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Social Welfare in India
and China
A Comparative Perspective
Edited by
Jianguo Gao · Rajendra Baikady ·
Lakshmana Govindappa · Sheng-Li Cheng
Social Welfare in India and China
 Jianguo Gao · Rajendra Baikady ·
Lakshmana Govindappa · Sheng-Li Cheng
Editors

Social Welfare in India

and China
A Comparative Perspective
Editors
Jianguo Gao Rajendra Baikady
Shandong University Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jinan, China Jerusalem, Israel
University of Johannesburg
Lakshmana Govindappa
Johannesburg, South Africa
Central University of Karnataka
Kalaburagi, India
Sheng-Li Cheng
Shandong University
Jinan, China

ISBN 978-981-15-5647-0 ISBN 978-981-15-5648-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5648-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Marina Lohrbach_shutterstock.com

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
 Foreword

For many years, a common axis of comparison between China and India lay
in their respective political regimes. Authoritarian China earned high praise
(including from many quarters in India) for its rapid economic growth and
even faster pace of urban expansion. Democratic India drew accolades for
holding regular elections on a vast scale in terms of voters, and doing so over
successive decades when many other low-income democracies saw transitions
to authoritarian rule. The political axis of comparison may have been a valid
lens with which to analyze certain events over time in India and China, but
in a welcome development, several recent studies of have moved beyond the
political comparison. This book, in putting social welfare and social policy
questions under a comparative light, shows the potential benefits of moving
toward other domains of comparison. Of course, social welfare and social pol-
icy are inherently political in nature, but as the studies in this volume remind
us, it is insufficient to analyze welfare policies and outcomes only as the prod-
ucts or outputs of national-level political institutions.
The comparison of India and China in terms of social welfare and social
policy is not simply an exercise in understanding similarities and differences
between these two Asian civilization-states. Much more is at stake. Any ade-
quate attempt to confront global issues of climate change, poverty and pre-
carity, public health, population aging, the future of work, revolutions in
information technology and biotechnology—in short, existential questions
for the planet and its people—must draw upon the experiences of China
and India, and must pinpoint the lessons learned from their experiences.
Addressing these massive challenges must also involve the active participation
of Indian and Chinese officials, professionals, practitioners, and others.
Welfare policy studies, as found in the West and in the dominant schools
of social policy, social work, public administration, and so forth, are over-
whelmingly drawn from the experience of Europe and North America—
whether the “three worlds of welfare capitalism” as developed by Gøsta

v
vi FOREWORD

Esping-Anderson or in other more recent treatments of national “models”

of welfare provision found in Northern Europe, the United States, and post-
socialist ­Central-Eastern Europe. Theories of how social policy varies in terms
of coverage and generosity (benefits), or in patterns of financing and service
delivery, tend to be drawn from Western experiences, published in academic
journals and educational materials, and in turn taught in the leading social
policy institutions in the Global South. In recent years the welcome turn to
detailed studies of social policy and welfare in the Global South has tended
to take the social and welfare policy provision on their own terms—avoiding
implicit comparisons with the so-called “advanced” welfare states and thus
using terms such as “delayed,” “laggard,” or “immature” welfare systems.
The chapters in this volume are largely in this spirit of taking welfare and
social policy in India and China on their own terms rather than using a teleo-
logical framing that assumes welfare benefits and coverage expand in lock step
with macroeconomic growth.
There’s no question that economic growth provides the potential for fis-
cal capacities that can be used to finance welfare and social policy programs,
but as the Chinese and Indian cases amply demonstrate, the mere presence
of growth cannot explain the design, substance, and the timing of social pol-
icy provision. Putting the “social” in social policy means closely examining
the social relations and power dynamics that go into any welfare program,
large and small. The chapters in this volume do a fine job of accounting for
the social and its power manifestations in terms of gender, religion, caste, and
other forms of social status and discrimination.
Finally, this volume illuminates the complexities in T. H. Marshall’s famous
and widely-cited concept of “social citizenship:” a right to social protections
and basic dignity anchored in constitutional and legal institutions that define
membership in the nation-state. In Marshall’s telling (based only on his over-
view of the history of citizenship in the United Kingdom, but often con-
fused as a universal claim by later scholars), a logical sequence evolved over
time. Britons, through the great clashes between the monarch and gentry,
were first accorded rights of civil citizenship (in the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries) associated with freedoms of expression, assembly, religion,
and the right to private property. Again following decades of political conflict,
rights were extended in the realm of political citizenship in the nineteenth
century—the right to vote and other forms of political participation and rep-
resentation. It was not until the mid-twentieth century and in the aftermath
of two devasting world wars that the UK as a polity accorded its population
with social citizenship, most prominently in the form of the National Health
Service.
The cases of India and China over the twentieth century and in their
political formations as post-colonial or post-revolutionary independent
­nation-states have largely disrupted any presumed sequencing of civil, polit-
ical, and social citizenship. Credible and even generous forms of social
 FOREWORD vii

protections extend to Chinese citizens who otherwise face sharply c­urtailed

political and civil forms of citizenship. Indian citizens were seemingly
bestowed all three forms of citizenship in the remarkable Constitution of
1950, but the intersection of citizenship with competing forms of belonging
and community curtailed the ability of large portions of the population to
have their social citizenship rights fulfilled in practice. One of the enduring
trends in ­twenty-first-century India and China is this contestation over who
will have access to (and who will be denied) the fruits of social policies, and
on what basis.

February 2020 Mark W. Frazier

Professor of Politics, the New School
for Social Research
Co-Director, India China Institute
New York City, USA
 Acknowledgments

There were a number of challenges in putting together this edited volume.

The first challenge was to find authors who can write about the issues that
we had in our mind. Secondly busy schedule of the senior or experienced
academics and scholars, who had little or no time to commit. This is to be
expected—as there are very less number of people who can write on compar-
ative perspectives focusing on Social Welfare in India and China. However,
books are always the result of a complex web of relationships. This book
represents, a collaborative and experiential learning for both contributing
authors and to the editors. Perhaps this may be the first comparative volume
on India and China comparison with social welfare in question.
We the editors sincerely thank all our contributing authors for their val-
uable contributions. We wish to thank you all for your patience, time, and
commitment to this project. It is your timely submission, revision, and rewrit-
ing made this volume possible. This volume is a celebration of our collective
expertise and the relationships we have with each other. We hope further rela-
tionships can be built through this work.
We would like to put on record the support provided by our peer review-
ers in providing feedback to our authors. The expertise, time and their gener-
osity in reading the manuscripts and suggesting revision was invaluable. This
was more crucial in many cases as the writers were early career professionals
or the researchers in their advanced stages of research, still feedback and com-
ments from reviewers helped them to enhance the quality and standards of
manuscripts. We are thankful to you as your contributions helped making this
book a valuable contribution to social policy literature.
We are thankful to Palgrave Macmillan, Beijing China, especially our editor
Sara Crowley-Vigneau and editorial assistant Connie Li and production team
Ranjith Mohan and Punitha Balasubramanian for continues availability and
support throughout the process of editing this book.

ix
x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

And last, but not least, we gratefully acknowledge the many friends and
family who supported us along the journey with their expertise, encourage-
ment, and stimulating suggestions.
Jianguo Gao
Rajendra Baikady
Lakshmana Govindappa
Sheng-Li Cheng
 Editor’s Note

All chapters in Social Welfare in India and China: A Comparative Perspective

have undergone blind peer review. Chapters were given to the reviewers
blindly so that none of the reviewers knew the authors. All reviewers had
expertise in social work/social welfare or a closely related area of the research
paper and the reviews were returned to the authors only after removing the
reviewer’s identity. Further, when a review suggested major revision, such
chapters were sent for another round of review for a third opinion. Our
intention was to provide constructive feedback to assist our authors and make
their work stronger and more scholarly. So, we asked our reviewers five ques-
tions regarding: relevance of the chapter to the book, critique/argument or
insight, international relevance, structure of the chapter, and readability. This
process was applied to all authors, including the editors who were also chap-
ter authors. Overall, the Introduction, Conclusion, and section introductions
by editors were deliberately sent to senior social work educators for their
comments and suggestions.

xi
 List of Reviewers

Prince Agwu
Department of Social Work
University of Nigeria
Nigeria
Samitha Udayange
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
University of Rhuna
Wallamadama, Matara
Sri Lanka
Ashok Antony Dsouza
Department of Studies in Social Work
Rani Channamma University
Belagavi
Karnataka, India
Jeyavel Sundaramorthi
Department of Psychology
Central University of Karnataka, India
Vijyendra Pandey
Department of Psychology
Central University of Karnataka, India
Poonam Surie
Institute of China Studies
New Delhi, India

xiii
xiv LIST OF REVIEWERS

Yuk King LAU

Department of Social Work
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Jesper Willaing Zeuthen
Department of Culture and Global Studies
Aalborg University
Denmark
Issaquah Ali
Social Work Section
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Penang, Malaysia
Peter Selman
Newcastle University
England, UK
Ya Wen
Department of Social Work
Shanghai Ocean University
Peoples Republic of China
Zhu Qian
School of Planning
University of Waterloo
Canada
Bharti Chhibber
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India
Sudeshna Ghosh
Department of Economics
Scottish Church College
Kolkata, India
Björn Alpermann
Universität Würzburg
Würzburg, Germany
Anjali Kulkarni
Tata Institute of Social Sciences
Tuljapur Campus
Osmanabad, India
 Contents

1 Introduction: Globalization, Economic Reform

and Social Welfare in India and China 1
Jianguo Gao, Sheng-Li Cheng, Rajendra Baikady
and Lakshmana Govindappa

Part I Society and Welfare in India and China—A Comparison

2 Traditions, Values and Religion: Social Welfare

in India and China 25
Poonam Surie

3 Chinese Discipline and National Pride as a Case Study

for Neighbouring Countries 45
Hasan Yaser Malik

4 Paradigm Shift in Social Work Practices in India

and China—Lessons for Emerging Economies 59
Sigamani Panneer, S. P. Sreya and J. Raja Meenakshi

5 Land-use Behavior of Farming Households

and Rural Land Degradation in a Karst Area of China 73
Yan Liu and Zhu Qian

xv
xvi CONTENTS

Part II Child Welfare in India and China

6 A Critical Review of School Social Work in Hong Kong 101

Yuk King LAU

7 From Care Deficit to Overbearing Care: Childcare

Provision and the Growing Inequality Gap in China 119
Manon Laurent and Ya Wen

8 “Bereaved Single-Child Families” (Shidu Jiating):

Dealing with an Unintended Consequence
of China’s One-Child Policy 131
Björn Alpermann and Weiyue Yang

Part III Elderly Care in India and China—Emerging Concerns

9 Comparing Emerging Social Issues and Implementation

of Social Policy Changes for Aged People
in India and China 163
A. M. Ghouse Basha

10 Disability, Social Welfare Policy and Elderly

in India and China 177
Shachee Agnihotri

11 Social Status and Subjective Well-Being of Tribal

Elderly: A Narrative Discourse 191
Koustab Majumdar, Manoj Raul and Dipankar Chatterjee

Part IV Poverty in Numbers—Where India and China Stands

12 Social Exclusion of Female Dibao Recipients

in Urban China 217
Haomiao Zhang

13 Welfare Communication and Poverty Eradication

in India and China 231
Tilak Jha

14 Exploring Gender Segregated Educational Effects

on Income Inequality, India: A Time Series Analysis 243
Sudeshna Ghosh
 CONTENTS xvii

15 Drought and Farmer Suicides in Marathwada:

A Natural or Manmade Disaster? 279
Nitin Dhaktode

Part V Social Problems in India and China—A Comparison

16 Social Policies and Institutional Arrangements

for Minorities and Special Categories in India:
An Overview and the Way Forward 305
Prashant Negi

17 Higher Education in India: Trends and Challenges 329

Firdous Ahmad Dar

18 UNHCR’s Population of Concern: Where Does

India Stand? 339
Anish Gupta and Uma Jadhav

19 HIV Medication Access Between China and India

on the Policy Level 357
Yixuan Wang

20 Gender and Socio-Cultural Policy Issues in Objects

of Display: A Case Study of Gujarat Science City in India 365
Rajni Gupta

21 Safety and Welfare for Women in Need: A Study

of a Short Stay Home in Paravai, Madurai District,
Tamil Nadu 379
B. Veena, M. H. Soundari and K. Divya

22 International Adoption from China and India

1992–2018 393
Peter Selman

23 From Peasants to Social Assistance Recipients?

Semi-forced Urbanization in China 417
Jesper Willaing Zeuthen

24 Social Welfare and Inclusive Education for Children

with Disability Towards Social Inclusion: Dalit
Children Experience 435
Vikram Singh
xviii CONTENTS

25 Conclusion: Neoliberalism, Growing Disparity

and Social Welfare in India and China 471
Jianguo Gao, Rajendra Baikady, Lakshmana Govindappa
and Sheng-Li Cheng

Index 489
 Notes on Contributors

Shachee Agnihotri is an Assistant Professor at Sharda University, India after

doing her Ph.D. from the prestigious Zhejiang University on I­ndia-China
Government Doctoral Fellowship. She also holds an M.Phil. in China
Studies from the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. During her Ph.D.,
Dr. Agnihotri was a research member of the IPDS- Zhejiang University and
also one of the member delegates to United Nations and Orlando University
visit in 2015. She remains a member of the Ma Yinchu Studies Association
of Zhejiang Province and also a reviewer for the International Journal of
Consumer Studies (SSCI). Dr. Agnihotri has several major publications and
nearly half a dozen papers to her credit.
Björn Alpermann received his Ph.D. at the University of Cologne.
Since 2013 he is Chair Professor of Contemporary Chinese Studies at the
University of Würzburg, Germany. His main research interests include
China’s rural politics and political economy, urban society, stratification, and
political attitudes in China as well as population policy. He is currently con-
ducting research on the political economy of eldercare in China.
Dr. Rajendra Baikady is a Social Work educator and researcher. He is the
winner of Golda Meir Post-Doctoral Fellowship at Hebrew University
of Jerusalem, Israel (2019–2020) and Confucius Studies Understanding
China Fellowship (Post-Doctoral Research) at Shandong University Peoples
Republic of China (2018–2019). Baikady was one among the 20 selected
candidates for the Short-Term Research Award (STRA) by the Ministry of
Education, Government of Taiwan and conducted research at National
Chengchi University Taiwan (Post-Doc) during June–July 2018. Dr. Baikady
was awarded the prestigious INLAKS foundation Research Travel Grant
2015 and Indian Council of Social Science Research, Collect Data Abroad
Scholarship—2015 for conducting his research at Shandong University,
China. His most recent books (co-edited) are—Social Welfare Policies

xix
xx NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

and Programmes in South Asia (Routledge), and Building Sustainable

Communities-Civil Society Response in South Asia (Palgrave Macmillan
and The Palgrave Handbook of Global Social Work Education (Palgrave
Macmillan). He is co-editing the Journal Special issue of ‘Social Work and
Society’ (to be published in 2020) and has on-going international collabo-
ration with researchers from China, Bangladesh, Israel, Japan, Slovenia, and
South Africa. Presently he is at Hebrew University of Jerusalem Israel and
conducting research under the supervision of Prof. John Gal. in addition to
this Dr. Baikady is affiliated to University of Johannesburg, South Africa as
Senior Research Associate to the Department of Social Work.
Dipankar Chatterjee has been an assistant professor and head (Division of
RTD) at the RKMVERI, Ranchi, India. He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D.
degree in anthropology from the University of Calcutta. He was the recip-
ient of the National Scholarship, 2001 (MHRD), T. C. Roychowdhury,
Silver Medalist, 2013 (Indian Anthropological Society) and Senior Research
Fellowship, 2005 (Anthropological Survey of India). He has published two
edited books and many research articles in journals. He is the assistant edi-
tor of South Asian Anthropologist. His research interests include culture and
cognition, rural and tribal development, ecological anthropology and natural
resource management; and anthropology of tourism.
Sheng-Li Cheng is a Professor in the Department of Social Work School of
Philosophy and Social Development Shandong University, Peoples Republic
of China. He has been in post graduate teaching for more than 25 years. Prof.
Cheng has carried out research projects founded by international agencies
such as UNESCO, Washington University in St. Louis in U.S, University of
British Columbia in Canada, Taiwan Dongwu University. He was a visiting
professor for many international university departments. Prof. Cheng has 6
books, 37 research articles (in both English and Chinese) and 05 international
projects to his credit. His areas of work are urban poverty and social assistance,
social policy and social welfare, social psychology, family, child and youth.
Dr. Firdous Ahmad Dar has had distinguishing academic career. After
completing his higher education (M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. Qualified National
Eligibility Test conducted by University Grants Commission, India) from
one of India’s premier universities, University of Kashmir, presently working
as assistant professor at Government Degree College Department of Higher
Education Union territory of Jammu and kashmir. Along with teaching Dr.
Firdous has attended number of seminars, international conferences and
workshops held/organised at University of Kashmir, Central University of
Kashmir, and Central University of Himachal Pradesh. In addition, he also
conducted number of simulation exercises at departmental level. Dr. Firdous
has traveled to Kyrgyzstan with regard to his field study. He has also served as
member of different activities like syllabus review Committee at with various
academic and research institutes, organizations and universities.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Nitin Dhaktode is a Doctoral Research Scholar at School of Development

Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) Mumbai, India. After
Masters and M-Phil studies, he has worked with Social Audit Units and TISS
for more than three and half years in undivided Andhra Pradesh and across
India. Mr. Nitin is working on Social Corruption in NREGA for his Ph.D.
Dissertation. He was also a joint study scholar under Ph.D. exchange pro-
gramme at AAU-Austria for winter semester in 2018–2019. He has published
research papers in EPW, Rutledge and other such reputed national and inter-
national publishing houses.
K. Divya has a background in the discipline of Social Work. Presently, she
is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Work at Indira
Gandhi National Tribal University, Madhya Pradesh. Divya made her sig-
nificant contributions to the field of teaching and research of Social Work.
Her research interest’s spans in the areas of social work, women peace keep-
ing, social movements, feminist dimensions of girls’ education and violence
against women.
Jianguo Gao is a Professor in the Department of Social Work, School of
Philosophy and Social Development, Shandong University, Peoples Republic
of China. He has been in post graduate teaching for more than 35 years.
Prof. GAO had different academic assignments at reputed Universities
across the globe. He was a Fulbright Visiting Scholar, to the Department of
Sociology, University of California, Riverside, USA (2003–2004), EU-China
HECP Visiting Scholar, Department of Sociology, University of Plymouth,
UK (1999–2000). CCSEP Visiting Scholar School of Community and
Regional Planning University of British Columbia Canada (1996–1997), and
School of Social Work University of Toronto (2007). From 1984 to 1985
Prof. Gao held the position of Editor at the Shandong University Press.
Sudeshna Ghosh is currently the Associate Professor of Economics, Scottish
Church College, Kolkata, India. Her research examines development and
disparities within the time series framework which include areas of economic
growth, education, gender, and nutrition. Her studies explore movements of
inequality, country-based divergence, and disparity emphasized with regard to
income, educational achievements, and nutritional disorders. Her recent work
examines consumer confidence and consumer spending; inequality and finan-
cial inclusion. Her research has been published the world’s leading journals.
Ghosh has her Master’s Degree from the University of Calcutta, India and a
Ph.D. from the University of Calcutta.
A. M. Ghouse Basha (Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India) is an aspiring law-
yer, a qualified Social Worker (& researcher) and Freelance Trainer on
Workplace Harassment and Sexual abuse (especially in corporate companies).
He attained his Masters in Social Work qualification from Madras Christian
College (Chennai, India) and at present he is studying Law in Madurai
under Dr. Ambedkar Law University, Chennai. He is also the founder of
xxii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

“Ashokam”, a non-profit organisation working towards research and analy-

sis in diverse areas such as women welfare, Social, and Policy issues in South
India. Basha did his Bachelors in Physics and developed his passion for pho-
tography and documentary film making during this time. He has accumulated
a wide range of exposure in different professions (from physics to social work
to media production and now to law). Being an experimental individual and
an ardent learner, he is always ready to explore more and thus, has been able
to adapt to various fields.
Dr. Lakshmana Govindappa is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Social Work, School of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Central University
of Karnataka, Kalaburagi, India. He has done his graduation (B.A.) and
Post-Graduation in Social Work (MSW) from Bangalore University,
Bangalore. He obtained his Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) and Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D) from National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro
Sciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore. In addition to his doctoral degree,
he has PGDHRM to his academic credit. He has published 30 articles in
International and National Journals including Social Work Practice in the
Addiction, Asian Social Work and Policy Review, Hong Kong Journal of Social
Work, Indian Journal of Social Work, Epilepsy and Behaviour, written 9 chap-
ters in books, published 8 monographs (2 co-author) and has presented 42
papers in National and International Conferences. He has completed seven
research projects and two more projects are undergoing. He has written 17
e-content modules on social work education. He has visited Australia, China,
Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Nepal. He is an Executive committee member
of Indian Society of Professional Social Work and Karnataka Association of
Professional Social Workers. His research interests are psychosocial inter-
vention with families and children, community care and mental health, rural
development, Corporate Social Responsibility, HIV/AIDS, and working with
vulnerable population.
Anish Gupta teaches economics at Delhi University. He pursued his Ph.D.
from CESP, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and masters in Economics from
University of British Columbia, Canada and University of Rajasthan. Anish’s
current work focuses on education, marginalized sections, population, and
development economics. He has presented his research work at University
of Oxford, State University of New York and NTU, Singapore. He has been
co-investigator for the research study entitled ‘Exploring the Dimensions
and Dynamics of Indian Urban Poverty’. The study was a part of NOPOOR
project sponsored by European Union. He is currently completing a major
research project funded by ICSSR. He has co-authored two books published
by Centre for Contemporary Indian Studies, University of Colombo and
more than 50 newspaper articles in The Hindu, The Indian Express and The
Pioneer.
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grinding bone. The latter, crushed bone, is sold to glue makers and
grinders. The usual method of handling the latter style of drying is to
make platform coils or grids of 1¹⁄₄-inch pipe of an area convenient,
as ten by sixteen feet, or units convenient to the space. These are in
multiple and arranged to be accessible from two or more sides for
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The bones are piled upon the grids to dry, when they are then
transferred to storage rooms.
Crushed Bone.—The skulls, jaws and larger bones, are usually
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this condition they are ready for grinding into “raw bone meal,” the
name given to ground bone for sale to glue makers for extracting
glue.
Grinding Bone.—Ground bone is usually ground through an
attrition mill, of which there are several types. The mill delivers the
grindings to a bucket type endless chain elevator, which in turn
passes it through a screen—shaking or revolving—preferably the
latter. The screen is usually about three feet in diameter by twelve
feet long and covered with a screening of No. 16 wire, eight meshes
per inch, which screens it to a size that will readily pass through a
grain drill. The tailings or over sized bone is returned to the mill for
further grinding.
Neatsfoot Oil Storage Tank.—This is preferably a jacketed tank,
one tank within the other, and must be made with a jacket to
withstand the pressure that may be applied. Consequently the jacket
should be reinforced with stay bolts so as to prevent distortion when
pressure is applied. Any and all oil settling vats are best made
cylindrical in form with a sharp cone at bottom. The cone is equipped
for withdrawing sediment at the bottom and for withdrawing oil for
purification sufficiently high in the cone to avoid withdrawing any
sediment.
Neatsfoot Oil Purifiers.
—The same type of kettle or tank as described above is required,
the latter being sufficient in size to accumulate a week’s work.
Yield Tests.—The appended tests give the resulting yields from
handling skulls and jaws, feet and shanks:

TEST YIELD FROM SKULLS AND JAWS OF 1,209 CATTLE

Per
Average Cent
per Green
Products Weight head Weight
No. 1 Ground Bone 1972 1.63 9.48
No. 2 Ground Bone 282 .23 1.35
Bone Meal 1381 1.14 6.64
Butter Stock Tallow 1353 1.12 6.51
Bone House Tallow 585 .48 2.81
Pressed Tankage 50% water 6512 5.37 31.32

Total weight of feet from 1,209 cattle, 20,790.11 pounds. Average

weight green feet per cattle, 17.19 pounds.

TEST YIELD FROM FEET OF 1,391 HEAVY CATTLE

Average
per
Products Weight head
Green Sinews 3424 2.46
White Hoofs 528 .38
Striped Hoofs 2506 1.87
Black Hoofs 534 .38
Neatsfoot Oil 1476 1.06
Bone and Grease 280 .20
Grinding Bone 4667 3.29
Heavy Round Shins 1247 .90
Light Round Shins 195 .14
Heavy Flat Shins 1092 .78
Light Flat Shins 73 .05
Tankage 682 .49
16704
 Total weight of feet from 1,391 cattle, 24,778 pounds. Average
weight green feet per cattle, 17.8 pounds.

TEST YIELD IN FINISHED PRODUCTS FROM SHANKS

Per
Cent
Total Green
Products Weight Weight
Butter Stock 1245 18.86
Butter Tallow 60 .91
Thigh Bones 275 4.18
Blades 278 4.21
Buttocks 203 3.08
Cannons 180 2.73
Knuckles (large) 1955 29.62
Tankage 179 2.71

Weight 3,300 pounds each, fore and hind shanks, total 6,600
pounds.
 CHAPTER XIV.
TANK HOUSE DEPARTMENT.
Tank House Design — Isolation and Ventilation — Separation of Press Room —
Digesters — Rendering Tank — Surface Box — Press and Pump — Cooking
Killing Stock — Operating Tank Blow Off — Pressing Tankage — Treatment
of Lard and Tallow — Titer in Tallow and Lard — Steam for Cooking —
Cooking Tests — Operating Odorless — Tests — Catch Basin.

Introductory.—When slaughtering was done promiscuously throughout

the country, sufficient product was not available at any one point to
necessitate a tank house, consequently open kettles were used either with
fire under them, or jacketed for steam, the best of the fat was thus
rendered, and the balance was thrown away. It being impossible to render
offal to advantage under these conditions, the “digester” as it is called by
many, was evolved. It consists of a closed tank in which cooking is done at
forty pounds steam pressure, giving a temperature of nominally 287° F.,
this high temperature thoroughly disintegrating all products in the tank,
liberating all the grease. The residue from cooking in this manner, after
being pressed, is dried and sold as fertilizer. The effectiveness of this
process is shown, for instance, by the fact that if a hundred cattle heads
are put into a tank, after cooking, the bones are entirely disintegrated,
except the teeth.
Tank House Design.—Almost any arrangement of tank, surface box
and press can be made to serve the purpose of rendering. The method
and arrangement shown herein are those practiced by one of the revisors
of this work and embodies principles as described.
The requisite apparatus for a rendering or tank house consists of but
few articles, viz: the rendering tank or digester, the surface or skimming
box, and a press, but the design and operation is of such consequence
that the same will be described in detail.
Isolation and Ventilation.—The rendering building from its character
should be isolated and arranged for ventilation on at least three sides. The
United States sanitary requirements compel the complete separation of
the edible from the inedible section by the use of separate buildings or a
parting wall.

FIG. 65.—SECTION THROUGH TANK HOUSE.

Separation of Press Room.—If the business is large the owner is fully

justified in extending the parting wall through and dividing the press room.
This arrangement requires the double investment in presses, cloths and
all equipment, but gives the advantage that the pressings can be collected
from edible tankage and used for edible purposes, provided always that
the equipment is kept in proper shape. Whereas, if the parting wall is not
extended through the press room, the oils are considered contaminated
and are usable only for inedible purposes.
FIG. 66.—LITTLE NECK RENDERING TANK.
 The section shown indicates that type of house where the press room is
single, and the house above the press floor is divided.

FIG. 67.—TANK HOUSE, SHOWING NESTING OF TANKS.

Tank House Hazards.—The tank house, from the nature of the

business being hazardous, is best to be of fire-proof construction. Tanks
constructed as shown in Fig. 66, with the little neck head can be nested
four in a bay and be made fully accessible on all floors.
 The nesting of tanks six feet in diameter in a sixteen-foot square bay
provides sufficient strength to make it possible to suspend the tanks from
the floor beams above, suitably arranged, it further avoids the necessity of
supports near to the tanks, which greatly facilitate cleanliness.
Situation of Surface Boxes.—The grease content in the fertilizer is a
matter of dollars and cents. When the oil is withdrawn from the tanks it
cannot be seen and no matter how closely watched considerable oil will
pass through to the surface box where it can be collected. Consequently
the second story of the tank house is a high story with the surface boxes
placed convenient to the second floor so as to be readily worked. Further
reference to this is made later.
Press Room.—The press room is arranged so that the press can be
built directly beneath the surface boxes, from whence the car is passed to
the press for pressing out the moisture.
Digesters.—The “digester” indicated, together with its method of
suspension and nesting has been successfully used and was the practice
followed by a well known designer for a number of years. The diameter
and height of the digester ordinarily used is 6 × 16 feet on the tank body.
The writer invariably has specified half-inch thick tank steel for the reason
that the increased thickness is of so little additional weight, and the labor
being such a considerable factor, that it was thought well to provide this
additional thickness to take care of corrosion and acid attack.
Little Neck Rendering Tank.—Lugs can be placed in any position
desirable for support. The little neck for filling needs no comment. It is
provided with a six-point security and by the use of ring-bolts with male
and female flanged closing and gasket, can readily be made steam tight.
Tank Gate Valve.—Tank department foremen are divided in ideas as to
using sliding steam gate valves, in which the gate is operated by lever for
quick opening or the screw type valve. The latter should be the rising stem
type.
Surface Box.—The surface box shown is a jacketed type used for
plants where tank water is collected for evaporation. The cost of this is
justified as against being annoyed with coils in the tank.
Press and Pump.—Practically all presses now in use are hydraulic.
These are overhead or under types, the latter being mostly used.
FIG. 68.—SECTION OF RENDERING TANK.
 FIG. 69.—DESIGN OF STEAM JACKETED SURFACE BOX.

The style of pump used is a question of importance. The writer specifies

steam operated hydraulic pumps in preference to power driven pumps,
since the former can be operated from a governor that automatically
keeps full pressure on the pump. With the power pump, when the motive
power is stopped, a leak, the size of a pin point, in a valve, will cause a
leakage that releases the pressure and makes poor pressing. Be aware of
the fact that there is no method of extracting water from the fertilizer so
cheap as pressing and the only limit should be the strength of the cloths.
Fig. 70 shows how a hydraulic press and pump should be connected.
 FIG. 70.—DIAGRAM OF HYDRAULIC PRESS WITH PIPING AND PUMP.

Cooking Killing Stock.—The tank should be clean; draw in about two

hogsheads of water for a 6 × 16 foot tank, or a proportionate amount for
tanks of other sizes; turn on the steam to boil the water, and then begin
filling the tank. Allow sufficient steam to enter to keep the tank boiling
slowly. When the tank is two-thirds full, shut off the steam, draw off the
water and refill with water; turn on the steam, bringing the contents to a
boil the second time. Do not fill the tank to exceed three-fourths full, as the
cooking is better done if sufficient room is left. After cooking for a half
hour, draw off the water a second time. It will be found, especially in
cooking product from the killing department, that the water drawn off is
dark colored, from the blood and dirt that has accumulated on the tissue. If
this is not withdrawn it has the effect of darkening the lard or tallow
materially.
After the water has been drawn the second time, put on the tank head
and turn on the steam, the condensation from the steam is sufficient to
cook the material; no more water is needed. See that the blow-off and
escape pipes are shut and the pet-cock is open. Continue cooking in this
manner until a moderate pressure is built up, then admit steam to full
pressure of forty-five pounds, open the escape valve just enough so that
you may know the gas is escaping. At the completion of this operation the
cooking begins. A tank of tallow should cook thoroughly in from nine to ten
hours with forty pounds pressure.
Cold Spots.—Oftentimes freshly killed material will lie closely together
and a “cold spot” will occur—a spot where the material has become
partially solidified and the steam has not penetrated. In such case, shut off
the steam, draw off the water, and then turn on the steam, the cold spots
will disappear. “Cold spot” has the effect of souring lard and tallow; in
other words before the heat has penetrated into the solid mass, the heat
surrounding it will have caused it to sour. This point should be watched
closely, especially in cooking lard.
Tankmen should try the pet-cock on the tank each half hour to find out if
the tank is “flush.” If the tank is “flush” or foaming, the foam will come out
instead of steam. In this case, shut off the tank ten minutes, then draw off
the water, but see that no grease is drawn off with it. The cause of the
flushing, or foaming, is that the tank is too full, or that there is too much
water in it, consequently it is necessary that the tankman should try his
pet-cock very often during the operation of cooking to see that the
contents are being properly cooked.
Cutting Tanks.—Cuttings and cold products of like character are
usually carried in cold water while filling, and are not parboiled as
described for “killing” tanks.
Releasing Pressure.—When the tank is cooked, shut off the steam and
open the pet-cock for about ten minutes, then the escape valve, being
careful not to give it too much escape at first, or the tank will “roll.” By this
is meant that the original heat in the oil contents will generate steam in the
contents beneath which, when the pressure is relieved, will cause the
contents to boil violently, but if the pressure is reduced slowly, this
condition will not arise. When a tank has “rolled” it takes a great deal more
time to settle it, the grease being thoroughly mixed up with the residue of
the tank. As the pressure decreases the operator can increase the rapidity
of release.
 FIG. 71.—DETAIL OF PIPING CONNECTIONS. TOP OF RENDERING TANK.

The pressure being relieved from the tank, take out the head, use about
a water-pail full of fine salt to settle the tank. This salt is scattered over the
contents in the tank and has the effect of settling sediment and tissue
which may be held in suspension. The tank should stand about two hours
to thoroughly settle before drawing the oil. Draw the oil from the side
valves of the tank into coolers. It is often necessary, in doing this, to raise
the contents of the tank, as there may be considerable tallow or lard below
the lowest draw-off valve. Such being the case run water into the bottom
of the tank sufficient to raise its contents so that all the rendered oil can be
drawn through the lowest valve.
FIG. 72.—DETAIL OF PIPING CONNECTIONS, BOTTOM OF RENDERING
TANK
 Operating Tank Blow-Off.—Descriptive of the connections for
operating rendering tank connections is the following subject matter. The
exhaust connections are illustrated in drawings, Figs. 71 and 72, and
essentially consist of, beginning at tank neck:
(1) Spring pop safety valve set at 45 pound pressure to automatically
release in case of excessive pressure arising and failure of weighted pop
valve to relieve.
(2) Pressure gauge on each riser to indicate pressure on the individual
tank to insure its being under pressure and under heat. The siphon bend
between gauge and pipe is preferably filled with glycerine.
(3) Try cock on bottom of drip line to open occasionally as test for “gas.”
(4) Globe valve, ³⁄₈ inch, operated slightly open to allow gas to release
from tank and create very small circulation.
(5) Globe valve, 1¹⁄₂ inch; blow down valve to be used when releasing
all pressure from tanks.
(6) Angle type pop safety valve to relieve into the discharge line.
(7) Check valve attached to the line to prevent any foaming or steam
from an adjacent tank discharging into this unit via the exhaust system.
(8) Exhaust header used in conjunction with the system to collect all
gases and steam discharged from the battery of tanks.
(9) Cooking connections: It is preferable to drill the inlet nozzle at
bottom of tank at the lowest point possible and to admit steam on two
sides of nozzle not opposite but on an angle as shown in plan. This
prevents “dancing” tanks.
Check Valves.—Check valves are placed in the admission valve to
prevent floaters or foreign materials entering lines and stopping the control
valves and steam and water.
Inlet Header.—For usual purposes steam and water are admitted into
the tank at one point and steam at one, see Nos. 12-a and 12-b on
diagram. If tank water is being collected and evaporated, line 12-c is
introduced and used as follows:
Ordinarily the use of 12-b is for admitting water into bottom of tank in
case the oil line after tank contents are cooked and settled are below the
draw cocks.
In the event tank water is being saved to avoid weakening tank water by
introduction of cold clean water, this result is accomplished by pumping
tank water into the tank via the connection 12-c. If tank water is not being
evaporated, 12-c line and connection is omitted.
 Draw Down Pipe.—If the oil is high and water appears at the draw-
cocks 14 and 15, then the content is lowered by
opening cock No. 13 and lowering the body as much as required.
Oil Draw Cocks, 14 and 15.—When the tank is cooked, oil settled and
the tank raised or lowered by use of No. 12 connections or No. 13 cock,
the oil belt should be such that the bottom of it is about on a line with cock
14, and the main body of oil is drawn through cock No. 15.
Surface Box Treatment.—After the oil is drawn out of the tank, the
residue is dumped into the surface box. Anything that has not been
thoroughly cooked will float on top in the vat. These floaters should all be
skimmed off and put back into the tank to be re-cooked. The contents
should be thoroughly agitated with a pole or rake, cooked fifteen minutes,
allowed to settle and the oil carefully skimmed off. This should be done
two or three times on each vat so as to free all the oil possible.
If tank water is being collected the boiling is done by steam jacket on
the box; if not, by direct application of free live steam. In either case stir
contents freely.
Pressing Tankage.—As soon as the operation of the skimming of the
vat has been thoroughly accomplished the contents are in the proper
condition to be pressed and should be handled while still hot. The water is
mostly drained off. In building the cakes, a portable car is run under the
surface box. By the use of a quick opening lever gate the contents are
dropped in quantity desired upon a press cloth; between each cheese is
placed a rack—the process being thus, a rack made of 1 × ¹⁄₄ inch
material, usually elm, thoroughly nailed together, is first laid on the press
head; next a frame of the size and depth required to handle the product is
used. This frame should not exceed two inches in depth. The press cloth
is then spread over them and the material drawn onto the press. Well
spread out, the cloth is carefully folded over the top of it. The form is then
lifted off the press, another press rack is put on top of the cheese already
made, and the process repeated. Ten or twelve plates are usually used to
a press.
After the car is filled it is placed in the hydraulic press and pressure
applied. This should be done slowly at first, giving the water ample time to
run out of the press. If the pressure is applied too rapidly the tendency is
for the material to slide out on one side or the other, but if the water is
pressed out slowly the material adheres better or gets a good “bond,” so
that it will not slip.
 After the press has run until the cakes are about one-half of their
original thickness spray with hot water, thoroughly washing off the sides of
the press, turn on more pressure until this reaches about 300 tons on a 5
× 5 foot plate. It will be found that it is the last pressing which brings out
the grease.
Where tankage is properly handled it should run from six to eight per
cent of residual grease on a dry basis. Where improperly handled it will
oftentimes run from eighteen to twenty per cent, the excess being lard or
tallow which should have been saved, but worthless if left in tankage.
Treatment of Lard and Tallow.—As the oils are being withdrawn from
the rendering tanks the same should be passed through a small over-flow
type of catch tank arranged so that the oils pass through a straining
system to remove fibre or floaters. From the above basin the oils should
be passed to the receivers or coolers preparatory to settling.
In the judgment of the writer these tanks should preferably be in a
department or room separated from the rendering department, to avoid
possibility of contact and absorbing odors. The receivers or reservoirs
should be circular in form with a coil of heating pipe arranged, supported
from the sides of the kettles. The pipe should be sufficiently spread to
allow perfect cleaning.
The cones on the bottom should be at an angle of 45° so as to collect
the sediment, water or scrap that may deposit in small volume. The scrap
should be settled out and removed daily. Tallow and lard should be
allowed to cool to a tiercing temperature and kept in as large volume as
conditions permit, so as to obtain uniformity in cooler.
In case of lard, killing and cutting lard should be intimately mixed in
equal proportions if possible.
Titer in Tallow and Lard.—Titer in tallow, frequently referred to, is a
relative test of hardness. The test was originally devised for the use of
candle makers who wanted an oil containing the largest percentage of
stearic acid. Stearic acid has a hardness of about 55° Centigrade. The
hardness of other substances is relative to this as follows: commercial
oleo stearine, about 50.5° C.; tallow, 41° to 43° C.; No. 2 tallow or grease,
39° to 43° C.; P. S. lard, 35.5° to 37° C. Every trimming in the animal has a
different hardness; the thinner the cattle, the harder the tallow. Bone fat or
marrow is very soft. Animals of different feeding show varying hardness,
so there is no method of manufacture that will vary the hardness content
of product other than selection. In a general way, cattle ruffle, caul, or that
used usually in oleo melting is relatively hard. For example, oleo stock will
analyze as hard as 46° C., while the tallow from the same house will
analyze 43° C.
This hardness is determined in the chemical laboratory as follows: The
fat is melted and 25 cubic centimeters are drawn and mixed with 20 C. C.
wood alcohol, 10 C. C. of 50° Baume caustic soda solution and the
contents boiled until completely saponified. The alcohol is evaporated by
drying. The residue is ground and boiled with an excess of diluted
sulphuric acid until all the soap has been changed to fatty acid and the
clear oil floats. The water in the vessel is drawn from below the fat, and
the fatty acids collected in a glass vessel, which are allowed to stand on
steam coils until the oily stratum is clearly defined. The fatty acids are
placed in an observation room and the point of solidification observed. The
result is the titer, which is the degree Centigrade at which the fatty acid
from an oil or stearine solidifies after being melted.
The other item of consequence in tallow analysis is the rancidity, known
as the free fatty acid. This should be kept low and is usually variable with
the care given the product. No. 1 tallow, for example, should show under
two per cent of low grade greases, and will run as high as twenty per cent.
Steam for Cooking.—A question frequently asked is the quantity of
steam required to cook a tank. An accurate test conducted on a mixed
tank of pork products, killing and cutting stock, under standard conditions
showed thus:

Weight of Raw Stock 12,266

Water filled in Tank 9,634
21,900
After Cooking:—
Lard 6,040
Skimmings 479
Water Tankage 19,360
25,879
Accumulation-Steam Condensed 3,979
Steam per 1,000 pounds, Raw Stock 324 lbs.

Cooking Test and Expense.—The following test on the cost for

cooking was made on killing and cutting lard—very large digesters—and
from it valuable deductions can be made. Expert opinion has pronounced
test No. 1 and test No. 3 as producing comparatively the best results in
manufacture.
 KILLING AND CUTTING STOCK
Product No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
Weight raw product 41,572 lbs. 41,236 lbs. 48,491 lbs. 41,322 lbs.
Under pressure 12¹⁄₄ hrs. 11 hrs. 11 hrs. 11 hrs.
Yield P. S. lard 32,665 lbs. 32,880 lbs. 24,525 lbs. 21,920 lbs.
Boilers
Water evaporation while cooking 35,460 lbs. 24,420 lbs. 36,800 lbs. 23,990 lbs.
Reduced to coal on 6 to 1 evap. 5,910 lbs. 4,070 lbs. 6,134 lbs. 3,986 lbs.
Boiler pressure average 57.6 lbs. 62.8 lbs. 51.6 lbs. 50 lbs.
Tank pressure average 40.2 lbs. 40.5 lbs. 34.5 lbs. 32.5 lbs.
Results
Cost fuel at $1.36 per ton $4.02 $2.77 $4.17 $2.71
Steam, per 1,000 lbs. raw product 853 lbs. 593 lbs. 759 lbs. 579 lbs.
Fuel, per 1,000 lbs. raw product 142 lbs. 99 lbs. 126 lbs. 98.5 lbs.
Cost fuel, 1,000 lbs. raw product $.097 $.067 $.086 $.065
Clear Snowy Clear Clear
Temperature 32 to 34 34 to 35 22 to 38 13 to 18
Remarks on Cooking:
No. 1 Test Cooked with three waters, boiled two hours before heading.
No. 2 Test Cooked with one water, tank filled before heading.
No. 3 Test Cooked with two waters, boiled two hours before heading.
No. 4 Test Cooked with one water, tank filled before heading.

Tests.—Innumerable tank house tests are made. The following few are
submitted for quick reference, giving an idea as to yields of various kinds
of products:

TEST ON CONDEMNED HOGS—YIELD OF GREASE.

Condemned hogs to tank 954 lbs.
Yield of white grease 467 lbs. 48.95%
Yield pressed tankage 173 lbs. 18.13%
Yield dry tankage 86 lbs. 9.01%
On the above the leaf lard was left in and heads off.

COMPARATIVE TEST OF SHEEP HEADS AND JAWS TO TANK AND BONE HOUSE.

325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks off) to tank 765 lbs.
Yield to tallow 73 lbs. @ $ 0.06 per lb. $4.38
Yield dried tankage 150 lbs. @ 19.00 per ton 1.42
Total value $5.80
Value, per head, $0.0178; tallow, 9.54%; dried tankage, 19.47%.
325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks off) to bone
house 765 lbs.
Yield to tallow 51 lbs. @ $ 0.07 per lb. $3.57
Yield dried bones 177 lbs. @ 18.00 per ton 1.59
Total value $5.16
Value, per head, $0.0159; tallow, 6.66%; dried bones, 23.14%.

TEST ON TRIPE TRIMMINGS.

Green weight to tank 1,206 lbs.
Yield prime tallow 356 lbs. 29.52%
Yield tankage 53 lbs. 4.39%

TEST ON CONDEMNED LIVERS.

Green weight to tank 1,010 lbs.

Yield No. 2 tallow 42 lbs. 4.16%
Yield pressed tankage 206 lbs. 20.38%
Yield dry tankage 103 lbs. 10.19%

TEST ON CATTLE PECKS TO TANK.

Green weight to tank 1,306 lbs.

Yield No. 2 tallow 16 lbs. 1.22%
Yield tankage 95 lbs. 7.27%

TEST ON CATTLE PAUNCHES TO TANK.

Green weight to tank 1,056 lbs.
Yield prime tallow 94 lbs. 8.90%
Yield pressed tankage 106 lbs. 10.04%
Yield finished tankage 53 lbs. 5.02%

TEST ON HOG STOMACHS TO TANK, UNTRIMMED.

Killed, 240 pigs and 836 hogs, a total of 1,076.

Green weight to tank 2,845 lbs.

Yield prime steam lard 1,275 lbs. 44.81%
Yield finished tankage 188 lbs. 6.60%

TEST ON WINDPIPES TO TANK.

Green weight to tank 880 lbs.

Yield No. 1 tallow 141 lbs. 16.00%
Yield tankage 33 lbs. 3.75%