Aqueous Solutions and Dilution

I. Introduction
Aqueous solutions play a fundamental role in both chemistry and everyday
life.
Definition: Aqueous solutions are solutions in which water serves as the
solvent, dissolving solutes to form homogeneous mixtures.
Overview of the lecture: Exploring the significance of aqueous solutions in
various contexts.
II. Importance in Chemistry
A. Solvent for Chemical Reactions
Water's unique properties as a solvent make it indispensable in chemical
reactions.
Many chemical reactions occur in aqueous environments, facilitating
interactions between reactants and promoting reaction rates.
Examples: Acid-base reactions, precipitation reactions, and redox reactions.
B. Dilution and Concentration
Aqueous solutions provide a convenient medium for diluting and
concentrating substances.
Dilution is crucial in analytical chemistry for preparing standard solutions
and controlling concentrations.
Concentrated aqueous solutions are used in various industrial processes,
such as manufacturing and pharmaceutical production.
C. Ionization and Conductivity
Aqueous solutions allow for the ionization of solutes, leading to the formation
of ions in solution.
The presence of ions in solution imparts conductivity, making aqueous
solutions essential for electrolytic processes and electrical conductivity
measurements.
Applications include electroplating, electrochemical cells, and conductivity
measurements in analytical chemistry.
III. Properties of Aqueous Solutions
Understanding the characteristics of aqueous solutions is essential in fields
ranging from chemistry and biology to environmental science and engineering.
Solubility: Solubility refers to the ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent to
form a homogeneous solution. It is influenced by factors such as temperature,
pressure, and the nature of the solute and solvent. Substances with similar
polarities tend to dissolve in each other, following the principle "like dissolves
like." For example, polar solutes such as salts and sugars typically dissolve well
in water due to water's polarity.

1. Concentration: Concentration is a measure of the amount of solute

dissolved in a solvent. It can be expressed in various units such as molarity
(moles of solute per liter of solution), molality (moles of solute per kilogram
of solvent), mole fraction, and mass percentage. Concentration affects the
properties of aqueous solutions, including their density, viscosity, and
osmotic pressure.
2. Acidity and Basicity: Aqueous solutions can be acidic, basic, or neutral
depending on the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions
(OH⁻). The pH scale is used to quantify the acidity or basicity of a solution,
with pH values ranging from 0 to 14. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are
acidic, those with a pH greater than 7 are basic, and solutions with a pH of 7
are neutral. Acids donate protons (H⁺ ions) in aqueous solutions, while
bases accept protons or donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
3. Electrolytic Properties: Aqueous solutions can conduct electricity if they
contain dissolved ions. Substances that dissociate into ions when dissolved
in water are called electrolytes. Strong electrolytes dissociate completely
into ions, while weak electrolytes only partially dissociate. Ionic compounds
such as salts, acids, and bases are examples of electrolytes. The ability of
aqueous solutions to conduct electricity is essential in various
electrochemical processes, including batteries, electrolysis, and
electroplating.
In summary, understanding the characteristics of aqueous solutions is essential
for comprehending a wide range of chemical, biological, and environmental
phenomena. These properties influence the behavior and interactions of
substances in solution and have significant implications in various scientific and
industrial applications.
IV. Types of Aqueous Solutions
Electrolytes vs. non-electrolytes:
Electrolytes: Substances that dissociate into ions in solution,
increasing conductivity.
Non-electrolytes: Substances that do not dissociate into ions in
solution.
 Strong vs. Weak Electrolytes:
Strong electrolytes completely dissociate into ions (e.g., strong acids,
strong bases, soluble salts).
Weak electrolytes partially dissociate into ions (e.g., weak acids, weak
bases).

Dilution of Aqueous Solutions

A. Definition and Purpose

Dilution: Process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more

solvent.

Purpose of dilution:

Adjusting the concentration of a solution for experimental purposes.

Preparing solutions of desired concentrations for various applications.

B. Dilution Equation

The dilution equation relates the initial concentration, volume, and final
concentration of a solution: C1V1=C2V2 Where:

C1: Initial concentration of the solution (before dilution)

V1: Initial volume of the solution (before dilution)

C2: Final concentration of the solution (after dilution)

V2: Final volume of the solution (after dilution)

C. Procedure for Dilution

1. Measure the initial volume and concentration of the solution.

2. Determine the desired final concentration and volume.

3. Use the dilution equation to calculate the volume of solvent needed to achieve
the desired concentration.

4. Add the calculated volume of solvent to the solution and mix thoroughly.

Example
Suppose you have a solution of sulfuric acid with a concentration of 2 M (moles per
liter) and you want to dilute it to a concentration of 0.5 M. To achieve this, you need
to add water to the solution. Let's say you add 1 liter of water to the original solution.
To calculate the final concentration, you can use the formula for dilution:
C1V1=C2V2
Where:
 • C1 = initial concentration of the solution (2 M)
• V1 = volume of the solution to be diluted (let's say 1 liter)
• C2 = final concentration of the solution (0.5 M)
• V2 = final volume of the solution after dilution
Substituting the given values into the formula:
(2M) ×(1L) = (0.5M) ×V2
V2= (2 M) × (1 L)/0.5 M
V2=4L
So, to dilute the solution to 0.5 M, you need to add 3 liters of water to 1 liter of the
original solution.
In conclusion, dilution is a versatile mathematical concept with applications in various
fields such as chemistry, finance, and statistics. Understanding the principles of
dilution is crucial for making accurate calculations and interpreting results in these
domains.
Stoichiometric relationships in chemistry
Stoichiometric relationships are the branch of chemistry in which one studies
about the relationships between the reactants and the products of a chemical
reaction. This relationship is required to calculate the quantitative data.

In order to use stoichiometry to run calculations about chemical reactions, it is

important to first understand the relationships that exist between products and
reactants and why they exist, which require understanding how to balance
reactions.
Balancing

In chemistry, chemical reactions are frequently written as an equation, using

chemical symbols. The reactants are displayed on the left side of the equation
and the products are shown on the right, with the separation of either a single or
double arrow that signifies the direction of the reaction. The significance of
single and double arrow is important when discussing solubility constants, but
we will not go into detail about it in this module. To balance an equation, it is
necessary that there are the same number of atoms on the left side of the
equation as the right. One can do this by raising the coefficients.

Reactants to Products

A chemical equation is like a recipe for a reaction, so it displays all the

ingredients or terms of a chemical reaction. It includes the elements, molecules,
or ions in the reactants and in the products as well as their states, and the
proportion for how much of each particle reacts or is formed relative to one
another, through the stoichiometric coefficient. The following equation
demonstrates the typical format of a chemical equation:

2Na(s)+2HCl(aq)→2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)

In the above equation, the elements present in the reaction are represented by
their chemical symbols. Based on the Law of Conservation of Mass, which
states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, every
chemical reaction has the same elements in its reactants and products, though
the elements they are paired up with often change in a reaction. In this reaction,
sodium (Na), hydrogen (H), and chloride (Cl) are the elements present in both
reactants, so based on the law of conservation of mass, they are also present on
the product side of the equations. Displaying each element is important when
using the chemical equation to convert between elements.

Stoichiometric Coefficients

In a balanced reaction, both sides of the equation have the same number of
elements. The stoichiometric coefficient is the number written in front of atoms,
ion and molecules in a chemical reaction to balance the number of each
 element on both the reactant and product sides of the equation. Though the
stoichiometric coefficients can be fractions, whole numbers are frequently used
and often preferred. These stoichiometric coefficients are useful since they
establish the mole ratio between reactants and products. In the balanced
equation:

2Na(s)+2HCl(aq)→2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)

we can determine that 2 moles of HCl will react with 2 moles of Na(s) to form 2
moles of NaCl(aq) and 1 mole of H2(g). If we know how many moles
of Na reacted, we can use the ratio of 2 moles of NaCl to 2 moles of Na to
determine how many moles of NaCl were produced or we can use the ratio of 1
mole of H2 to 2 moles of Na to convert to NaCl. This is known as the coefficient
factor. The balanced equation makes it possible to convert information about
the change in one reactant or product to quantitative data about another
reactant or product. Understanding this is essential to solving stoichiometric
problems.

Example

Lead (IV) hydroxide and sulfuric acid react as shown below. Balance the
reaction.

Pb(OH)4+H2SO4→Pb(SO4)2+H2O

Solution

Start by counting the number of atoms of each element.

UNBALANCED

Element Reactant (# of atoms) Product (# of atoms)

Pb 1 1

O 8 9

H 6 2

S 1 2
Balancing reactions involves finding least common multiples between numbers
of elements present on both sides of the equation. In general, when applying
coefficients, add coefficients to the molecules or unpaired elements last.

A balanced equation ultimately has to satisfy two conditions.

1. The numbers of each element on the left and right side of the equation
must be equal.
2. The charge on both sides of the equation must be equal. It is especially
important to pay attention to charge when balancing redox reactions.

Types of Reactions

There are 6 basic types of reactions.

• Combustion: Combustion is the formation of CO2 and H2O from the

reaction of a chemical and O2
• Combination (synthesis): Combination is the addition of 2 or more
simple reactants to form a complex product.
• Decomposition: Decomposition is when complex reactants are broken
down into simpler products.
• Single Displacement: Single displacement is when an element from on
reactant switches with an element of the other to form two new
reactants.
• Double Displacement: Double displacement is when two elements from
on reactants switched with two elements of the other to form two new
reactants.
• Acid-Base: Acid- base reactions are when two reactants form salts and
water.
Molar Mass

Before applying stoichiometric factors to chemical equations, you need to

understand molar mass. Molar mass is a useful chemical ratio between mass
and moles. The atomic mass of each individual element as listed in the periodic
table established this relationship for atoms or ions. For compounds or
molecules, you have to take the sum of the atomic mass times the number of
each atom in order to determine the molar mass.

Example

What is the molar mass of H2O?

Solution

Molar mass=2×(1.00794g/mol)+1×(15.9994g/mol)=18.01528g/mol Molar

mass=2×(1.00794)+1×(15.9994)=18.01528

Using molar mass and coefficient factors, it is possible to convert mass of

reactants to mass of products or vice versa.

Example: Combustion of Propane

Propane (C3H8C3H8) burns in this reaction:

C3H8+5O2→4H2O+3CO2

If 200 g of propane is burned, how many g of H2O is produced?

Solution
Steps to getting this answer: Since you cannot calculate from grams of reactant
to grams of products you must convert from grams of C3H8 to moles of C3H8
then from moles of C3H8 to moles of H2O. Then convert from moles of H2O to
grams of H2O.

• Step 1: 200 g C3H8 is equal to 4.54 mol C3H8.

• Step 2: Since there is a ratio of 4:1 H2O to C3H8, for every 4.54 mol C3H8
there are 18.18 mol H2O.
• Step 3: Convert 18.18 mol H2O to g H2O. 18.18 mol H2O is equal to 327.27
g H2O.

Standard Solutions
I. Definition:
A standard solution is a solution of accurately known
concentration, used in chemical analysis for precisely
determining the concentration of another substance (analyte) in a
sample.
II. Characteristics of Standard Solutions
1. Purity
Definition:
Purity refers to the absence of impurities or contaminants in a
substance.
Importance:
High purity is crucial in standard solutions to prevent interference
with the analyte and ensure accurate results.
Methods of Ensuring Purity:
Use of high-quality starting materials
Purification techniques such as recrystallization or distillation
Analysis of purity through techniques like spectroscopy or
chromatography
2. Stability
Definition:
Stability refers to the ability of a standard solution to maintain its
concentration over time under specified storage conditions.
Factors Affecting Stability:
 Temperature
Light
Chemical reactions with container materials or atmospheric
gases
Importance:
Stable standard solutions ensure consistent and reliable results
over time.
3. Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy:
Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true value.
Precision:
Precision refers to the degree of reproducibility or consistency of
measurements.
Importance:
Both accuracy and precision are essential in standard solutions to
ensure reliable and meaningful analytical results.
Methods of Assessing Accuracy and Precision:
Calibration curves
Statistical analysis of replicate measurements
4. Certification and Traceability
Certified Reference Materials (CRMs):
Definition and importance of CRMs in providing a reference point
for measurements.
Metrological Traceability:
- Traceability refers to the ability to trace measurements back to
an internationally recognized standard.
- Metrological traceability ensures the accuracy and reliability of
standard solutions through established measurement chains.
Conclusion
- Recap of key points regarding the characteristics of standard
solutions.
- Emphasis on the importance of purity, stability, accuracy, and
precision in ensuring the quality and reliability of standard
solutions for analytical chemistry.
Chemical Equilibrium
Introduction:
Chemical equilibrium is a state in a chemical reaction where the forward and
reverse reactions occur at equal rates, resulting in no net change in the
concentrations of reactants and products over time. It's a dynamic process
where reactions continue to occur, but the concentrations of reactants and
products remain constant.
Equilibrium Constant (K):
The equilibrium constant, denoted as K, is a quantitative measure of the
extent of a chemical reaction at equilibrium.
Units of Equilibrium Constant
Equilibrium constant being the ratio of the concentrations raise to the
stoichiometric coefficients. Therefore, the unit of the equilibrium
constant = [Mole L-1]△n.
where, ∆n = sum of stoichiometric coefficients of products – sum of
stoichiometric coefficients of reactants.
1. When the concentration of the reactants is much larger than the
concentration of the products Kc will be small (normally less than
one).
2. When the concentration of the reactants is much less than that of the
products Kc will be large (normally greater than one).
 3. Larger Kc values indicate higher product formation and higher
percentage conversion.
4. Lower Kc values indicate lower product formation and lower
percentage conversion.
5. Medium Kc values indicate optimum product formation.

Example 1 - How to Calculate Kc from Concentrations

The reaction 𝑁2(𝑔)+3𝐻2(𝑔)⇌2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔) occurs in a reaction vessel at a certain
temperature until it has reached equilibrium. The equilibrium
concentrations of the reactants and products are 0.2 M 𝑁2, 0.3 M 𝐻2, and 0.5
M 𝑁𝐻3. Calculate Kc.
Step 1: Determine the stoichiometric coefficients a, b, c, and d from the
balanced equation 𝑎𝐴(𝑔)+𝑏𝐵(𝑔)⇌𝑐𝐶(𝑔)+𝑑𝐷(𝑔), where 𝐴,𝐵,𝐶,𝐷 represent the
reactants and products. a = 1, b = 3, and c = 2 (there is only one product).
Step 2: Insert the molar concentrations of the reactants and products, as
well as the stoichiometric coefficients from Step 1 into the formula for Kc:

𝐾𝑐=[𝐶]𝑐/[𝐴]𝑎[𝐵]𝑏
𝐾𝑐=[𝑁𝐻3]2/[𝑁2]1[𝐻2]3

𝐾𝑐=[0.5]2/[0.2]1[0.3]3
Step 3: Calculate Kc.

𝐾𝑐= 46.3 mol L-1

Example 2 - How to Calculate Kc from Concentrations
The reaction 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)+𝐻2(𝑔)⇌𝐶𝑂(𝑔)+𝐻2𝑂(𝑔) occurs in a reaction vessel at a
certain temperature until it has reached equilibrium. The equilibrium
concentrations of the reactants and products are 0.2 M 𝐶𝑂2, 0.9 M 𝐻2, 0.009
M 𝐶𝑂, and 0.009 M 𝐻2𝑂. Calculate Kc.
Step 1: Determine the stoichiometric coefficients a, b, c, and d from the
balanced equation 𝑎𝐴(𝑔)+𝑏𝐵(𝑔)⇌𝑐𝐶(𝑔)+𝑑𝐷(𝑔), where 𝐴,𝐵,𝐶,𝐷 represent the
reactants and products. a = 1, b = 1, c = 1, d = 1
Step 2: Insert the molar concentrations of the reactants and products, as
well as the stoichiometric coefficients from Step 1 into the formula for Kc:

𝐾𝑐=[𝐶]𝑐[𝐷]𝑑 / [𝐴]𝑎[𝐵]𝑏
𝐾𝑐=[𝐶𝑂]1[𝐻2𝑂]1/ [𝐶𝑂2]1[𝐻2]1

𝐾𝑐=[0.009]1[0.009]1/ [0.2]1[0.9]1
Step 3: Calculate Kc.

𝐾𝑐= 4.5 x 10-4 mol L-1

Characteristics of Equilibrium:
1. Dynamic Nature: Even though there is no net change in concentrations,
reactions are still occurring.
2. Reversible Reaction: Equilibrium is achieved in reversible reactions where
reactants can form products and vice versa.
3. Constant Properties: While concentrations remain constant, other
properties like temperature, pressure, and volume may not be constant.
4. Can Be Disrupted: Equilibrium can be disturbed by changing conditions,
leading to a shift in the equilibrium position.
Factors Affecting Equilibrium:
1. Concentration: Changes in the concentration of reactants or products
can shift the equilibrium position.
2. Pressure (for Gaseous Reactions): Changing the pressure can shift the
equilibrium position according to Le Chatelier's Principle.
3. Temperature: Altering the temperature affects the equilibrium constant
and can shift the equilibrium position.
4. Catalysts: Catalysts do not affect the position of equilibrium but can
speed up the attainment of equilibrium.
Le Chatelier's Principle:
This principle states that if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in
concentration, temperature, pressure, or volume, the system will shift its
equilibrium position to counteract the change and establish a new equilibrium.
Applications of Chemical Equilibrium:
1. Industrial Processes: Understanding equilibrium is crucial in optimizing
industrial processes like Haber process (ammonia synthesis), contact
process (sulfuric acid production), etc.
2. Environmental Chemistry: Equilibrium concepts help in understanding
the behavior of pollutants and their impact on the environment.
3. Biological Systems: Equilibrium principles are also applicable in
biological systems such as enzyme-catalyzed reactions, metabolic
pathways, etc.
Conclusion:
Chemical equilibrium is a fundamental concept in chemistry that governs the
behavior of reversible reactions. Understanding the principles of equilibrium and
factors affecting it is essential for various applications in industries,
environmental sciences, and biological systems.