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Chapter 21
Formal Modeling and Verification
CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND COMMENTS
The intent of this chapter is to provide an overview of two

important (but not widely used) methods for formal program
verification—cleanroom software engineering and formal methods.
The late Harlan Mills (one of the true giants of the first half century
of computing) suggested that software could be constructed in a
way that eliminated all (or at least most) errors before delivery to a
customer. He argued that proper specification, correctness proofs,
and formal review mechanisms could replace haphazard testing,
and as a consequence, very high quality computer software could
be built. His approach, called cleanroom software engineering, is the
focus of this chapter.
The cleanroom software engineering strategy introduces a radically
different paradigm for software work. It emphasizes a special
specification approach, formal design, correctness verification,
“statistical” testing, and certification as the set of salient activities
for software engineering. The intent of this chapter is to introduce
the student to each of these activities.
This chapter also presents an introduction to the use of formal
methods in software engineering. The focus of the discussion is on
why formal methods allow software engineers to write better
specifications than can be done using natural language. Students
without precious exposure to set theory, logic, and proof of correctness
(found in a discrete mathematics course) will need more instruction on
these topics than is contained in this chapter. The chapter contains
several examples of specifications that are written using various levels
of rigor. However, there is not sufficient detail for a student to learn
the language (supplementary materials will be required).
21.1 The Cleanroom Strategy
This section introduces the key concepts of cleanroom software

engineering and discusses its strengths and weaknesses. An outline of
the basic cleanroom strategy is presented. Students will need some
additional information on the use of box specifications and probability
distributions before they can apply this strategy for their own projects.
21.2 Functional Specification
Functional specification using boxes is the focus of this section. It is

important for students to understand the differences between black
boxes (specifications), state boxes (architectural designs), and clear
boxes (component designs). Even if students have weak understanding
of program verification techniques, they should be able to write box
specifications for their own projects using the notations shown in this
section.
21.3 Cleanroom Design
If you plan to have your students verify their box specifications

formally, you may need to show them some examples of the
techniques used later in this chapter. The key to making verification
accessible to students at this level is to have them write procedural
designs using only structured programming constructs in their
designs. This will reduce considerably the complexity of the logic
required to complete the proof. It is important for students to have a
chance to consider the advantages offered by formal verification over
exhaustive unit testing to try to identify defects after the fact.
21.4 Cleanroom Testing
This section provides and overview of statistical use testing and

increment certification. It is important for students to understand that
some type of empirical data needs to be collected to determine the
probability distribution for the software usage pattern. The set of test
cases created should reflect this probability distribution and then
random samples of these test cases may be used as part of the testing
process. Some additional review of probability and sampling may be
required. Students would benefit from seeing the process of
developing usage test cases for a real software product. Developing
usage test cases for their own projects will be difficult, unless they
have some means of acquiring projected usage pattern data.
Certification is an important concept. Students should understand the
differences among the certification models presented in this section as
well.
21.5 Basic Concepts
This section discusses the benefits of using formal specification

techniques and the weaknesses of informal specification techniques.
Many of the concepts of formal specification are introduced (without
mathematics) through the presentation of three examples showing
how formal specifications would be written using natural language. It
may be worthwhile to revisit these examples after students have
completed the chapter and have them write these specifications using
mathematical notation or a specification language (like OCL or Z).
Note: If your students have not completed a good course in discrete

mathematics, you may have to present a review of the mathematics
needed for the remainder of the chapter appears in this section.
Constructive set specification writing is a very important concept for
your students to understand, as is work with predicate calculus and
quantified logic. Formal proofs of set theory axioms and logic
expressions is not necessary, unless you plan to have your students do
correctness proofs for their specifications. Work with sequences may
be less familiar to your students, if they have not worked with files and
lists at an abstract level.
21.6 Applying Mathematical Notation for Formal Specification
This section uses mathematical notation to refine the block handler

specification from Section 21.5. It may be desirable to refine the other
specification examples from Section 21.5 using similar notation. If your
students are comfortable with mathematical proofs, you may wish to
present an informal correctness proof for these three specifications.
Having students write specifications for some of their own functions,
using notation similar to that used in this section may be desirable.
21.7 Formal Specification Languages
This section discusses the properties of formal specification languages

from a theoretical perspective. The next two sections use OCL and the
Z specification language to rewrite the block handler specification
more formally. You might have students try writing the specifications
for their own functions using a pseudocode type notation embellished
with comments describing semantic information.
Section 21.7.1 presents a brief overview of OCL syntax and semantics
and then applies OCL to the block handler example. The intent is to
give the student a feel for OCL without attempted to teach the
language. If time and inclination permit, the material presented here
can be supplemented with additional OCL information from the UML
specification or other sources.
Section 21.7.2 presents a brief overview of Z syntax and semantics and
then applies Z to the block handler example. The intent is to give the
student a feel for Z without attempted to teach the language. If time
and inclination permit, the material presented here can be
supplemented with additional Z information.
A Detailed Example of the Z Language
To illustrate the practical use of a specification language, Spivey 1

considers a real-time operating system kernel and represents some
of its basic characteristics using the Z specification language
[SPI88]. The remainder of this section has been adapted from his
paper (with permission of the IEEE).
*************
Embedded systems are commonly built around a small operating-system kernel

that provides process-scheduling and interrupt-handling facilities. This article
reports on a case study made using Z notation, a mathematical specification
language, to specify the kernel for a diagnostic X-ray machine.
Beginning with the documentation and source code of an existing
implementation, a mathematical model, expressed in Z, was constructed of the
states that the kernel could occupy and the events that could take it from one
state to another. The goal was a precise specification that could be used as a basis
for a new implementation on different hardware.
This case study in specification had a surprising by-product. In studying one
of the kernel's operations, the potential for deadlock was discovered: the kernel
would disable interrupts and enter a tight loop, vainly searching for a process
ready to run.
This flaw in the kernel's design was reflected directly in a mathematical
property of its specification, demonstrating how formal techniques can help
avoid design errors. This help should be especially welcome in embedded
systems, which are notoriously difficult to test effectively.
A conversion with the kernel designer later revealed that, for two reasons,
the design error did not in fact endanger patients using the X-ray machine.
Nevertheless, the error seriously affected the X-ray machine's robustness and
reliability because later enhancements to the controlling software might reveal
the problem with deadlock that had been hidden before.
The specification presented in this article has been simplified by making less
use of the schema calculus, a way of structuring Z specifications. This has made
1 Spivey, J.M., “Specifying a Real-Time Kernel,” IEEE Software, September,

1990, pp. 21 - 28.
the specification a little longer and more repetitive, but perhaps a little easier to
follow without knowledge of Z.
About the Kernel
The kernel supports both background processes and interrupt handlers. There
may be several background processes, and one may be marked as current. This
process runs whenever no interrupts are active, and it remains current until it
explicitly releases the processor, the kernel may then select another process to be
current. Each background process has a ready flag, and the kernel chooses the
new current process from among those with a ready flag set to true.
When interrupts are active, the kernel chooses the most urgent according to a
numerical priority, and the interrupt handler for that priority runs. An interrupt
may become active if it has a higher priority than those already active and it
becomes inactive again when its handler signals that it has finished. A
background process may become an interrupt handler by registering itself itself
as the handler for a certain priority.
Documentation
Figures 9.15 and 9.16 are diagrams from the existing kernel documentation,
typical of the ones used to describe kernels like this. Figure 9.15 shows the kernel
data structures. Figure 9.16 shows the states that a single process may occupy
and the possible transitions between them, caused either by a kernel call from the
process itself or by some other event.
In a way, Figure 9.16 is a partial specification of the kernel as a set of finite-
state machines, one for each process. However, it gives no explicit information
about the interactions between processes—the very thing the kernel is required
to manage. Also, it fails to show several possible states of a process. For example
, the current background process may not be ready if it has set its own ready flag
to false, but the state "current but not ready" is not shown in the diagram.
Correcting this defect would require adding two more states and seven more
transitions. This highlights another deficiency of state diagrams like this: their
size tends to grow exponentially as a system complexity increases.
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"We are a people of peaceful traders—shopkeepers, our rivals
of the Continent affirm—and are consequently at war on only
eight points of the globe, with forces which in the aggregate
only just exceed sixty thousand men. There are thirty-five
thousand on the Indian Frontier fighting the clansmen of the
Northern Himalayas, who, according to the Afridi sub-officers
interrogated by Sir Henry Havelock-Allan, are all eager to
enter our service; twenty-five thousand about to defeat the
Khalifa at Omdurman; a thousand doing sentry duty in Crete;
four hundred putting down an outbreak in Mekran; three hundred
crushing a mutiny in Uganda; and some hundreds more restoring
order in Lagos, Borneo, and Basutoland. All these troops,
though of different nationalities—Englishmen, Sikhs, Ghoorkas,
Rajpoots, Malays, Egyptians, Soudanese, Haussas, and Wagandas—
are under British officers, are paid from funds under British
control, and are engaged in the self-same work, that of
solidifying the 'Pax Britannica,' so that a commercial
civilisation may have a fair chance to grow."
The Spectator (London), February 5, 1898.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (February).

Resentment shown to China for rejection of a loan,
through Russian influence.
Chinese agreement not to alienate the Yang-tsze region
and to open internal waters to steam navigation.
See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (February-May).

Native revolt in the Sierra Leone Protectorate.

SIERRA LEONE PROTECTORATE.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (March-April).
Unsuccessful opposition to Russian lease of Port Arthur
and Talienwan from China.
Compensatory British lease of Wei-hai Wei.

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (MARCH-JULY).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (April-August).

Further exactions from China.
Lease of territory opposite Hong Kong, etc.

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-AUGUST).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (May).

Death of Mr. Gladstone.
After a long and painful illness, the great statesman and

leader of the Liberal party in England, William Ewart
Gladstone, died on the 19th of May. His death drew tributes in
Parliament from his political opponents which exalted him quite
to the height of great distinction that those who followed him
would claim. It was said by Lord Salisbury that "the most
distinguished political name of the century had been withdrawn
from the roll of Englishmen." Mr. Balfour described him as
"the greatest member of the greatest deliberative assembly
that the world had yet seen": and expressed the belief that
"they would never again have in that assembly any man who
could reproduce what Mr. Gladstone was to his contemporaries."
Lord Rosebery paid an eloquent tribute to the dead statesman.

"This country." he said, "this nation, loves brave men. Mr.
Gladstone was the bravest of the brave. There was no cause so
hopeless that he was afraid to undertake it; there was no
amount of opposition that would cowe him when once he had
undertaken it. My lords, Mr. Gladstone always expressed a hope
that there might be an interval left to him between the end of
his political and of his natural life. That period was given
to him, for it is more than four years since he quitted the
sphere of politics. Those four years have been with him a
special preparation for his death, but have they not also been
a preparation for his death with the nation at large?
{210}
Had he died in the plenitude of his power as Prime Minister,
would it have been possible for a vigorous and convinced
Opposition to allow to pass to him, without a word of dissent,
the honours which are now universally conceded? Hushed for the
moment are the voices of criticism, hushed are the controversies
in which he took part; hushed for the moment is the very sound
of party faction. I venture to think that this is a notable
fact in our history. It was not so with the elder Pitt. It was
not so with the younger Pitt. It was not so with the elder
Pitt, in spite of his tragic end, of his unrivalled services,
and of his enfeebled old age. It was not so with the younger
Pitt, in spite of his long control of the country and his
absolute and absorbed devotion to the State. I think that we
should remember this as creditable not merely to the man, but
to the nation." With the consent of Mrs. Gladstone and family,
a public funeral was voted by Parliament, and the remains of the
great leader were laid, with simple but impressive ceremonies,
in Westminster Abbey, on the 28th of May.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (June).

The Sugar Conference at Brussels.

SUGAR BOUNTIES.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (July).

The Local Government Act for Ireland.

IRELAND: A. D. 1898 (JULY).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (July-December).
In the Chinese "Battle of Concessions."

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (September-November).-

The Nile question with France.
Marchand's expedition at Fashoda.

EGYPT: A. D. 1898 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (December).

Imperial Penny Postage.
On Christmas Day, 1898, the Imperial penny postage came into

operation,—i. e., it became possible to send for a penny a
letter not above half an ounce in weight to all places in the
British Empire, except the Australasian Colonies and the Cape.
"Thousands of small orders and business transactions and
millions of questions and answers will fly round the world at
a penny which were too heavily weighted at two-pence
halfpenny. The political effect of the fact that it will not
now be necessary to think whether an address is outside the
United Kingdom, but only whether it is inside the British
Empire, will be by no means insignificant. If people will only
let the Empire alone we shall ultimately weave out of many
varied strands—some thick, some thin—a rope to join the
Motherland and the Daughter States which none will be able to
break. Not an unimportant thread in the hawser will
be,—letters for a penny wherever the Union Jack is flown."
The Spectator (London),

December 31, 1898.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898-1899.
Joint High Commission for settlement of pending questions
between the United States and Canada.

CANADA: A. D. 1898-1899.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1898-1899 (June-June).

Convention with France defining West African and
Sudan possessions.

NIGERIA: A. D. 1882-1899.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899.
Dealings with anti-missionary demonstrations in China.

CHINA: A. D. 1899.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (January).

Agreement with Egypt, establishing the Anglo-Egyptian
Condominium in the Sudan.

EGYPT: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (March-April).

Agreement with Russia concerning railway interests in China.

CHINA: A. D. 1899 (MARCH-APRIL).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (May-June).

The Bloemfontein Conference with President Kruger.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1899 (MAY-JUNE).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (June-October).

Arbitration and settlement of the Venezuela boundary question.

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1896-1899.

Passage of the London Government Act.

LONDON: A. D. 1899.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (July-September).

Discussion of proposed amendments to the Franchise Law
of the South African Republic.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1899 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (August).

The Board of Education Act.
An Act of Parliament which became law on the 9th of August,

1899, and operative on the 1st of April, 1900, created a
national Board of Education, "charged with the superintendence
of matters relating to education in England and Wales," and
taking the place of the Committee of the Privy Council on
Education, by which that function had previously been
performed. The Act provided that the Board "shall consist of a
President, and of the Lord President of the Council (unless he
is appointed President of the Board), Her Majesty's Principal
Secretaries of State, the First Commissioner of Her Majesty's
Treasury, and the Chancellor of Her Majesty's Exchequer. … The
President of the Board shall be appointed by Her Majesty, and
shall hold office during Her Majesty's pleasure." The Act
provided further for the creation by Her Majesty in Council of
"a Consultative Committee consisting, as to not less than
two-thirds, of persons qualified to represent the views of
Universities and other bodies interested in education, for the
purpose of—(a) framing, with the approval of the Board of
Education, regulations for a register of teachers, … with an
entry in respect to each teacher showing the date of his
registration, and giving a brief record of his qualifications
and experience; and (b) advising the Board of Education on any
matter referred to the committee by the Board."
62 & 63 Victoria, chapter 33.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (August).

Instructions to the Governor of Jamaica.
See (in this volume) JAMAICA: A. D. 1899.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (September-October).

Preparations for war in South Africa.
The Boer Ultimatum.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL AND ORANGE FREE STATE):
A. D. 1899 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (October-November).

Opening circumstances of the war in South Africa.
Want of preparation.
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (November).

Adhesion to the arrangement of an "open door" commercial
policy in China.

CHINA: A. D. 1899-1900 (SEPTEMBER-FEBRUARY).
{211}
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (November).

Withdrawal from the Samoan Islands, with compensations in the
Tonga and Solomon Islands and in Africa.

SAMOAN ISLANDS.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899-1900.
Renewed investigation of the Old-Age Pension question.
On the initiative of the government, a fresh investigation of

the question of old-age pensions was opened in 1899 by a
select committee of the House of Commons, under the
chairmanship of Mr. Chaplin. The report of the Committee, made
in the following year, suggested the following plan: Any
person, aged 65, whether man or woman, who satisfied the
pension authority that he or she"
(1) Is a British subject;
(2) Is 65 years of age;
(3) Has not within the last 20 years been convicted of an

offence and sentenced to penal servitude or imprisonment
without the option of a fine;
(4) Has not received poor relief, other than medical relief,
unless under circumstances of a wholly exceptional character,
during twenty years prior to the application for a pension;
(5) Is resident within the district of the pension authority;
(6) Has not an income from any source of more than 10s. a
week; and
(7) Has endeavoured to the best of his ability, by his

industry or by the exercise of reasonable providence, to make
provision for himself and those immediately dependent on
him—"should receive a certificate to that effect and be
entitled to a pension. The amount of pension to be from 5s. to
7s. a week.
As a means of ascertaining approximately the number of persons

in the United Kingdom who would be pensionable under this
scheme, a test census was taken in certain districts made as
representative as possible by the inclusion of various kinds
of population. In each of the selected areas in Great Britain
a house-to-house visitation was made with a view of
ascertaining how many of the aged would satisfy the conditions
of the scheme. In Ireland a similar census had to be abandoned
as impracticable because "the officials, although they
proceeded courteously, were received with abuse"; but the Poor
Law inspectors framed some rough estimates after consultation
with local authorities. Altogether the inquiry in Great
Britain extended to a population of rather over half a million
persons. From facts thus obtained the following estimate of
the cost of the proposed pensioning project was deduced:
Estimated number of persons

over 65 years of age in 1901
2,016,000
Deduct:
1. For those whose incomes exceed 10s. a week
741,000
2. For paupers
515,000
3. For aliens, criminals, and lunatics
32,000
4. For inability to comply with thrift test
72,700
Total deductions
1,360,700
Estimated number of pensionable persons

655,000
Estimated cost (the average pension being

taken at 6s. a week)
£9,976,000
Add administrative expenses (3 per cent.)
£299,000
Total estimated cost.

£10,275,000
In round figures.
£10,300,000
The Committee estimated, still further, that the cost would

rise to £15,650,000 by 1921. No legislative action was taken
on the report.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899-1900 (October-January).
Troops from Canada for the South African War.

CANADA: A. D. 1899-1900.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1899-1901.
The Newfoundland French Shore question.

NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1899-1901.
Industrial combinations.

TRUSTS: IN ENGLAND.
Naval strength.

NAVIES OF THE SEA POWERS.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (January-March).

The outbreak of the "Boxers" in northern China.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JANUARY-MARCH).

Compulsory education.
A bill introduced in Parliament by a private member,

unsupported by the government, providing that the earliest
date at which a child should be permitted to leave school
should be raised from 11 to 12 years, was passed, only one
member of the Cabinet voting for it.

Negotiation of a convention with the United States relative
to the projected Interoceanic Canal.

CANAL, INTEROCEANIC: A. D. 1900 (DECEMBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (March).

Overtures of peace from the Boer Presidents.
Reply of Lord Salisbury.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1900 (MARCH).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (May).

Annexation of Orange Free State by right of conquest.

SOUTH AFRICA (ORANGE FREE STATE): A. D. 1900 (MAY).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (June-December).

Co-operation with the Powers in China.

CHINA.

Passage of the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act,"
federating the Australian Colonies.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1900;
and CONSTITUTION OF AUSTRALIA.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (September).
Proclamation of the Commonwealth of Australia.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1900 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (September-October).

Dissolution of Parliament.
Election of a new Parliament.
Victory for the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists.
By royal proclamation, September 17, the existing Parliament

was dissolved and order given for the issue of writs calling a
new Parliament, the elections for which were held in October,
concluding on the 24th of that month. The state of parties in
the House of Commons resulting from the election was as
follows: Conservatives, 334, Liberal Unionists, 68; total
supporters of the Unionist Ministry, 402. Liberals and Labor
members, 186, Nationalists (Irish), 82; total opposition, 268.
Unionist majority, 134, against 128 in the preceding
Parliament. The issues in the election were those growing out
of the South African War. Although most of the Liberals upheld
the war, and the annexation of the South African republics,
they sharply criticised the prior dealings of the Colonial
Secretary, Mr. Chamberlain, with the Transvaal Boers, and the
general conduct of the war. A number of the leading Liberals
were uncompromising in condemnation of the war, of the policy
which caused it, and of the proposed extinction of Boer
independence. The sentiment of the country was shown by the
election to be strongly against all questioning of the
righteousness of the war or of the use to be made of victory
in it.
{212}
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (October).

Anglo-German agreement concerning policy in China.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (October).

Annexation of the Transvaal.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1900 (OCTOBER).
ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (November-December).

The Fourth Ministry of Lord Salisbury.
Brief session of Parliament.
For the fourth time, Lord Salisbury was called to the lead in
government, and formed his Ministry anew, making considerable
changes. He relieved himself of the conduct of Foreign Affairs
(which was transferred to the Marquis of Lansdowne), and took,
with the office of Prime Minister, that of Lord Privy Seal. Mr.
Brodrick, who had been an Under Secretary, succeeded Lord
Lansdowne as Secretary of State for War. Mr. Balfour continued
to be First Lord of the Treasury, and Leader of the House; Mr.
Chamberlain remained in the Colonial Office. Mr. Goschen
retired.
Parliament met on the 6th of December, for the purpose set

forth in a remarkably brief "Queen's Speech," as follows: "My
Lords, and Gentlemen, It has become necessary to make further
provision for the expenses incurred by the operations of my
armies in South Africa and China. I have summoned you to hold
a Special Session in order that you may give your sanction to
the enactments required for this purpose. I will not enter
upon other public matters requiring your attention until the
ordinary meeting of Parliament in the spring." The estimates
of the War Office called for £16,000,000, and it was voted
after a few days of debate, in which the causes and conduct of
the war were criticised and defended by the two parties, and,
on the 15th, Parliament was prorogued to the 14th of February,
1901, by the Queen's command.

Fall of stones at Stonehenge.

STONEHENGE.

Parliamentary statements of the number of men employed in the
South African War, and the number dead and disabled.
In the House of Commons, December 11, Mr. Brodrick, Secretary

of State for War, moved a vote of £16,000,000, required for
the current year, to meet additional expenditure in South
Africa and China. In the course of his remarks, explanatory of
the need for this supplementary supply, he made the following
statement: "When the war broke out we had in South Africa in
round figures 10,000 men, all Regular troops. We have in the
14 months' which have since elapsed sent from this country and
landed in South Africa 175,000 Regular soldiers, a number which
exceeds by far any number which any Minister from this bench
or any gentleman sitting behind these benches or in front of
them ever suggested that this country ought to be in a
position to ship to any part of the world, and a number far in
excess of that which during any period that I have sat in the
house any member of the House, except an official, would have
been willing to believe that the War Office could find to
dispose of. But they are not the only troops. We have called
on them, I will not say to the extreme limit of our power,
but, at all events, with an unsparing hand. But you have in
addition, as this return will show, some 40,000 Volunteers of
various descriptions from the United Kingdom—40,000 including
the Imperial Yeomanry, whose service is spoken of by every
officer under whom they have served with such satisfaction; 30
Militia regiments, who are also Volunteers, since their term
of service was only for the United Kingdom and who have gone
abroad at great personal sacrifice to themselves; and the
volunteer companies who have joined the Regular battalions.
You have also got 40,000 colonial troops, to a large extent,
no doubt, men raised in the colonies affected, and as
everybody knows to a still larger extent consisting of men who
have gone for a year from Australia, Canada, and other
places."
Sir William Harcourt replied to Mr. Brodrick, not in

opposition to the motion, but in criticism of the conduct of
the war. Referring to a return submitted by the War Office, he
analyzed its showing of facts, thus: "Now just let us look at
this table. By some accident it only gives the rank and file
and non-commissioned officers. It is a very terrible return,
and I think it is worthy of the attention of the men who
delight in war, of whom, I am afraid, there are unhappily not
a few. I have made a short analysis of the paper. It shows
that the garrison at the Cape before the war was 9,600.
Reinforcements of 6,300 men were sent out in October last year
and from India 5,600, which with the former garrison made up
21,000 in all when the war broke out. Up to August, that is,
after the last estimate for 1900, according to this table
267,000 men had been in arms in South Africa—that is without
the officers. Therefore I will call it 270,000 men in round
numbers. I think the right honourable gentleman made a mistake
when he said that the colonial troops were more numerous from
beyond the seas than they were in the Cape. This return shows
that the men raised in South Africa were 30,000, and, apart
from them, the colonials from beyond the seas were 11,000.
According to the last return there were 210,000 men in South
Africa. You will observe there is a balance of some 60,000 or
70,000 men. What has become of those men? You would find from
this return, one would suppose, that a good many of these have
returned safe and sound to England. No, Sir; the men who have
returned to England according to this paper, not invalids, are
7,500 and to the colonies 3,000 more. That makes 10,000 men,
or with the officers about 11,000 men. But since July you have
sent out 13,000 men to South Africa, more, in fact, than you
have been bringing home, and yet you have only 210,000 men
there. Now, Sir, how is this accounted for? First of all you
have the heading, 'killed or died of wounds,' 11,000 men. You
have 'wounded,' 13,000, you have 'in hospital in South
Africa,' 12,000, and you have 'returned to England, sick,
wounded, or died on passage,' 36,000 men. That is the balance.
Seventy thousand men have been killed, wounded, or disabled,
or have died in this war. And now what is the prospect that is
held before us with this force, once 270,000 men, and now
210,000, in South Africa? Lord Roberts has declared that the
war is over, yet you hold out to us no prospect of diminishing
the force you have in South Africa of 210,000 men."
{213}
ENGLAND: A. D. 1901 (January).

Death of Queen Victoria.
The following notice, which appeared in the "Court Circular,"

on the 18th of January, dated from the winter residence of the
Queen at Osborne House, in the Isle of Wight, seems to have
been the first intimation to the country of its sovereign's
failing health: "The Queen has not lately been in her usual
health and is unable for the present to take her customary
drives. The Queen during the past year has had a great strain
upon her powers, which has rather told upon her Majesty's
nervous system. It has, therefore, been thought advisable by
her Majesty's physicians that the Queen should be kept
perfectly quiet in the house and should abstain for the
present from transacting business." It was subsequently found,
as stated in an "authoritative account" by the "British
Medical Journal," and the "Lancet," that "the Queen's health
for the past 12 months had been failing, with symptoms mainly
of a dyspeptic kind, accompanied by impaired general
nutrition, periods of insomnia, and later by occasional slight
and transitory attacks of aphasia, the latter suggesting that
the cerebral vessels had become damaged, although her
Majesty's general arterial system showed remarkably few signs
of age. … The dyspepsia which tended to lower her Majesty's
original robust constitution was especially marked during her
last visit to Balmoral. It was there that the Queen first
manifested distinct symptoms of brain fatigue and lost notably
in weight. These symptoms continued at Windsor, where in November
and December, 1900, slight aphasic symptoms were first
observed, always of an ephemeral kind, and unattended by any
motor paralysis. … A few days before the final illness
transient but recurring symptoms of apathy and somnolence,
with aphasic indications and increasing feebleness, gave great
uneasiness to her physician." Before the publication of the
cautious announcement quoted above, the symptoms had become
too grave to leave any doubt as to the near approach of death.
It came on Tuesday, the 22d of January, at half past six
o'clock in the evening, the dying Queen being then surrounded
by a large number of her many children, grandchildren and
great grandchildren, whom she recognized, it is said, within a
few moments of the end. The eldest of the Queen's children,
the Empress Frederick, was kept from her mother's side a this
last hour by serious illness of her own; but the Emperor
William, of Germany (son of the Empress Frederick and eldest
grandson of Queen Victoria) had hastened to the scene and
showed a filial affection which touched English hearts.
On Friday, the first day of February, the remains of the Queen

were borne from the island where she died to Portsmouth, between
long lines of battle-ships and cruisers—British, German,
French, Italian, Japanese, Belgian and Portuguese. The scene
of the funeral voyage was impressively described by a
correspondent of the New York "Sun," as follows: "Nature was
never kindlier. The smiling waters of the Solent were as calm
as on a summer's morning. It was 'Queen's weather' to the very
last. The cavalcade which wended slowly through the narrow
lane, green even in midwinter, down through the streets of the
little town of Cowes to the Trinity pier was a funeral
procession such as the world had never seen before. Kings and
princes, a Queen and princesses, walked humbly between black
lines of mourning islanders, escorting the coffin of the dead
sovereign. Then followed a sight far more notable and more
impressive, indeed, than the great tribute the great capital
of the empire will pay to-morrow. It was the transit of the
funeral yacht across the waters between lines of steel which
are England's bulwarks against the world. Battleship after
battleship thundered its grief, band after band wailed its
dirge and crew after crew bowed low their heads as the pigmy
yacht swept past, bearing no passengers save an admiral on the
bridge and four red-coated guards at the corners of the
simple, glowing white bier resting amidships. It was a picture
neither a painter's brush nor an orator's eloquence could
reproduce. … The boat slowly glided on in the mellow light of
the afternoon sun, herself almost golden in hue, sharply
contrasting with the black warships. The ears also were
assailed in strange contrast, the sad strains of Beethoven's
funeral march floating over the water being punctuated by the
roar of minute guns from each ship. Somehow it was not
incongruous and one felt that it was all a great and majestic
tribute to a reign which was an era and to a sovereign to whom
the world pays its highest honors."
On the following day the remains were conveyed by railway from

Portsmouth to London, carried in solemn procession through the
streets of the capital, and thence by railway to Windsor,
where the last rites were performed on Monday, the 4th. The
Queen was then laid to rest, by the side of her husband, in
the mausoleum which she had built at Frogmore.
Of the sincerity with which Queen Victoria had been loved by

her own people and respected and admired by the world at
large, and of the genuineness of sorrow that was manifested
everywhere at her death, there can be no doubt. To the
impressiveness of the ending of an unexampled period of
history there was added a true sense of loss, from the
disappearance of a greatly important personage, whose high
example had been pure and whose large influence had been good.
Among all the tributes to the Queen that were called out by
her death none seem so significant and so fully drawn from
knowledge of what she was in her regal character, as the words
that were spoken by Lord Salisbury in the House of Lords, at
the meeting of Parliament on the Friday following her death.
"My lords." he said, "the late Queen had so many titles to our
admiration that it would occupy an enormous time to glance at
them even perfunctorily; but that on which I think your
lordships should most reflect, and which will chiefly attach
to her character in history, is that, being a constitutional
monarch with restricted powers, she reigned by sheer force of
character, by the lovableness of her disposition, over the
hearts of her subjects, and exercised an influence in moulding
their character and destiny which she could not have done more
if she had bad the most despotic power. She has been a great
instance of government by example, by esteem, by love; and it
will never be forgotten how much she has done for the
elevation of her people, not by the exercise of any
prerogative, not by the giving of any commands, but by the
simple recognition and contemplation of the brilliant
qualities which she has exhibited in her exalted position. My
lords, it may be, perhaps, proper that those who, like noble
lords opposite and myself, have had the opportunity of seeing
the close workings of her character in the discharge of her
duties as Sovereign, should take this opportunity of
testifying to the great admiration she inspired and the great
force which her distinguishing characteristics exercised over
all who came near her.
{214}
The position of a Constitutional Sovereign is not an easy one.
Duties have to be reconciled which sometimes seem far apart.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND COMMENTS

The intent of this chapter is to provide an overview of two

21.1 The Cleanroom Strategy

This section introduces the key concepts of cleanroom software

21.2 Functional Specification

Functional specification using boxes is the focus of this section. It is

21.3 Cleanroom Design

If you plan to have your students verify their box specifications

21.4 Cleanroom Testing

This section provides and overview of statistical use testing and

This section discusses the benefits of using formal specification

Note: If your students have not completed a good course in discrete

21.6 Applying Mathematical Notation for Formal Specification

This section uses mathematical notation to refine the block handler

21.7 Formal Specification Languages

This section discusses the properties of formal specification languages

A Detailed Example of the Z Language

To illustrate the practical use of a specification language, Spivey 1

Embedded systems are commonly built around a small operating-system kernel

1 Spivey, J.M., “Specifying a Real-Time Kernel,” IEEE Software, September,

About the Kernel

The Spectator (London), February 5, 1898.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (February).

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (February-May).

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (April-August).

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (May).

After a long and painful illness, the great statesman and

Lord Rosebery paid an eloquent tribute to the dead statesman.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (June).

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (July).

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (September-November).-

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (December).

On Christmas Day, 1898, the Imperial penny postage came into

The Spectator (London),

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898-1899 (June-June).

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (January).

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1899 (March-April).