Metal Forming and Machining

MT 2073
Dr. Indika De Silva

Munasinghe 2013
 Metal Forming and Machining
Content
1. Introduction
2. Classification of Metal Forming Processes
3. Mechanical Aspects of Metal Forming Processes
4. Metallurgical Aspects of Metal Forming Processes
5. Bulk Forming Processes
6. Sheet Forming Processes
7. Machines and Tools for Metal Forming Processes
8. Formability of Materials
9. Fundamentals of Machining
10. Tool Work Piece Interaction during Machning

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 1. Introduction
The manufacturing process is defined as “ The making of goods and articles by
hand or, especially by machinery, often on a large scale and division of labor”. In
DIN 8580 (German standards) the manufacturing process for engineering
components are defined as given in the fig. 1.

Change the
Create the Change the form material
form
Character
Primary Retain the Reduce the Increase the Change the
shaping mass mass mass mechanical
Constant Reduction in Increase in material properties
material material amount
amount amount
-Metal casting Metal Metal Joining Surface - Heat
• Sand casting forming cutting • welding coating treatment
• Permanent • forging (Machining) • brazing • painting - Mechanical
mould casting • drawing • turning •adhesive • plating working
• Die Casting • rolling • drilling bonding • powder - case Hardning
• bending etc. • milling coating • Nitriding
- Powder • grinding etc. • Carburizing
metallurgy

Figure 1: Classification of manufacturing methods according to DIN 8580

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 1. Introduction (contd.)
 In metal forming processes the volume (or the mass) of the
work piece is kept constant and mainly the geometrical
dimensions will be changed.

 It is very important to mention that the dimension of the work

piece can be change permanently only by deforming the
metal plastically (fig. 2).

 In the machining process the mass of the work piece is

reduced by removing (also plastic deformation) the
substances using a tool.

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 Figure 2: Hot Forging of a Crankshaft

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 1. Introduction (contd.)
 During plastic deformation of a metal, mechanical properties will also be
changed and therefore, a proper control of the forming process
parameters is needed to achieve the desired properties of the finish
product.

 This plastic forming process, in which the volume and mass of the metal
are displaced from one location to another, is influenced by;

1. Total external stress (required to perform the deformation)

2. Total strain
3. Local stresses and strains
4. Particle velocity

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 The overall pressure (total stress) develops a plastic deformation but
must not develop local fracture (Strain hardening effect). Also Must
create an optimum Flow stress which is again a function of;

1. Type of Material
2. Strain
3. Strain rate
4. Temperature of the work piece/process

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 1. Introduction (contd.)
1. Friction
Tool – Work piece Interaction • unnecessary energy
loss
• high wear rate of the
tools

2. Temperature increase
due to friction
• unnecessary energy loss
• change of process para.

3. Wear of the die and work

• difficult to maintain
tolerances
• cost for the tools
• Less productivity due to
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maintenance & repair
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 2. Classification of Metal Forming Processes
The Metal forming processes are mainly divided into two different
types of forming operations :
- Bulk forming
- Sheet forming

Bulk forming processes:

The whole volume of the work piece is deformed and they can be divided into
two major types:
(i) Direct compression type
Here primarily applied force is compressive and it is directly
responsible for the deformation. Generally material flow is perpendi
cular to the direction of compression (Forging).
(ii) Indirect compression type
where primarily applied force is compressive or tensile and indirect
compressive force will create a combined stress state, which makes
the plastic deformation (Wire drawing, Extrusion , Deep drawing).
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 (iii) Sheet forming processes:

Exist only localized plastic deformation. Typically involving a change

in sheet thickness. Generally for the deformation responsible forces
are in types of tensile, shear and bending.

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 3. Mechanical Aspects of Metal Forming Processes
 During metal forming:

• Metal must be stressed beyond its elastic limit (plastic deformation)

• Mechanical properties of the work piece will be changed.
• In cold drawing, the drawn wire shows a higher strength and
brittleness than its as received conditions.

 It is important to control the mechanical properties during metal working

process and the ultimate mechanical properties are depending up on;

- Type of metal working process (e.g. Rolling, Forging, extrusion)

- Process temperature
- Strain rate

 It is also important to calculate the optimum force required to produce a

particular deformation for a given geometry in the selected process.
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 3. Mechanical Aspects of Metal Forming Processes
The required force is used for:

(1) Homogeneous deformation

Depends upon the stress condition of the metal and considered as the
theoretical deformation.

(2) Inhomogeneous deformation

Mostly occurs in a complex stress conditions and it is difficult to

calculate using conventional theories.

(3) Friction

Exists at work piece/tool interface

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 3.1 Homogeneous Deformation
 Each element of the material will be deformed so that they
maintain their geometrical pattern.
As an example during tensile testing (uni-axial stress condition) till up to
necking the elements of the work piece will stretched but the geometrical
pattern will be maintained).

 Normally the calculations in metal forming processes can be

applied for homogeneous part of the deformation.

 Analytical studies are based on the theory of plasticity. (eg:

constant volume relationship).
 Because of the large deformation it is important to express
strain in terms of
- conventional strain (engineering strain).
- true strain (logarithmic strain or natural strain)
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 3.1.1 Conventional Strain (e)
P

h0
h1
h1  ho
Strain(e) 
ho
P
Stress( ) 
Ao

3.1.2 True Strain (ε)

h0
dh
 h h
1

h0
 ln where h0  h1
h1
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Therefore, using sign convention in metal forming: compression (+) tension (-)

ho
True strain in tension t   ln
h1
ho
True strain in compression c   ln
h1

3.1.3 Fractional Reduction (or Change) in Cross Section (r)

Ao  A1
r 
A0 Ao ho  A1h1
A1
 1 Since volume is constant h0
r  1
A0

h1
ho
 t   ln
h1
and also in tension;  t   ln1  r 
 t  ln  
1

1  r 

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 1
3
1   2   3  0
2

In this condition ductile material becomes brittle since due

to those stresses the material cannot deform. Therefore
the cracks will be initiated inside the material)

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 Yield Criteria in Metal Forming Processes
 To determine the flow stress (stress required to keep the material flow) it is
important to analyze the stress condition of the process (2D or 3D).

 In most metal forming processes the stress system producing yielding is a

complex 3-D one which contains the stresses
- perpendicular to the surfaces (normal stresses)
- parallel to the surface (shear stresses).

 In a complex stress condition the plastic flow occurs not only due to one
particular stress but due to the resultant of the combination of many
stresses (normal and shear).

 To know when will the plastic deformation really start it is necessary to

have yield criteria.

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 The yield criteria can be used:
to determine the equivalent uni-axial stress for a complicated stress
condition.

 In metal forming process two criteria will be considered.

- Tresca's criterion
- Von-Mise’s criterion

These both criteria are applied only for ductile material.

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 Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS):

-minimum stress to initiate slip, or stress required to initiate slip on a given

slip plane and in a given direction [most favorably oriented slip system].

Fs
As F cos = Fs

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  = F/A = Fs/(cos.A)
A = As cos 
 = Fs /(As. cos . cos )
 =  / (cos . cos )

max = y /2
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 •Slip deformation forms as small steps on the surface of
the single crystal.
•Slips are parallel to one another and loop around the
circumference of the specimen.
•Each step is a result of large dislocation motion on the slip
plane

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 Tresca's criterion
Tresca proposed that yielding occur at a point in a material when the
maximum shear stress at that point reaches a critical value measurable
as the shear stress at which yielding occurs in a uniaxial tensile test.

Y
 max  Y = Yield stress of the material
2
In 3-D stress conditions the maximum shear stress is called by the
difference between the largest and smallest principal stresses.
1   3
 max 
2
From equations above;
1   3  Y
Yielding occurs if ;
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  It is important to know that according to Tresca the intermediate principal
stress σ2 does not affect the maximum shear stress.
 Due to this assumption there is some consequent loss of accuracy.

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 Von Mise’s Criterion
If the principle stresses

 1   2 
2
 ( 2   3 )   3   1   2  f
2 2 2

σf – flow stress of the material in 3-D stress conditions

This criterion considers all 3 principal stresses and will give a

closer agreement with experimental values than that of Tresca's.

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 Examples for the verification of von Miese’s Criterian

(a) Uni-axial tensile stress: σ2=0 and σ3=0 Ex. Tensile testing

(b) Plan stress condition: σ3=0 Ex: Rolling

(c) Hydrostatic pressure: σ1 = σ2 = σ3 No yielding occurs

1
3

2

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 Example: Yield strength of a material is 135 MPa, the block of this material
was subjected to principal stresses 70 MPa,-30 Mpa and 3rd is unknown.
What is the magnitude of the 3rd stress which will create yielding.

 1   2   ( 2   3 )   3   1   2Y 2

(70  (30))  (30   3 )   3  70  2Y 2

2 2 2

 3  ......... Mpa

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 Inhomogeneous Deformation
(Redundant Deformation)

 During inhomogeneous deformation elements in the material

will change their pattern to a complicated geometry.

 In the case of hardness testing if the used force for the

indentation is unnecessarily high then it is difficult to measure
the actual diameter because of inhomogeneous deformation of
the material.

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 Coefficient of Friction in Sticking Condition
(Sticking Friction)

Where τf = flow stress at shear (yield stress at shear)

τi = interface friction

m = frictional shear factor

If the frictional shear factor

m = 0 there is no friction (perfect sliding)
m = 1 body is stick to the tool (maximum friction - sticking)

The friction can be reduced by using a lubricant. By reducing the frictional force

(i) The required force will be reduced

(ii) The tool wear will be reduced
(iii) The work piece damage will be reduced
(iv) The heat or temperature will be reduced
(v) The surface finish will be increased.
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 Efficiency in Metal Forming Processes
If the work done in a complete deformation process is Wa then,

Wa = Wh + Wi + Wf

Wh = Work necessary to produce homogeneous deformation

Wi = Work necessary to produce inhomogeneous deformation
Wf = Work done against friction

Also Done for homogeneous…

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 4. Metallurgical Aspects of Metal Forming

 The mechanical properties and the microstructure of the deformed work

piece is mainly dependent up on;

(1) working temperature

(2) strain rate

 The working temperature or the process temperature is a very important

parameter in forming processes and the processes are commonly
classified into;
(a) Cold working processes
(b) Hot working process

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 4.1 Effect of Cold Working
 Due to cold working of crystalline metal, the yield point and tensile
strength of the material will be increased. This is because of the
propagation and multiplication of the dislocation in the material.
 The increase of the dislocation density causes also the increase of
hardness and the decrease of the ductility.

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  This phenomenon is called Strain Hardening or Work Hardening and
it will influence the flow stress in metal forming processes
significantly.
 Generally a higher flow stress is needed to deform a metal at room
temperature than in elevated temperature due to the strain hardening.

 When cold working is excessive in particular metal formation process

the metal will fracture before reaching the desired size and shape.
 Therefore in order to avoid such problems cold working operations are
normally carried out in several steps with intermediate annealing
operations.

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  By this annealing process cold working metal will be soften and restored the
ductility. This sequence of repeated cold working and annealing is called the
cold working anneal cycle

 In the other hand, the strain hardening is important in manufacturing

process, since the strength of the material can be increased (with a good
ductility) if optimum process parameters are selected.
 By suitably adjusted cold work-annealing cycle the work pieces can be
produced with any desired degree of strain hardening and then required
strength and ductility can be obtained.
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 The complete annealing process can be divided in to
3 main stages:

Recovery
 Some of the Stored internal strain energy is relieved by dislocation
motion due to enhanced atomic diffusion at elevated temperature.

 Number of dislocations reduced (annihilation of dislocations take place )

 no apparent change in the microstructure of the deformed material.

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 Recrystallization
 Even after recovery, grains are still in a relatively high strain energy state.

 Formation of new set of strain-free and eqiaxed grains.

- grain structure is refined.

 Driving force to produce this new grain structure is the differences in

internal energy between the strained and unstrained (impurities,
precipitates etc) material.

Grain Growth
 Grains continue to grow following recrystallization at elevated temperatures.
 Energy required for grain growth is associated with grain boundaries.
- As grains increase in size, total boundary area decreases.
- This leads reduction in total energy.
 As large grains grow – small grains shrink.

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 Effect of Hot Working

 Hot working refers to the deformation carried out under conditions of high
temperature and strain rate.

 Recovery and recrystalization process occured during the deformation.

 Distorted grain structure produced by strain hardening is very rapidly

changed by formation of new strain free grains as a result of annealing.
this is called Dynamic Recrystallisation.

The dynamic recrystalisation is depend up on three factors;

• process temperature
• strain rate
• grain size

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 Instantane ous deformation velocity
Strain rate 
Instantane ous height

38

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 C Curve A - Strain hardening effect < recrystalization effect
Curve B - Strain hardening effect = recrystalization effect
Curve C - Strain hardening > recrystallization effect
B
A

strain rate sensitivity component factor (m)

ln  f  mln    ln C
m
f  C
Y m X  C

C- Constant
tan  = m = a/b

C - strength coefficient
m – strain rate sensitivity component factor
C and m are depend on temperature
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 Hot Shortness

This is the phenomenon associated with excessively high hot working temperatures.
that is a tendency for the metal to crack rather than deform. caused by a low-melting
constituent (iron sulfide) often present only in minute amounts, that is segregated
at grain boundaries. Hot shortness can be reduced by the addition of manganese,
which combines with the sulfur to form manganese sulfide. As manganese sulfide
has a higher melting point than iron sulfide

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 Forging
Forging is the oldest metal working art in which the metal will be worked into a
useful shape by hammering or pressing. Most forging operations are carried
out at high temperatures (hot working). Cold forging also can be done for some
metals. There are mainly three categories of forging processes.

(1) Open die forging

(2) Impression die forging
(3) Close die forging
Open die Forging

Open die forging allows free deformation of at least in one direction. Thereby the
dies are either flat or having a very simple shape
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 Impression die Forging
Complex shapes with great accuracy cannot be forged by open die forging.
Specially prepared dies are used for impression die forging

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  It is important to use enough metal in a forging billet to completely fill the
die cavity.
 It is difficult to find the correct amount and because of that a excess of
metal will be used. When the dies come together for the finishing
step the excess metal flows out of the cavity as a thin ribbon of metal
called flash.
 A flash gutter will be used to prevent the formation of wide flash. In the
final operation this flash will be trimmed by using a trimming die.

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 Close die Forging

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 In close die forging the work piece is completely trapped in the die cavity.
The design and manufacturing of die should be done very carefully and the
process should be controlled accurately.

 At the end of the process the cavity is completely filled with incompressible
solid. Because of that, the die pressure will be raised by steeply. This type
of forging usually applies to manufacture small work pieces.

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 Calculation of forging loads
This calculation is difficult due to,

1. complexity of the work piece

2. complexity of the material flow in the die
3. complexity of calculation of frictional forces
There are three methods to approach to calculate the forging load
1. Estimate the forging load required for a new part from data available from
previous forging of the same material and similar shape.
2. Empirical approach according to the Schey

P   At C

C = constrain factor which depends on the complexity of the forging

C = 1.2 – 2.5 (upsetting a cylinder between flat dies)
C = 3.0 – 8.0 (close die forging of simple shape with flash)
C = 8.0 – 12.0 (for more complex shapes)
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 Approach to the Slab Analysis
Lateral flow of material outwards as it is
compressed leads to shearing stresses at
the die contact surface shear.
The surface shear is directed towards the
center of the disc, opposing the outward
radial flow.
These frictional shear stresses leads to
lateral pressure in the material which is
equal to flow stress (  f ) at the edge of the
disc and builds up to a peak value at the
center.
Considering these stresses the normal forging load by closed die
forging is equal to;

The approach is divided the actual forging into a simple geometrical shape, which
can be treated by the slab analysis. The total forging load is the sum of the parts.
Experimental verification of method is advisable.
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 Friction Hill
Lateral flow of the metal outwards as it is being compressed leads to
shearing stresses at the die contact surface. The surface shear is
directed towards the center of the disk, opposing the outward radial flow.
These frictional shear stresses lead to lateral pressure in the material,
which is  f at the edges of the disk and builds up to a peak value at the
center. Friction hill increases with D/h-ratio.

Low D/h Ratio High D/h Ratio

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 Forging Defects
 Incomplete forging penetration

If the deformation during forging is limited to the surface layer when rapid
light hammer blows are used, the dendrite ingot structure will not be broken
down at the interior of the forging. This can be detected by etching of the
cross section of the work piece. The incomplete forging penetration can be
minimized by using proper forging press and optimizing process parameter

 Surface cracking
This can occur if the excessive working on the surface at too low
temperatures or as result of hot shortness. High S concentration in the
furnace atom can produce hot shortness in steel.

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  Cracking at the flash
This will affect the quality of the forging if the crack penetrates into the
body of the forging when the flash is trimmed off.

This defect can be avoided by

 increasing the flash thickness
 Hot Trimming of the flash
 Stress relieving of the forging prior to the cold trimming

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  Cold Shut

This can be happen when metal flows faster

away from the unfilled die cavity due to the
sharp corner or high friction (at pt X). A common
cause of cold shut is too small die radius.

Cold
Shut
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  Cracking due to surface (secondary) tensile stresses

The secondary tensile stresses can be developed during forging,

which can create surface cracks. Proper design of dies (concave
dies) can minimize this defect.

 Other common defects

(a) Residual stresses – solution :slow (controlled) cooling

(b) Pockets or under fill – proper geometry or by increase the process

temperature

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