No. 15, Steel Joist Shop Primer,
SSPC, , Pittsburgh, PA, May 1, 1999.

Ziemian, R. D., Schwarz, J. E., Emerson, M. R., and Potts, D. R. (2004). “Stability of
Unbraced Steel Joists Subject to Mid-span Loading.” Structural Stability Research
Council Annual Stability Conference, Annual Technical Session Proceedings, March
24-27, Long Beach, CA.

75
APPENDIX A
STANDARD HAND SIGNALS FOR CONTROLLING
CRANE OPERATIONS

76
 Reprinted from ASME B30.5-2004, by permission of
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. All rights reserved.

77
APPENDIX B
(Applicable sections only are reprinted below)

STANDARD SPECIFICATION
FOR OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS, K-SERIES
Adopted by the Steel Joist Institute November 4, 1985
Revised to November 10, 2003 Effective March 01, 2005

5.3 END SUPPORTS

(a) Masonry and Concrete

K-Series Joists supported by masonry or concrete are to bear on steel bearing plates
and shall be designed as steel bearing. Due consideration of the end reactions and
all other vertical or lateral forces shall be taken by the Specifying Professional in the
design of the steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete. The ends of K-Series
Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 4 inches (102 millimeters) over the
masonry or concrete support and be anchored to the steel bearing plate. The plate
shall be located not more than 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) from the face of the wall and
shall be not less than 6 inches (152 millimeters) wide perpendicular to the length
of the joist. The plate is to be designed by the specifying professional and shall be
furnished by other than the joist manufacturer.

Where it is deemed necessary to bear less than 4 inches (102 millimeters) over the
masonry or concrete support, special consideration is to be given to the design of the
steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete by the specifying professional. The
joists must bear a minimum of 2 ½ inches (64 millimeters) on the steel bearing plate.

(b) Steel

Due consideration of the end reactions and all other vertical and lateral forces
shall be taken by the specifying professional in the design of the steel support.
The ends of K-Series Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 2 ½ inches
(64 millimeters) over the steel supports.

5.4 BRIDGING

Top and bottom chord bridging is required and shall consist of one or both of the
following types.

78
(a) Horizontal

Horizontal bridging shall consist of continuous horizontal steel members.

Attachments to the joist chords shall be made by welding or mechanical means
and shall be capable of resisting a nominal (unfactored) horizontal force of not
less than 700 pounds (3114 Newtons).

The ratio of unbraced length to least radius of gyration, /r, of the bridging member
shall not exceed 300, where  is the distance in inches (millimeters) between
attachments and r is the least radius of gyration of the bridging member.

(b) Diagonal

Diagonal bridging shall consist of cross bracing with a /r ratio of not more than 200,
where  is the distance in inches (millimeters) between connections and r is the least
radius of gyration of the bracing member. Where cross bracing members are connected
at their point of intersection, the  distance shall be taken as the distance in inches
(millimeters) between connections at the point of intersection of the bracing members
and the connections to the chord of the joists. Connections to the chords of steel joists
shall be made by positive mechanical means or by welding.

(c) Quantity and Spacing

The number of rows of top chord bridging shall not be less than as shown in Bridging
Tables 5.4-1 and 5.4-2 and the spacing shall meet the requirements of Section 4.4(a).
The number of rows of bottom chord bridging, including bridging required per Section
5.11, shall not be less than the number of top chord rows. Rows of bottom chord
bridging are permitted to be spaced independently of rows of top chord bridging. The
spacing of rows of bottom chord bridging shall meet the slenderness requirement of
Section 4.3 and any specified strength requirements.

(d) Bottom Chord Bearing Joists

Where bottom chord bearing joists are utilized, a row of diagonal bridging shall be
provided near the support(s). This bridging shall be installed and anchored before the
hoisting cable(s) is released.

79
TABLE 5.4-1
U.S. CUSTOMARY UNITS
NUMBER OF ROWS OF TOP CHORD BRIDGING**
Refer to the K-Series Load Table and Specification Section 6 for required bolted diagonal bridging.
Distances are Joist Span lengths in feet – See “Definition of Span” preceding Load Tables.
*Section One Two Three Four Five
Number Row Rows Rows Rows Rows
#1 Up thru 16 Over 16 thru 24 Over 24 thru 28

#2 Up thru 17 Over 17 thru 25 Over 25 thru 32

#3 Up thru 18 Over 18 thru 28 Over 28 thru 38 Over 38 thru 40

#4 Up thru 19 Over 19 thru 28 Over 28 thru 38 Over 38 thru 48

#5 Up thru 19 Over 19 thru 29 Over 29 thru 39 Over 39 thru 50 Over 50 thru 52
#6 Up thru 19 Over 19 thru 29 Over 29 thru 39 Over 39 thru 51 Over 51 thru 56
#7 Up thru 20 Over 20 thru 33 Over 33 thru 45 Over 45 thru 58 Over 58 thru 60
#8 Up thru 20 Over 20 thru 33 Over 33 thru 45 Over 45 thru 58 Over 58 thru 60
#9 Up thru 20 Over 20 thru 33 Over 33 thru 46 Over 46 thru 59 Over 59 thru 60
#10 Up thru 20 Over 20 thru 37 Over 37 thru 51 Over 51 thru 60

#11 Up thru 20 Over 20 thru 38 Over 38 thru 53 Over 53 thru 60

#12 Up thru 20 Over 20 thru 39 Over 38 thru 53 Over 53 thru 60

*Last digit(s) of joist designation shown in Load Table

**See Section 5.11 for additional bridging required for uplift design.

TABLE 5.4-2
METRIC UNITS
NUMBER OF ROWS OF TOP CHORD BRIDGING**
Refer to the K-Series Load Table and Specification Section 6 for required bolted diagonal bridging.
Distances are Joist Span lengths in millimeters – See “Definition of Span” preceding Load Tables.
*Section One Two Three Four Five
Number Row Rows Rows Rows Rows
#1 Up thru 4877 Over 4877 thru 7315 Over 7315 thru 8534

#2 Up thru 5182 Over 5182 thru 7620 Over 7620 thru 9754

#3 Up thru 5486 Over 5486 thru 8534 Over 8534 thru 11582 Over 11582 thru 12192

#4 Up thru 5791 Over 5791 thru 8534 Over 8534 thru 11582 Over 11582 thru 14630
#5 Up thru 5791 Over 5791 thru 8839 Over 8839 thru 11887 Over 11887 thru 15240 Over 15240 thru 15850
#6 Up thru 5791 Over 5791 thru 8839 Over 8839 thru 11887 Over 11887 thru 15545 Over 15545 thru 17069
#7 Up thru 6096 Over 6096 thru 10058 Over 10058 thru 13716 Over 13716 thru 17678 Over 17678 thru 18288
#8 Up thru 6096 Over 6096 thru 10058 Over 10058 thru 13716 Over 13716 thru 17678 Over 17678 thru 18288
#9 Up thru 6096 Over 6096 thru 10058 Over 10058 thru 14021 Over 14021 thru 17983 Over 17983 thru 18288
#10 Up thru 6096 Over 6096 thru 11278 Over 11278 thru 15545 Over 15545 thru 18288

#11 Up thru 6096 Over 6096 thru 11582 Over 11582 thru 16154 Over 16154 thru 18288

#12 Up thru 6096 Over 6096 thru 11887 Over 11887 thru 16154 Over 16154 thru 18288

*Last digit(s) of joist designation shown in Load Table

**See Section 5.11 for additional bridging required for uplift design.

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5.5 INSTALLATION OF BRIDGING

Bridging shall support the top and bottom chords against lateral movement during the
construction period and shall hold the steel joists in the approximate position as shown on
the joist placement plans.

The ends of all bridging lines terminating at walls or beams shall be anchored thereto.

5.6 END ANCHORAGE

(a) Masonry and Concrete

Ends of K-Series Joists resting on steel bearing plates on masonry or structural

concrete shall be attached thereto with a minimum of two 1/8 inch (3millimeters) fillet
welds 1 inch (25 millimeters) long, or with two 1/2 inch (13 millmeters) ASTM- A307
bolts, or the equivalent.

(b) Steel

Ends of K-Series Joists resting on steel supports shall be attached thereto with a
minimum of two 1/8 inch (3 millmeters) fillet welds 1 inch (25 millmeters) long, or with
two 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) ASTM – A307 bolts, or the equivalent. When K-Series
Joists are used to provide lateral stability to the supporting member, the final connection
shall be made by welding or as designated by the specifying professional.

(c) Uplift

Where uplift forces are a design consideration, roof joists shall be anchored to resist
such forces (Refer to Section 5.11 Uplift).

5.7 JOIST SPACING

Joists shall be spaced so that the loading on each joist does not exceed the design load
(LRFD or ASD) for the particular joist designation and span as shown in the applicable
load tables.

5.8 FLOOR AND ROOF DECKS

81
(a) Material

Floor and roof decks may consist of cast in place or pre cast concrete or gypsum,
formed steel, wood, or other suitable material capable of supporting the required load
at the specified joist spacing.

(b) Thickness

Cast in place slabs shall be not less than 2 inches (51 millimeters) thick.

(c) Centering

Centering for cast-in-place slabs may be ribbed metal lath, corrugated steel sheets,
paper-backed welded wire fabric, removable centering or any other suitable material
capable of supporting the slab at the designated joist spacing.

Centering shall not cause lateral displacement or damage to the top chord of joists
during installation or removal of the centering or placing of the concrete.

(d) Bearing

Slabs or decks shall bear uniformly along the top chords of the joists.

(e) Attachments

The spacing for slab or deck attachments along the joist top chord shall not exceed
36 inches (914 millimeters), and shall be capable of resisting a nominal (unfactored)
lateral force of not less than 300 pounds (1335 Newtons), i.e., 100 plf (1.46 kN/m).

(f) Wood Nailers

Where wood nailers are used, such nailers in conjunction with deck or slab shall be
attached to the top chords of the joists in conformance with Section 5.8(e).

(g) Joist With Standing Seam Roofing

The stiffness and strength of standing-seam roof clips varies from one manufacturer
to another. Therefore, some roof systems cannot be counted on to provide lateral
stability to the joists which support the roof. Sufficient stability must be provided to
brace the joists laterally under the full design load. The compression chord must resist

82
 the chord axial design force in the plane of the joist (i.e., x-x axis buckling) and out of
the plane of the joist (i.e., y-y axis buckling). Out-of-plane strength may be achieved
by adjusting the bridging spacing and/or increasing the compression chord area, the
joist depth, and the y-axis radius of gyration. The effective slenderness ratio in the
y-direction equals 0.94 L/ry; where L is the bridging spacing in inches (millimeters).
The maximum bridging spacing may not exceed that specified in Section 5.4(c).

Horizontal bridging members attached to the compression chords and their

anchorage’s must be designed for a compressive axial force of 0.0025nP, where n
is the number of joists between end anchors and P is the chord design force in kips
(Newtons). The attachment force between the horizontal bridging member and the
compression chord is 0.005P. Horizontal bridging attached to the tension chords shall
be proportioned so that the slenderness ratio between attachments does not exceed
300. Diagonal bridging shall be proportioned so that the slenderness ratio between
attachments does not exceed 200.

5.9 DEFLECTION

The deflection due to the design nominal live load shall not exceed the following:

Floors: 1/360 of span.

Roofs: 1/360 of span where a plaster ceiling is attached or suspended.
1/240 of span for all other cases.

The specifying professional shall give consideration to the effects of deflection and
vibration* in the selection of joists.
* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #5, Vibration of Steel Joist Concrete Slab Floors” and the
Institute’s Computer Vibration Program.

5.10 PONDING*

The ponding investigation shall be performed by the specifying professional.

* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #3, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Ponding
Loads” and AISC Specifications.

5.11 UPLIFT

Where uplift forces due to wind are a design requirement, these forces must be indicated
on the contract drawings in terms of NET uplift in pounds per square foot (Pascals). The
contract documents shall indicate if the net uplift is based upon LRFD or ASD. When
these forces are specified, they must be considered in the design of joists and/or bridging.
A single line of bottom chord bridging must be provided near the first bottom chord panel

83
points whenever uplift due to wind forces is a design consideration.*
* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #6, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist
Uplift Loads”.

5.12 INSPECTION

Joists shall be inspected by the manufacturer before shipment to verify compliance of

materials and workmanship with the requirements of these specifications. If the purchaser
wishes an inspection of the steel joists by someone other than the manufacturer’s own
inspectors, he may reserve the right to do so in his “Invitation to Bid” or the accompanying
“Job Specifications”.

Arrangements shall be made with the manufacturer for such inspection of the joists at the
manufacturing shop by the purchaser’s inspectors at purchaser’s expense.

5.13 PARALLEL CHORD SLOPED JOISTS

The Span of a parallel chord sloped joist shall be defined by the length along the slope.
Minimum depth, load-carrying capacity, and bridging requirements shall be determined by
the sloped definition of span. The Standard Load Table capacity shall be the component
normal to the joist.

SECTION 6*.

ERECTION STABILITY AND HANDLING

When it is necessary for the erector to climb on the joists, extreme caution must be exercised
since unbridged joists may exhibit some degree of instability under the erector’s weight.

(a) Stability Requirements

1) Before an employee is allowed on the steel joist: BOTH ends of joists at columns
(or joists designated as column joists) shall be attached to its supports. For all other
joists a minimum of one end shall be attached before the employee is allowed on the
joist. The attachment shall be in accordance with Section 5.6 – End Anchorage.

When a bolted seat connection is used for erection purposes, as a minimum, the bolts
must be snug tightened. The snug tight condition is defined as the tightness that exists
when all plies of a joint are in firm contact. This may be attained by a few impacts of
an impact wrench or the full effort of an employee using an ordinary spud wrench.

84
 2) On steel joists that do not require erection bridging as shown by the unshaded
area of the Load Tables, only one employee shall be allowed on the steel joist
unless all bridging is installed and anchored.
* For a thorough coverage of this topic, refer to SJI Technical Digest #9, “Handling and Erection of Steel Joists and
Joist Girders”.

3) Where the span of the steel joist is within the red shaded area of the Load Table,
the following shall apply:

a) The row of bridging nearest the mid span of the steel joists shall be bolted
diagonal erection bridging; and
b) Hoisting cables shall not be released until this bolted diagonal erection bridging
is installed and anchored, unless an alternate method of stabilizing the joist has
been provided; and
c) No more than one employee shall be allowed on these spans until all other
bridging is installed and anchored.

4) 
When permanent bridging terminus points cannot be used during erection,
additional temporary bridging terminus points are required to provide stability.

5) In the case of bottom chord bearing joists, the ends of the joist must be restrained
laterally per Section 5.4(d).

6) After the joist is straightened and plumbed, and all bridging is completely installed
and anchored, the ends of the joists shall be fully connected to the supports in
accordance with Section 5.6 End Anchorage.

(b) Landing and Placing Loads

1) Except as stated in paragraphs 6(B)(3) and 6(B)(4) of this section, no “construction

loads”(1) are allowed on the steel joists until all bridging is installed and anchored,
and all joist bearing ends are attached.

2) During the construction period, loads placed on the steel joists shall be distributed
so as not to exceed the capacity of the steel joists.

3) The weight of a bundle of joist bridging shall not exceed a total of 1000 pounds
(454 kilograms). The bundle of joist bridging shall be placed on a minimum of 3
steel joists that are secured at one end. The edge of the bridging bundle shall be
positioned within 1 foot (0.30 m) of the secured end.
(1) See Appendix E for definition of “construction load”. A copy of the OSHA Steel Erection Standard §1926.757, Open Web
Steel Joists, is included in Appendix E for reference purposes.

85
 4) No bundle of deck may be placed on steel joists until all bridging has been installed
and anchored and all joist bearing ends attached, unless the following conditions are
met:

a) The contractor has first determined from a qualified person and documented
in a site-specific erection plan that the structure or portion of the structure is
capable of supporting the load;
b) The bundle of decking is placed on a minimum of 3 steel joists;
c) The joists supporting the bundle of decking are attached at both ends;
d) At least one row of bridging is installed and anchored;
e) The total weight of the decking does not exceed 4000 pounds (1816 kilograms);
and
f) The edge of the decking shall be placed within 1 foot (0.30 meters) of the bearing
surface of the joist end.
g) The edge of the construction load shall be placed within 1 foot (.30 meters) of
the bearing surface of the joist end.

(c) Field Welding

1) All field welding shall be performed in accordance with the contract documents.
Field welding shall not damage the joists.

2) On cold formed members whose yield strength has been attained by cold working,
and whose as formed strength is used in the design, the total length of weld at any
one point shall not exceed 50 percent of the overall developed width of the cold
formed section.

(d) Handling

Care shall be exercised at all times to avoid damage to the joists and accessories.

(e) Fall Arrest Systems

Steel joists shall not be used as anchorage points for a fall arrest system unless
written direction to do so is obtained from a “qualified person” (2).
(2) See Appendix E for OSHA definition of “qualified person”.

86
APPENDIX C
(Applicable sections only are reprinted below)

STANDARD SPECIFICATION
FOR LONGSPAN STEEL JOISTS, LH-SERIES AND
DEEP LONGSPAN STEEL JOISTS, DLH-SERIES

104.4 END SUPPORTS

(a) Masonry and Concrete

LH- and DLH Series Joists supported by masonry or concrete are to bear on steel
bearing plates and shall be designed as steel bearing. Due consideration of the end
reactions and all other vertical and lateral forces shall be taken by the specifying
professional in the design of the steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete. The
ends of LH- and DLH Series Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 6 inches
(152 millimeters) over the masonry or concrete support and be anchored to the steel
bearing plate. The plate shall be located not more than 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) from
the face of the wall and shall be not less 9 inches (229 millimeters) wide perpendicular
to the length of the joist. The plate is to be designed by the specifying professional and
shall be furnished by other than the joist manufacturer.

Where it is deemed necessary to bear less than 6 inches (152 millimeters) over the
masonry or concrete support, special consideration is to be given to the design of the
steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete by the specifying professional. The
joists must bear a minimum 4 inches (102 millimeters) on the steel bearing plate.

(b) Steel

Due consideration of the end reactions and all other vertical and lateral forces shall
be taken by the specifying professional in the design of the steel support.

The ends of LH or DLH-Series Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 4
inches (102 millimeters) over the steel supports. Where it is deemed necessary to
butt opposite joists over a narrow steel support with bearing less than that noted
above, special ends must be specified, and such ends shall have positive attachment
to the support, either by bolting or welding.

87
104.5 BRIDGING

Top and bottom chord bridging is required and shall consist of one or both of the
following types.

(a) Horizontal

Horizontal bridging lines shall consist of continuous horizontal steel members. The
/r of the bridging member shall not exceed 300, where  is the distance in inches
(millimeters) between attachments and r is the least radius of gyration of the bridging
member.

(b) Diagonal

Diagonal bridging shall consist of cross bracing with a /r ratio of not more than 200,
where  is the distance in inches (millimeters) between connections, and r is the
least radius of gyration of the bridging member. Where cross bracing members are
connected at their point of intersection, the  distance shall be taken as the distance
in inches (millimeters) between connections at the point of intersection of the bridging
members and the connections to the chord of the joists.

(c) Bridging Lines

For spans up through 60 feet (18288 mm), welded horizontal bridging may be used
except where the row of bridging nearest the center is required to be bolted diagonal
bridging as indicated by the Red shaded area in the Load Table. For spans over 60
feet (18288 mm) bolted diagonal bridging shall be used as indicated by the Blue and
Gray shaded areas of the Load Table.

(d) Quantity and Spacing

The maximum spacing of lines of top chord bridging shall not exceed the values in Table
104.5-1. The number of rows of bottom chord bridging, including bridging required per
Section 104.12, shall not be less than the number of top chord rows. Rows of bottom
chord bridging are permitted to be spaced independently of rows of top chord bridging.
The spacing of rows of bottom chord bridging shall meet the slenderness requirement of
Section 103.4(a) and any specified strength requirements.

88
 TABLE 104.5-1
LH-,DLH- MAX. SPACING NOMINAL**
SECTION OF LINES OF TOP HORIZONTAL
NUMBER* CHORD BRIDGING BRACING FORCE
lbs (N)
02, 03, 04 11’-0″ (3352 mm) 400 (1779)
05, 06 12’-0″ (3657 mm) 500 (2224)
07, 08 13’-0″ (3962 mm) 650 (2891)
09, 10 14’-0″ (4267 mm) 800 (3558)
11, 12 16’-0″ (4876 mm) 1000 (4448)
13, 14 16’-0″ (4876 mm) 1200 (5337)
15, 16 21’-0″ (6400 mm) 1600 (7117)
17 21’-0″ (6400 mm) 1800 (8006)
18, 19 26’-0″ (7924 mm) 2000 (8896)
Number of lines of bridging is based on joist clear span dimensions.
* Last two digits of joist designation shown in load table.
** Nominal bracing force is unfactored.

(e) Connections

Connections to the chords of the steel joists shall be made by positive mechanical
means or by welding, and capable of resisting a horizontal force not less than that
specified in Table 104.5-1.

(f) Bottom Chord Bearing Joists

Where bottom chord bearing joists are utilized, a row of diagonal bridging shall be
provided near the support(s). This bridging shall be installed and anchored before the
hoisting cable(s) is released.

104.6 INSTALLATION OF BRIDGING

Bridging shall support the top and bottom chords against lateral movement during the
construction period and shall hold the steel joists in the approximate position as shown
on the joist placement plans.

The ends of all bridging lines terminating at walls or beams shall be anchored to resist the
nominal force shown in Table 104.5-1.

104.7 END ANCHORAGE

(a) Masonry and Concrete

89
 Ends of LH- and DLH-Series Joists resting on steel bearing plates on masonry
or structural concrete shall be attached thereto with a minimum of two 1/4 inch
(6 millimeters) fillet welds 2 inches (51 millimeters) long, or with two 3/4 inch (19
millimeters) ASTM – A307 bolts (minimum), or the equivalent.

(b) Steel

Ends of LH- and DLH-Series Joists resting on steel supports shall be attached thereto
with a minimum of two 1/4 inch (6 millimeters) fillet welds 2 inches (51 millimeters)
long, or with two 3/4 inch (19 millimeters) ASTM – A307 bolts, or the equivalent.
When LH/DLH series joists are used to provide lateral stability to the supporting
member, the final connection shall be made by welding or as designated by the
specifying professional.

(c) Uplift

Where uplift forces are a design consideration, roof joists shall be anchored to resist
such forces (Refer to Section 104.12).

104.8 JOIST SPACING

Joists shall be spaced so that the loading on each joist does not exceed the design load
(LRFD or ASD) for the particular joist designation and span as shown in the applicable
load tables.

104.9 FLOOR AND ROOF DECKS

(a) Material

Floor and roof decks may consist of cast in place or pre cast concrete or gypsum,
formed steel, wood, or other suitable material capable of supporting the required load
at the specified joist spacing.

(b) Thickness

Cast in place slabs shall be not less than 2 inches (51 millimeters) thick.

(c) Centering

Centering for structural slabs may be ribbed metal lath, corrugated steel sheets,
paper backed welded wire fabric, removable centering or any other suitable material

90
 capable of supporting the slab at the designated joist spacing. Centering shall not
cause lateral displacement or damage to the top chord of joists during installation or
removal of the centering or placing of the concrete.

(d) Bearing

Slabs or decks shall bear uniformly along the top chords of the joists.

(e) Attachments

The spacing of attachments along the top chord shall not exceed 36 inches (914
millimeters). Such attachments of the slab or deck to the top chords of joists shall be
capable of resisting the following forces:

TABLE 104.9-1
SECTION NUMBER* NOMINAL** FORCE REQUIRED
02 to 04 incl. 120 lbs/ft. (1.75 kN/m)
05 to 09 incl. 150 lbs/ft. (2.19 kN/m)
10 to 17 incl. 200 lbs/ft. (2.92 kN/m)
18 and 19 250 lbs/ft. (3.65 kN/m)
* Last two digits of joist designation shown in load table.
** Nominal bracing force is unfactored.

(f) Wood Nailers

Where wood nailers are used, such nailers in conjunction with deck or slab shall be
firmly attached to the top chords of the joists in conformance with Section 104.9(e).

(g) Joist with Standing Seam Roofing

The stiffness and strength of standing-seam roof clips varies from one manufacturer
to another. Therefore, some roof systems cannot be counted on to provide lateral
stability to the joists which support the roof. Sufficient stability must be provided to
brace the joists laterally under the full design load. The compression chord must resist
the chord axial design force in the plane of the joist (i.e., x-x axis buckling) and out of
the plane of the joist (i.e., y-y axis buckling). Out of plane strength may be achieved
by adjusting the bridging spacing and/or increasing the compression chord area, the
joist depth, and the y-axis radius of gyration. The effective slenderness ratio in the
y-direction equals 0.94 L/ry; where L is the bridging spacing in inches (millimeters).
The maximum bridging spacing may not exceed that specified in Section 104.5(d).

91
 Horizontal bridging members attached to the compression chords and their
anchorages must be designed for a compressive axial force of 0.0025nP, where n
is the number of joists between end anchors and P is the chord design force in kips
(kiloNewtons). The attachment force between the horizontal bridging member and
the compression chord is 0.005P. Horizontal bridging attached to the tension chords
shall be proportioned so that the slenderness ratio between attachments does not
exceed 300. Diagonal bridging shall be proportioned so that the slenderness ratio
between attachments does not exceed 200.

104.10 DEFLECTION

The deflection due to the design live load shall not exceed the following:

Floors: 1/360 of span.

Roofs: 1/360 of span where a plaster ceiling is attached or suspended.
1/240 of span for all other cases.

The specifying professional shall give consideration to the effects of deflection and
vibration* in the selection of joists.
* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #5, “Vibration of Steel Joist Concrete Slab Floors” and the
Institute’s Computer Vibration Program.

104.11 PONDING *

The ponding investigation shall be performed by the specifying professional.

* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #3, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Ponding
Loads” and AISC Specifications.

104.12 UPLIFT

Where uplift forces due to wind are a design requirement, these forces must be indicated
on the contract drawings in terms of NET uplift in pounds per square foot (Pascals). The
contract documents shall indicate if the net uplift is based on ASD or LRFD. When these
forces are specified, they must be considered in the design of joists and/or bridging. A
single line of bottom chord bridging must be provided near the first bottom chord panel
points whenever uplift due to wind forces is a design consideration.*
*
For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #6, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist
Uplift Loads.”

104.13 INSPECTION

Joists shall be inspected by the manufacturer before shipment to verify compliance of

92
materials and workmanship with the requirements of these specifications. If the purchaser
wishes an inspection of the steel joists by someone other than the manufacturer’s own
inspectors, he may reserve the right to do so in his “Invitation to Bid” or the accompanying
“Job Specifications”.

Arrangements shall be made with the manufacturer for such shop inspection of the joists
at the manufacturing shop by the purchaser’s inspectors at purchaser’s expense.

104.14 PARALLEL CHORD SLOPED JOISTS

The span of a parallel chord sloped joist shall be defined by the length along the slope.
Minimum depth, load-carrying capacity, and bridging requirements shall be determined
by the sloped definition of span. The Load Table capacity shall be the component normal
to the joist.

SECTION 105*.

ERECTION STABILITY AND HANDLING

When it is necessary for the erector to climb on the joists, extreme caution must be
exercised since unbridged joists may exhibit some degree of instability under the
erector’s weight.

(a) Stability Requirements

1) Before an employee is allowed on the steel joist: BOTH ends of joists at columns
(or joists designated as column joists) shall be attached to its supports. For all
other joists a minimum of one end shall be attached before the employee is allowed
on the joist. The attachment shall be in accordance with Section 104.7 – End
Anchorage.

When a bolted seat connection is used for erection purposes, as a minimum, the
bolts must be snug tightened. The snug tight condition is defined as the tightness
that exists when all plies of a joint are in firm contact. This may be attained by a
few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of an employee using an ordinary
spud wrench.

2) On steel joists that do not require erection bridging as shown by the unshaded
area of the Load Tables, only one employee shall be allowed on the steel joist
unless all bridging is installed and anchored.
* For a thorough coverage of this topic, refer to SJI Technical Digest #9, “Handling and Erection of Steel Joists and Joist
Girders”.

93
3) Where the span of the steel joist is within the Red shaded area of the Load Table,
the following shall apply:

a) The row of bridging nearest the mid span of the steel joist shall be bolted
diagonal erection bridging; and
b) Hoisting cables shall not be released until this bolted diagonal erection bridging
is installed and anchored, unless an alternate method of stabilizing the joist has
been provided; and
c) No more than one employee shall be allowed on these spans until all other
bridging is installed and anchored.

4) Where the span of the steel joist is within the Blue shaded area of the Load Table,
the following shall apply:

a) All rows of bridging shall be bolted diagonal bridging; and

b) Hoisting cables shall not be released until the two rows of bolted diagonal
erection bridging nearest the third points of the steel joist are installed and
anchored; and
c) No more than two employees shall be allowed on these spans until all other
bridging is installed and anchored.

5) Where the span of the steel joist is in the Gray shaded area of the Load Table, the
following shall apply:

a) All rows of bridging shall be bolted diagonal bridging; and

b) Hoisting cables shall not be released until all bridging is installed and anchored;
and
c) No more than two employees shall be allowed on these spans until all other
bridging is installed and anchored.

6) 
When permanent bridging terminus points cannot be used during erection,
additional temporary bridging terminus points are required to provide
lateral stability.

7) In the case of bottom chord bearing joists, the ends of the joist must be restrained
laterally per Section 104.5(f) before releasing the hoisting cables.

8) After the joist is straightened and plumbed, and all bridging is completely installed
and anchored, the ends of the joists shall be fully connected to the supports in
accordance with Section 104.7 - End Anchorage.

94
(b) Landing and Placing Loads

1) Except as stated in paragraph 105(b)(3) of this section, no “construction loads”(1)

are allowed on the steel joists until all bridging is installed and anchored, and all
joist bearing ends are attached.

2) During the construction period, loads placed on the steel joists shall be distributed
so as not to exceed the capacity of the steel joists.

3) No bundle of deck may be placed on steel joists until all bridging has been installed
and anchored and all joist bearing ends attached, unless the following conditions
are met:

a) The contractor has first determined from a “qualified person”(2) and documented
in a site-specific erection plan that the structure or portion of the structure is
capable of supporting the load;
b) The bundle of decking is placed on a minimum of 3 steel joists;
c) The joists supporting the bundle of decking are attached at both ends;
d) At least one row of bridging is installed and anchored;
e) The total weight of the decking does not exceed 4000 pounds (1816 kilograms);
f) The edge of the bundle of decking shall be placed within 1 foot (0.30 meters) of
the bearing surface of the joist end; and
g) The edge of the construction load shall be placed within 1 foot (0.30 meters) of
the bearing surface of the joist end.

(c) Field Welding

1) All field welding shall be performed in accordance with the contract documents.
Field welding shall not damage the joists.

2) On cold formed members whose yield strength has been attained by cold working,
and whose as formed strength is used in the design, the total length of weld at any
one point shall not exceed 50 percent of the overall developed width of the cold
formed section.

(d) Handling

Particular attention should be paid to the erection of Longspan and Deep Longspan
Steel Joists. Care shall be exercised at all times to avoid damage to the joists
and accessories.

95
 Each joist shall be adequately braced laterally before any loads are applied. If lateral
support is provided by bridging, the bridging lines as defined in Section 105(a),
paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5 must be anchored to prevent lateral movement.

(e) Fall Arrest Systems

Steel joists shall not be used as anchorage points for a fall arrest system unless
written direction to do so is obtained from a “qualified person” (2).
(2) See Appendix E for OSHA definition of “qualified person”.

96
APPENDIX D
(Applicable sections only are reprinted below)

STANDARD SPECIFICATION
FOR JOIST GIRDERS
Adopted by the Steel Joist Institute November 4, 1985
Revised to November 10, 2003 Effective March 01, 2005

1004.4 END SUPPORTS

(a) Masonry and Concrete

Joist Girders supported by masonry or concrete are to bear on steel bearing plates
and shall be designed as steel bearing. Due consideration of the end reactions and
all other vertical and lateral forces shall be taken by the specifying professional in
the design of the steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete. The ends of Joist
Girders shall extend a distance of not less than 6 inches (152 millimeters) over the
masonry or concrete support and be anchored to the steel bearing plate. The plate
shall be located not more than 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) from the face of the wall
and shall be not less 9 inches (229 millimeters) wide perpendicular to the length of
the girder. The plate is to be designed by the specifying professional and shall be
furnished by other than the joist manufacturer.

Where it is deemed necessary to bear less than 6 inches (152 millimeters) over the
masonry or concrete support, special consideration is to be given to the design of the
steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete by the specifying professional. The
girders must bear a minimum of 4 inches (102 millimeters) on the steel bearing plate.

(b) Steel

Due consideration of the end reactions and all other vertical and lateral forces shall
be taken by the specifying professional in the design of the steel support. The ends
of Joist Girders shall extend a distance of not less than 4 inches (102 millimeters)
over the steel supports and shall have positive attachment to the support, either by
bolting or welding.

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1004.5 BRACING

Joist Girders shall be proportioned such that they can be erected without bridging (See
Section 1004.9 for bracing required for uplift forces). Therefore, the following requirements
must be met:

a) The ends of the bottom chord are restrained from lateral movement to brace the
girder from overturning. For Joist Girders at columns in steel frames, restraint shall
be provided by a stabilizer plate on the column.
b) No other loads shall be placed on the Joist Girder until the steel joists bearing on
the girder are in place and welded to the girder.

1004.6 END ANCHORAGE

(a) Masonry and Concrete

Ends of Joist Girders resting on steel bearing plates on masonry or structural

concrete shall be attached thereto with a minimum of two 1/4 inch (6 millimeters) fillet
welds 2 inches (51 millimeters) long, or with two 3/4 inch (19 millimeters) bolts, or the
equivalent.

(b) Steel

Ends of Joist Girders resting on steel supports shall be attached thereto with a
minimum of two 1/4 inch (6 millimeters) fillet welds 2 inches (51 millimeters) long,
or with two 3/4 inch (19 millimeters) bolts, or the equivalent. In steel frames, bearing
seats for Joist Girders shall be fabricated to allow for field bolting.

(c) Uplift

Where uplift forces are a design consideration, roof Joist Girders shall be anchored
to resist such forces (Refer to Section 104.9).

1004.7 DEFLECTION

The deflections due to the design live load shall not exceed the following:

Floors: 1/360 of span.

Roofs: 1/360 of span where a plaster ceiling is attached or suspended.
1/240 of span for all other cases.

98
The specifying professional shall give consideration to the effects of deflection and
vibration* in the selection of Joist Girders.
* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #5, “Vibration of Steel Joist Concrete Slab Floors” and the
Institute’s Computer Vibration Program.

1004.8 PONDING*

The ponding investigation shall be performed by the specifying professional.

* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #3, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Ponding
Loads” and AISC Specifications.

1004.9 UPLIFT

Where uplift forces due to wind are a design requirement, these forces must be indicated
on the contract drawings in terms of NET uplift in pounds per square foot (Pascals). The
contract drawings must indicate if the net uplift is based on ASD or LRFD. When these forces
are specified, they must be considered in the design of Joist Girders and/or bracing. If the
ends of the bottom chord are not strutted, bracing must be provided near the first bottom
chord panel points whenever uplift due to wind forces is a design consideration.*
* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #6, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to resist Uplift Loads”.

1004.10 INSPECTION

Joist Girders shall be inspected by the manufacturer before shipment to verify compliance
of materials and workmanship with the requirements of this specification. If the purchaser
wishes an inspection of the Joist Girders by someone other than the manufacturer’s own
inspectors, he may reserve the right to do so in his “Invitation to Bid” or the accompanying
“Job Specifications”. Arrangements shall be made with the manufacturer for such
inspection of the Joist Girders at the manufacturing shop by the purchaser’s inspectors at
purchaser’s expense.

SECTION 1005*.

HANDLING AND ERECTION

Particular attention should be paid to the erection of Joist Girders.

Care shall be exercised at all times to avoid damage through careless handling during
unloading, storing and erecting. Dropping of Joist Girders shall not be permitted.

In steel framing, where Joist Girders are utilized at column lines, the Joist Girder shall be
field-bolted at the column. Before hoisting cables are released and before an employee is

99
allowed on the Joist Girder the following conditions must be met:

a) 
The seat at each end of the Joist Girder is attached in accordance with
Section 1004.6.

When a bolted seat connection is used for erection purposes, as a minimum, the
bolts must be snug tightened. The snug tight condition is defined as the tightness
that exists when all plies of a joint are in firm contact. This may be attained by a
few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of an employee using an ordinary
spud wrench.

b) Where stabilizer plates are required the Joist Girder bottom chord must engage
the stabilizer plate.

During the construction period, the contractor shall provide means for the adequate
distribution of loads so that the carrying capacity of any Joist Girder is not exceeded.

Joist Girders shall not be used as anchorage points for a fall arrest system unless written
direction to do so is obtained from a “qualified person”. (1)

Field welding shall not damage the Joist Girder. The total length of weld at any one cross-
section on cold formed members whose yield strength has been attained by cold working
and whose as-formed strength is used in the design, shall not exceed 50 percent of the
overall developed width of the cold-formed section.
* For a thorough coverage of this topic, refer to SJI Technical Digest #9, “Handling and Erection of Steel Joists and Joist Girders”.
(1)
See Appendix E for OSHA definition of “qualified person”.

100
APPENDIX E
(Applicable sections only are reprinted below)

STANDARD SPECIFICATION
FOR COMPOSITE STEEL JOISTS, CJ-SERIES
Adopted by the Steel Joist Institute May 10, 2006
- Effective May 10, 2006

104.4 END SUPPORTS

(a) Masonry and Concrete

CJ-Series Joists supported by masonry or concrete are to bear on steel bearing

plates and shall be designed as steel bearing. Due consideration of the end reactions
and all other vertical and lateral forces shall be taken by the specifying professional
in the design of the steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete. The ends of
CJ-Series Joists shall extend over the masonry or concrete support as shown below
and be anchored to a steel bearing plate. This steel bearing plate shall be located no
more than 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) from the face of the wall. The distance over the
wall that the composite joist shall bear, width of the steel bearing plate and anchorage
of the CJ-Series Joists shall be as defined below:

For 2 1/2” ≤ Seat Depth < 5”:

• The ends of CJ-Series Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 4 inches
(102 millimeters) over the masonry or concrete support and be anchored to
the steel bearing plate.
• The width of the plate perpendicular to the span of the Composite Steel Joist
shall be not less than 6 inches (152 millimeters).
• The Composite Steel Joists must bear a minimum of 2 1/2 inches (64
millimeters) on the steel bearing plate.

For Seat Depth ≥ 5”:

• The ends of CJ-Series Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 6 inches
(152 millimeters) over the masonry or concrete support and be anchored to
the steel bearing plate.
• The width of the plate perpendicular to the span of the Composite Steel Joist
shall be not less than 9 inches (229 millimeters).

101
 • The Composite Steel Joists must bear a minimum of 4 inches (102 millimeters)
on the steel bearing plate.

The steel bearing plate is to be designed by the specifying professional and shall be
furnished by other than the joist manufacturer.

Where it is deemed necessary to bear less than the dimensions listed above over the
masonry or concrete support, special consideration is to be given to the design of the
steel bearing plate and the masonry or concrete by the specifying professional. The
joist must meet the minimum bearing requirement on the steel bearing plate.

(b) Steel

Due consideration of the end reactions and all other vertical and lateral forces shall
be taken by the specifying professional in the design of the steel support.

For 2 1/2” ≤ Seat Depth < 5”:

The ends of CJ-Series Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 2 1/2
inches (64 millimeters) over the steel supports.

For Seat Depth ≥ 5”:

The ends of CJ-Series Joists shall extend a distance of not less than 4 inches
(102 millimeters) over the steel supports.

Where it is deemed necessary to butt opposite joists over a narrow steel support with
bearing less than that noted above, special ends must be specified, and such ends
shall have positive attachment to the support, either by bolting or welding.

104.5 BRIDGING

Top and bottom chord bridging is required and shall consist of one or both of the
following types:

(a) Horizontal

Horizontal bridging lines shall consist of continuous horizontal steel members. The
/r ratio of the bridging member shall not exceed 300, where  is the distance in
inches (millimeters) between attachments and r is the least radius of gyration of the
bridging member.

102
(b) Diagonal

Diagonal bridging lines shall consist of cross-bracing with a /r ratio of not more than
200, where  is the distance in inches (millimeters) between connections and r is the
least radius of gyration of the bracing member. Where cross-bracing members are
connected at their point of intersection, the  distance shall be taken as the distance
in inches (millimeters) between connections at the point of intersection of the bridging
members and the connections to the chords of the joists.

(c) Bridging Lines

For spans up through 60 feet (18.3 meters), welded horizontal bridging may be used
except where the row of bridging nearest the center is required to be bolted diagonal
bridging as indicated on the joist manufacturer’s joist placement plans. When the span
of the composite steel joist is over 60 feet (18.3 meters), but not greater than 100
feet (30.5 meters), hoisting cables shall not be released until the two rows of bridging
nearest the third points are completely installed. When the span exceeds 100 feet (30.5
meters) hoisting cables shall not be released until all rows of bridging are completely
installed. For spans over 60 feet (18.3 meters) all rows of bridging shall be diagonal
bridging with bolted connections at the chords and intersections.

(d) Spacing

Bridging must be properly spaced and anchored to support the decking and the
employees prior to the attachment of the deck to the top chord. The maximum spacing
of lines of bridging, br shall be the lesser of,
⎛ d ⎞
 br = ⎜100 + 0.67d j + 40 j ⎟ ry , in. (104.5-1a)
⎝ L ⎠
⎛ d ⎞
 br = ⎜100 + 0.026 d j + 0.48 j ⎟ ry , mm (104.5-1b)
⎝ L ⎠
or

 br = 170 ry (104.5-2)

Where,
dj is the steel joist depth, in. (mm)
L is the design length for the composite joist, ft. (m)
ry is the out-of-plane radius of gyration of the top chord, in. (mm)

103
 The number of rows of bottom chord bridging shall not be less than the number of top
chord rows. Rows of bottom chord bridging are permitted to be spaced independently
of rows of top chord bridging.

(e) Connections

Connection of bridging to the chords of the Composite Steel Joists shall be made by
positive mechanical means or by welding. Ends of all bridging lines terminating at
walls, beams, or double joists boxed by diagonal bridging shall be anchored.

Connection of the horizontal and diagonal bridging to the joist chord or bridging
terminus point shall be capable of resisting the nominal top chord horizontal force,
Pbr given in Equation 104.5-3.

Pbr = 0.0025 n At Fconstruction , lbs (N) (104.5-3)

Where,

n = 8 for horizontal bridging

n = 2 for diagonal bridging
At = cross sectional area of joist top chord, in.2 (mm2)
Fconstruction = assumed nominal stress in top chord due to construction loads
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ π 2 E ⎟
Fconstruction = ⎜ 2 ⎟
≥ 12.2 ksi (104.5-4a)
⎜ ⎛ 0.9  br ⎞ ⎟
⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ry ⎠ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ π 2 E ⎟
Fconstruction = ⎜ 2 ⎟
≥ 84.1 MPa (104.5-4b)
⎜ ⎛ 0.9  br ⎞ ⎟
⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ry ⎠ ⎠
Where,

E = Modulus of Elasticity of steel = 29,000 ksi (200,000 MPa)

 br
and is determined from Equations 104.5-1a, 104.5-1b or 104.5-2
ry

104
(f) Sizing of Bridging

Horizontal joist bridging shall be designed to resist the nominal compressive force
shown in Equation 104.5-3. Diagonal bridging shall be capable of resisting in tension
the nominal horizontal force shown in Equation 104.5-3.

(g) Bottom Chord Bearing Joists

Where bottom chord bearing joists are utilized, a row of diagonal bridging shall be
provided near the support(s). This bridging shall be installed and anchored before the
hoisting cable(s) is released.

104.6 INSTALLATION OF BRIDGING

Bridging shall be provided to support the top chord during installation of the decking
prior to the attachment of the deck to the top chord. All bridging and bridging anchors
shall be completely installed before construction loads are placed on the joists. Bridging
shall support the top and bottom chords against lateral movement during the construction
period and shall hold the steel joists in the approximate position as shown on the joist
placement plans.

104.7 END ANCHORAGE

(a) Masonry and Concrete

Ends of Composite Steel Joists resting on steel bearing plates on masonry or structural
concrete shall be attached thereto as defined below:

For 2 1/2” ≤ Seat Depth < 5”:

With a minimum of two 1/8 inch (3 millimeters) fillet welds 1 inch (25 millimeters)
long, or with two 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) ASTM A307 bolts, or with the equivalent.

For Seat Depth ≥ 5”:

With a minimum of two 1/4 inch (6 millimeters) fillet welds 2 inches (51 millimeters)
long, or with two 3/4 inch (19 millimeters) ASTM A307 bolts or the equivalent.

(b) Steel

Ends of Composite Steel Joists resting on steel supports shall be attached thereto as
defined below:

105
 For 2 1/2” ≤ Seat Depth < 5”:
With a minimum of two 1/8 inch (3 millimeters) fillet welds 1 inch (25 millimeters)
long, or with two 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) ASTM A307 bolts, or with the equivalent.

For Seat Depth ≥ 5”:

With a minimum of two 1/4 inch (6 millimeters) fillet welds 2 inches (51 millimeters)
long, or with two 3/4 inch (19 millimeters) ASTM A307 bolts or the equivalent.

In steel frames, where columns are not framed in at least two directions with solid
structural steel members, joists at column lines shall be field bolted and the joist bottom
chords must be restrained by a vertical stabilizer plate attached to the column providing
lateral stability during construction. Where constructability does not allow a steel joist
to be installed directly at the column, an alternate means of stabilizing the joist shall be
installed on both sides near the column (OSHA 2001). When CJ-Series Joists are used
to provide lateral stability to the supporting member, the final connection shall be made
by welding or as designated by the specifying professional.

(c) Uplift

Where uplift forces are a design consideration, composite joists used in roof
applications shall be anchored to resist such forces (Refer to Section 104.12).

104.8 JOIST SPACING

Composite joists shall be spaced so that the loading on each joist does not exceed the
design load.

104.9 DECKS

(a) Material

Floor deck shall consist of formed steel capable of supporting the required load at the
specified joist spacing.

(b) Thickness

Cast-in-place slabs shall be not less than 2 inches (51 millimeters) thick above
the deck.

106
(c) Bearing

Slabs or decks shall bear uniformly along the top chords of the joists.

(d) Attachments of the steel deck

The deck shall be attached per Steel Deck Institute requirements prior to placing
construction loads on the composite joists. The spacing of the attachments along the
top chord shall not exceed 36 inches (914 millimeters).

104.10 DEFLECTION

The deflection due to the design live load shall not exceed the following:

Floors: 1/360 of span.

Roofs: 1/360 of span where a plaster ceiling is attached or suspended.
1/240 of span for all other cases.

The specifying professional shall give due consideration to the effects of deflection, both
short and long term, and vibration* in the selection of composite joists. All deflection
calculations should account for the inherent flexibility of the open web configuration.
* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #5, “Vibration of Steel Joist-Concrete Slab Floors” and the
Institute’s Computer Vibration Program.

104.11 PONDING

When Composite Steel Joists are used in roofs, a ponding* investigation shall be performed
by the specifying professional.
* For further reference, refer to the Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #3, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Ponding
Loads” and AISC Specifications.

104.12 UPLIFT

When Composite Steel Joists are used in roofs, and where uplift forces due to wind are
a design requirement, these forces must be indicated on the contract drawings in terms
of net uplift in pounds per square foot (kilopascals). When these forces are specified,
they must be considered in the design of the joists and/or bridging. A single line of bottom
chord bridging must be provided near the first bottom chord panel points whenever uplift
due to wind forces is a design consideration.*
* For further reference, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #6, “Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Uplift Loads”.

107
104.13 INSPECTION

Joists shall be inspected by the manufacturer before shipment to verify compliance of

materials and workmanship with the requirements of these specifications. If the purchaser
wishes an inspection of the steel joists by someone other than the manufacturer’s
own inspectors, they may reserve the right to do so in their “Invitation to Bid” or the
accompanying “Job specifications”.

Arrangements shall be made with the manufacturer for such shop inspection of the joists
at the manufacturing shop by the purchaser’s inspectors at purchaser’s expense.

SECTION 105*.

ERECTION STABILITY AND HANDLING

When it is necessary for the erector to climb on the composite steel joists, extreme caution
must be exercised since unbridged joists may exhibit some degree of instability under the
erector’s weight.
* For a thorough coverage of this topic, refer to Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #9, “Handling and Erection of Steel Joists
and Joist Girders”.

(a) Erection Stability

Joist erection bridging requirements shall be determined by the joist manufacturer

and indicated on the joist placement plans.

(b) Stability Requirements during Joist Erection

(1) 
Before an employee is allowed on the composite steel joist: BOTH ends of
composite joists at columns (or composite joists designated as column joists)
shall be attached to its supports. For all other composite joists a minimum of one
end shall be attached before the employee is allowed on the composite joist. The
attachment shall be in accordance with Section 104.7- End Anchorage.

When a bolted seat connection is used for erection purposes, as a minimum, the
bolts must be snug tightened. The snug tight condition is defined as the tightness
that exists when all plies of a joint are in firm contact. This may be attained by
a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of an employee using an
ordinary spud wrench.

108
(2) On composite steel joists that do not require erection bridging as shown on the
joist placement plans, only one employee shall be allowed on the composite joist
unless all bridging is installed and anchored.

(3) Where the span of the composite steel joist requires one line of bolted diagonal
erection bridging nearest the mid-span of the joist, as indicated on the joist
placement plans, the following shall apply:

a. Hoisting cables shall not be released until the row of bolted diagonal erection
bridging is installed and anchored, unless an alternate method of stabilizing
the composite steel joist has been provided; and

b.No more than one employee shall be allowed on these spans until all bridging
is installed and anchored.

(4) Where the span of the Composite Steel Joist requires two lines of bolted diagonal
erection bridging nearest the third points of the joist, as indicated on the joist
placement plans, the following shall apply:

a. Hoisting cables shall not be released until the two rows of bolted diagonal
erection bridging are installed and anchored; and

b. No more than two employees shall be allowed on these spans until all other
bridging is installed and anchored.

(5) Where the span of the composite steel joist requires all lines of bridging to be
bolted diagonal erection bridging as indicated on the joist placement plans, the
following shall apply:

a. 
Hoisting cables shall not be released until all bridging is installed and
anchored; and

b. No more than two employees shall be allowed on these spans until all other
bridging is installed and anchored.

(6) When permanent bridging terminus points can not be used during erection,
additional temporary bridging terminus points are required to provide
lateral stability.

(7) In the case of bottom chord bearing joists, the ends of the composite joist must
be restrained laterally per Section 104.5(g) before releasing the hoisting cables.

109
 (8) After the composite steel joist is straightened and plumbed, and all bridging is
completely installed and anchored, the ends of the joists shall be fully connected
to the supports in accordance with Section 104.7- End Anchorage.

(c) Landing and Placing Loads

(1) Except as stated in paragraph 105(c)(3) of this section, no “Construction Loads”

are allowed on the Composite Steel Joists until all bridging is installed and
anchored, and all joist bearing ends are attached. “Construction Loads” (for joist
erection) means any load other than the weight of the employee(s), the joists,
and the bridging bundle(s).

(2) During the construction period, loads placed on the Composite Steel Joists shall
be distributed so as not to exceed the non-composite capacity of the composite
steel joists.

(3) No bundle of deck may be placed on Composite Steel Joists until all bridging has
been installed and anchored and all composite steel joist bearing ends attached,
unless the following conditions are met:

a. The contractor has first determined from a “qualified person” and documented
in a site specific erection plan that the structure or portion of structure is capable
of supporting the load. A “qualified person” means one who, by possession of
a recognized degree, certificate, or professional standing, or who by extensive
knowledge, training, and experience, has successfully demonstrated the
ability to solve or resolve problems relating to the subject mater, the work, or
the project;

b. The bundle of decking is placed on a minimum of 3 composite steel joists;

c. The composite steel joists supporting the bundle of decking are attached at
both ends;

d. At least one row of bridging is installed and anchored;

e. The total weight of the decking does not exceed 4000 pounds (1816 kilograms);

f. The edge of the bundle of decking shall be placed within 1 foot (0.30 meter) of
the bearing surface of the composite steel joist end.

110
 (4) The edge of any construction load shall be placed within 1 foot (0.30 meter) of
the bearing surface of the composite steel joist end.

(d) Field Welding

(1) All field welding shall be performed in accordance with contract documents. Field
welding shall not damage the composite joists.

(2) 
On cold-formed members whose yield strength has been attained by cold
working, and whose as-formed strength is used in the design, the total length of
weld at any one point shall not exceed 50 percent of the overall developed width
of the cold-formed section.

(e) Handling

Particular attention should be paid to the erection of Composite Steel Joists. Care shall
be exercised at all times to avoid damage to the composite joists and accessories.

Each Composite Steel Joist shall be adequately braced laterally before any loads are
applied. If lateral support is provided by the bridging, the bridging lines as defined
in Section 105(b), paragraphs (2), (3), (4) and (5), must be anchored to prevent
lateral movement.

(f) Fall Arrest Systems

Composite steel joists shall not be used as anchorage points for a fall arrest system
unless written approval to do so is obtained from a “qualified person” as defined in
paragraph 105(c)(3)(a).

SECTION 106*.

SHEAR CONNECTOR
PLACEMENT AND WELDING
(a) 
Shear connectors required on each side of the point of maximum positive or
negative bending moment, shall be distributed uniformly between that point and the
adjacent points of zero moment, unless otherwise specified. However the number
of shear connectors placed between any concentrated load and the nearest point
of zero moment shall be sufficient to develop the maximum moment required at the
concentrated load point.

111
(b) Studs shall be alternately placed on each chord angle section for double angle top
chords. When constructability does not allow this to occur, stud placement shall be
limited as follows:

1. 
No more than three studs shall be placed consecutively on any one chord
angle, and

2. No more than 60% of the total number of studs shall be placed on any one
chord angle.

Studs shall have a minimum of 1/2 inch (13 millimeters) concrete cover over the
head of each stud (see Section 103.6(d)).

(c) The minimum center-to-center spacing of stud connectors shall be six stud diameters
along the longitudinal axis of the supporting composite joist, except that within the
ribs of formed steel decks oriented perpendicular to the steel joists, the minimum
center-to-center spacing shall be four stud diameters in any direction.

(d) The distance measured along the longitudinal axis of the joist from the free edge
of the concrete slab to the first stud shall not be less than the deck height plus four
stud diameters.

(e) The spacing of stud shear connectors along the length of the supporting joist shall
not exceed eight times the slab depth or 36 inches (914 millimeters).

(f) To resist uplift, the steel deck shall be anchored to all supporting members at a
spacing not to exceed 18 inches (460 millimeters). Such anchorage shall be provided
by stud connectors, a combination of stud connectors and arc spot (puddle) welds,
or other devices.

112