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Chapter 10--Managing New Venture Formation and
Entrepreneurship

Student: ___________________________________________________________________________

1. Entrepreneurship is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

True False

2. A small business can only have one owner.

True False

3. Professional managers, whose job is running someone else's business, are entrepreneurs.
True False

4. Most U.S. workers are employed by large firms.

True False

5. The strong presence of small businesses in the United States is typical of the rest of the mature economies.
True False

6. According to the Small Business Administration, small businesses account for a small percentage of all U.S.
exports.
True False

7. Small business¾especially in certain industries¾is an important source of new (and often well-paid) jobs in
the United States.
True False

8. History has shown that major innovations are as likely to come from small businesses (or individuals) as
from big businesses.
True False
9. The more resources an industry requires, the harder it is to start a business and the less likely that the industry
is dominated by small firms.
True False

10. More than any other industry, manufacturing lends itself to small business.
True False

11. A first-mover enters a segment of a market that offers a new opportunity because it is not currently being
satisfied.
True False

12. The business plan should describe the match between the entrepreneur's abilities and the requirements for
producing and marketing a particular product or service.
True False

13. The business plan is made up of a cash budget, an income statement, balance sheets, and a breakeven chart.
True False

14. Market research is a key step in building a business plan.

True False

15. The Internet has virtually rewritten all of the rules for starting and operating a small business.
True False

16. Entrepreneurs who decide to start from scratch rather than buy an existing business have better odds of
success.
True False

17. If someone is technically challenged, they should avoid starting a business because e-commerce is where
small businesses are finding success.
True False
18. The purpose of the SBA's SCORE program is to evaluate the managerial performance of small businesses
and then to assign scores that are used to determine the amount of loans that individual businesses can obtain.
True False

19. The purpose of the SBA's SBDC program is to consolidate information from various disciplines and
institutions, including technical and professional schools.
True False

20. A franchise usually involves less uncertainty and less risk than starting a business from scratch.
True False

21. Less and less often businesses are being started by people who have opted to leave big corporations and put
their experience and know-how to work for themselves.
True False

22. Women tend to start their own businesses because they really like being their own bosses.
True False

23. More people are discouraged to test their skills as entrepreneurs because the failure rate among small
businesses has been increasing in recent years.
True False

24. Starting a new business requires an overwhelming time commitment.

True False

25. New businesses need six to twelve months of capital before they launch.
True False

26. Few successful entrepreneurs succeed alone or straight out of college.

True False
27. Luck plays a role in the success of some firms.
True False

28. An entrepreneur does all of the following EXCEPT

A. organize.
B. plan.
C. hire professional managers.
D. assume risk.
E. operate.

29. Teresa Walsh and Bonnie Kelly started Silpada Designs, jewelry sold through home parties. They are best
classified as
A. intrapreneurs.
B. franchisers.
C. venture capitalists.
D. entrepreneurs.
E. franchisees.

30. Which of the following describes an entrepreneur?

A. Richard Ames, an investor in Red Raider, which is run by his two partners
B. Chad Olsen, who hired a consulting firm to research his business idea and help him set up Help-Doc, which
he now manages
C. James Hill, who owns Midtown TV but works as a Motorola engineer
D. Sidney Pell, who runs Midtown TV for its owner, James Hill
E. None of these choices

31. Sara Blakely developed the idea to make Spanx undergarments. She filed a patent and researched
production. She now sells Spanx through department stores. She is an example of a(n)
A. intrapreneur.
B. leaseholder.
C. venture capitalist.
D. entrepreneur.
E. franchisee.
32. Which of the following is NOT an example of an entrepreneur?
A. Madeline runs a neighborhood lemonade stand by herself.
B. Diane Molberg started By Request, a successful home bakery business that guarantees that any item it sells is
no more than 24 hours old.
C. Elmer Olsen created the successful Bayfield Apple Jam Company using a recipe from his wife and some
investment capital.
D. Cindy has a yard sale once a year.
E. Donna Cook wanted to start a little home business 10 years ago; now she has a company that produces and
markets more than 150 dry cooking mixes.

33. Kristen owns and operates a photography studio. She has no employees. She is a(n)
A. small business owner.
B. intrapreneur.
C. venture capitalist.
D. networker.
E. leaseholder.

34. A small business

A. is publicly owned.
B. creates jobs faster than big businesses.
C. has less than 100 employees.
D. is easily discernible from a big business.
E. has sales so small it cannot influence its environment.

35. Which of the following statements comparing small businesses to large businesses is FALSE?
A. More new jobs are created by small than by large businesses.
B. Large businesses show better financial performance than small businesses.
C. Small businesses represent the majority of new businesses started each year.
D. Small businesses can typically produce and deliver specialty products more efficiently than large businesses.
E. Small businesses outnumber large businesses by nearly 100 to 1.

36. Which of the following is NOT generally considered to be a role performed by small businesses?
A. Creation of new jobs
B. Development of new products
C. Manufacture of materials for large businesses
D. Distribution of products made by large businesses
E. Provision of capital for expansion of large businesses
37. In terms of the number of new jobs formed each year, how does small business compare to big business?
A. Small business creates more than 99 percent of the new jobs.
B. Big business loses the most jobs each year.
C. Small business was recently passed by big business in creating new jobs
D. Business success creates jobs regardless of size.
E. Big business is responsible for nearly all of the new jobs created.

38. Which of these statements comparing large and small businesses is TRUE?
A. Big businesses outnumber small businesses by a wide margin.
B. Tax policies favor medium-sized businesses.
C. Small businesses show consistently lower financial performance than big businesses.
D. Business success creates jobs regardless of size.
E. Small business formations are on the decline, but the rate for big businesses is increasing.

39. While watching her Dad cook bacon in the microwave, 10-year-old Abby Fleck asked, "Wouldn't it be less
messy if you hung the bacon to cook?" After breakfast, she and her Dad went to the basement and created the
Makin Bacon, a gadget for making bacon cooking less messy. Abby, her parents, and her grandparents own and
operate a company that makes and sells Makin Bacon trays. Her first big customer was Armour Bacon, which
purchased the gadget to sell as a premium on its packages of bacon. This is a small business that has contributed
by its
A. innovation and its importance to a big company.
B. financial performance and impact on its external environment.
C. innovation and its impact on the internal environment of Armour.
D. job creation, innovation, and importance to big business as a whole.
E. job creation and innovation.

40. If an entrepreneur were considering a new business, which of the following would be a DESIRABLE
characteristic of the industry being considered?
A. Several companies are engaged in highly competitive advertising, which indicates that the product is
desirable.
B. The new company will sell a newly patented invention that is not yet well known but is expected to dominate
the market.
C. Start-up costs are high, so only a few companies are in business.
D. The new company will be able to sell only to selected buyers.
E. Customers have substitute products from which to choose if the new company cannot produce the products
as rapidly as needed.
41. In which of the following industries are you most likely to find small business success?
A. Retailing
B. Department store retailing
C. Wholesaling
D. Airline
E. Manufacturing

42. Service businesses are the fastest growing segment of small-business enterprises primarily because of
A. low labor requirements.
B. lack of owner commitment.
C. favorable tax treatment.
D. high market demand.
E. size of initial capital investment required.

43. Which of the following statements about service businesses that are classified as small businesses is
TRUE?
A. Service businesses appeal to the innovative nature of many entrepreneurs.
B. A service company that gift wraps gifts for people too busy to do it themselves is an example of a small
business if it is privately owned and has only four employees.
C. A small business offering a car repair service is like other service businesses in that it offers a higher return
on time invested.
D. The service industry attracts small business owners because it requires so few start-up resources.
E. All of these choices

44. In which of the following ventures would a small business operator be most effective?
A. Construction
B. Transportation
C. Services
D. Manufacturing
E. Wholesale

45. In which of the following areas of retailing are small businesses most likely to create jobs through success?
A. Gas station
B. Creating organic health products
C. General hardware
D. Department store
E. Factory outlet
46. Which of the following statements explains why small businesses are generally more effective than large
companies in specialty retailing?
A. Large companies generally lack the specialists that are needed to make a retail store profitable.
B. Specialty retail stores are generally located in small towns where large organizations tend not to compete.
C. Specialty retailing requires a different organizational structure than is usually found in large companies.
D. Innovative people leave the bureaucracy of big business to start their own firms.
E. Specialty retailing relies on customization, which is not cost effective for large companies.

47. Which of the following statements is TRUE about the industries that small business owners may consider
entering?
A. Small businesses dominate the construction industry.
B. Since the deregulation of banks, the small local bank has completely disappeared.
C. Barriers to entry are generally small.
D. There are no small businesses in the wholesaling industry.
E. More than any other industry, discounting lends itself to the skills of the small business owner.

48. Why are some small business owners successful in the wholesaling industry?
A. A wholesaling business does not require a large capital investment.
B. Small businesses have access to more technology.
C. Wholesaling businesses serve more customers than retail businesses.
D. Small business owners are able to develop personal working relationships with their buyers.
E. All of these choices

49. In which of the following industries are you LEAST likely to find a small business owner performing well
due to a lack of economies of scale?
A. Construction
B. Transportation
C. Service
D. Retailing
E. Manufacturing

50. In which of the following industries are small businesses typically poorer performers than large businesses?
A. Construction
B. Manufacturing
C. Service
D. Retailing
E. Transportation
51. Research has shown that manufacturing costs often fall as the number of units produced by an organization
increases. This relationship between cost and production is called
A. economy of scale.
B. the scalar principle.
C. the equifinality principle.
D. synergy.
E. the 80/20 principle.

52. Large businesses are more likely to succeed in the manufacturing industry than small businesses due to
A. the principle of synergy.
B. economies of scale.
C. divesting.
D. the need for minimal start-up resources.
E. proven business plans.

53. Which of the following is NOT considered to be a distinctive competency for small business?
A. Ability to move quickly to seize new opportunities
B. Ability to achieve economies of scale
C. Ability to identify new niches in established markets
D. Ability to identify new markets
E. Ability to exploit a first-mover advantage

54. Which of the following is an example of identifying a new niche in an established market?
A. Modifying a cell phone keyboard to alphabetical order
B. Reducing the number of outlets that sell computers
C. Reducing the price of a printer so that it is more affordable
D. Introducing a new computer in an industrialized country
E. Designing a computer that can control traffic flow on a freeway

55. An entrepreneur looking to enter the manufacturing industry is more likely to fail due to
A. size of initial capital investment.
B. economies of scale.
C. labor requirements.
D. market saturation.
E. all of these choices.
56. Whole Foods has succeeded in bringing natural foods to mainstream retail. A small business entering the
natural food retail market would have a(n)
A. established market competitor.
B. advantage due to size.
C. niche market.
D. price advantage.
E. advantage in exporting.

57. Which of the following is an example of a first-mover advantage?

A. Orange County Choppers, builders of custom motorcycles, can exploit their own reality television show.
B. The manufacturer of Blistex lip cream, a U.S.-made product, is introduced for the first time to consumers in
Europe.
C. Coca-Cola introduces its own brand of bottled water after the success of a number of other brands of water.
D. Kroger supermarkets add a new line of cosmetics for teens to its shelves.
E. Purina introduces a new package design for its dog food.

58. Webkinz was the first toy company to sell stuffed animals with codes for play on an Internet game site. It
was a
A. niche creator.
B. company with a first-mover advantage.
C. service business.
D. Strategy imitator.
E. product assimilator.

59. Sara Blakely started Spanx after unsuccessfully searching for control undergarments that would not ride up
while being worn. This is an example of
A. identifying a niche.
B. a company with a first-mover advantage.
C. a distribution company.
D. a new market identifier.
E. a product assimilator.

60. The overall purpose of a business plan is to

A. identify all actions required up to the point when the firm opens its doors.
B. outline activities for the business in its first year of operation.
C. provide prospective lenders with a blueprint for action.
D. determine potential demand for the firm's product or service.
E. determine the most appropriate form of ownership.
61. Which activity in developing a business plan is the most important?
A. Choosing a business location
B. Researching the market
C. Choosing a product mix
D. Developing a production plan
E. Developing an organization chart

62. Jane's Candy Shack was a quaint shop, in a small town, with high end items that never attracted many
customers. Its failure was probably attributable to failure to
A. do market research.
B. pay decent wages.
C. raise enough capital.
D. contact the SBIC.
E. hire a consultant.

63. The text lists several questions that the business plan should answer for the entrepreneur who is planning to
open a business. Which of the following is one of the questions?
A. What does she or he want to accomplish?
B. What financing is available?
C. What is the demand for the product/service?
D. What is the most effective production strategy?
E. What does the competitive situation look like?

64. The first step for the entrepreneur in planning his or her business is to
A. forecast sales revenues.
B. develop an organizational plan.
C. choose a business location.
D. develop an organizational chart.
E. engage in self-analysis.

65. The most important part of the small business financial plan is the
A. income statement.
B. balance sheet.
C. inventory analysis.
D. cash budget.
E. break-even chart.
66. The ____ tells how much money is needed to operate a new business.
A. income statement
B. profit and loss statement
C. cash budget
D. t-account
E. balance sheet

67. After watching the royal wedding, Susan wants to start her own hat making company in the United States.
To help her determine whether this is a good idea, she needs to find the answers to which of the following
questions?
A. Who are my customers, and where are they?
B. Who are my competitors, and where are they?
C. How can I differentiate my product from that of my competitors?
D. In what quantities and at what price will my customers buy my service?
E. All of these choices

68. What is the most common source of funds for entrepreneurs?

A. Bank loans
B. Money from venture capitalists
C. Personal financial resources
D. Issuing stock in the business
E. Forming strategic alliances

69. ____ are a group of small investors seeking to make profits on companies with rapid growth potential.
A. Intrapreneurs
B. Hierarchical allies
C. Stakeholders
D. Venture capitalists
E. Bondholders

70. After watching the royal wedding, Susan wants to start her own hat making company in the United States.
Where should she look first for financing?
A. Personal resources
B. SBA
C. Strategic alliances
D. SBICs
E. Venture capital companies
71. Which of the following is NOT a source of management advice for an entrepreneur?
A. Management consultants
B. Small Business Administration (SBA)
C. Networking
D. Advisory boards
E. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

72. Which of the following is NOT a source of management advice for an entrepreneur?
A. Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
B. Small Business Administration (SBA)
C. Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE)
D. Active Corps of Executives (ACE)
E. Small Business Institute (SBI)

73. Jane's Candy Shack is in danger of failing. She needs some major consulting help but she has limited
financial resources. She contacts the SBA. She will most likely get help from the
A. Federal Trade Commission (FTC).
B. Small Business Administration (SBA).
C. Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE).
D. Active Corps of Executives (ACE).
E. Small Business Development Center (SBDC).

74. Under the guidance of the ____, veteran business professors and students seeking advanced degrees work
with small business owners to help solve specific problems like shoplifting and ineffectual advertising.
A. Active Corps of Executives (ACE)
B. National Federation of Independent Businesses (NFIB)
C. Small Business Development Center (SBDC)
D. Small Business Institute (SBI)
E. Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE)

75. Jane's Candy Shack has ineffective advertising. Where should she go for help with a promotion program?
A. Active Corps of Executives (ACE)
B. National Federation of Independent Businesses (NFIB)
C. Small Business Development Center (SBDC)
D. Small Business Institute (SBI)
E. Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE)
76. Why should a new entrepreneur who has to be careful how she spends every penny join the National
Federation of Independent Businesses (NFIB)?
A. The organization offers excellent networking opportunities.
B. The organization is the source of financial resources.
C. The organization is full of venture capitalists.
D. The organization provides generic promotional campaigns free of charge to new businesses.
E. There is no good reason for wasting money on this organization.

77. Jay wants to start a new business. With which of the following methods of starting a new business will he
pay a share of the income from the business in return for the use of such things as trademarks and business
formulas?
A. Venture capitalism
B. Franchising
C. Buying an existing business whose purchase price includes goodwill
D. Starting a new business with loans from the SBA
E. Industrial revenue sharing

78. Which of the following statements about recent trends in franchising is TRUE?
A. Franchising grew rapidly but has leveled off at one-third of retail sales.
B. Franchising is growing rapidly and is projected to account for half of all retail sales.
C. Franchising grew rapidly until about 1975, but its percentage of retail sales is now on the decline.
D. Franchising has not been a big factor in U.S. retail sales due to its high costs.
E. Franchising has declined in popularity because of the high risk it involves.

79. The most significant disadvantage to franchising as a means of acquiring a business is

A. the amount of paperwork.
B. the absence of economies of scale.
C. high start-up costs.
D. government regulation.
E. low break-even points.

80. The most significant change in small business is

A. the increase in the number of male-owned businesses.
B. the increase in the number of small business failures.
C. the decline in the number of sources of financing for small businesses.
D. the rapid emergence of electronic commerce.
E. the luring of entrepreneurs back to corporate America for financial security.
81. Four general factors contribute to the failure rate of small businesses. They include
A. managerial inexperience.
B. overcapitalization.
C. rapid growth.
D. the lack of an innovative spirit.
E. managerial competence.

82. Most experts say that anyone opening a new business should be financially strong enough to operate without
business income for
A. 1-3 months.
B. 3-6 months.
C. 6-12 months.
D. 1-3 years.
E. 2-5 years.

83. Four general factors contribute to the failure rate of small businesses. Which of the following is NOT one of
those factors?
A. Insufficient capital
B. Managerial incompetence or inexperience
C. Low start-up costs
D. Weak control systems
E. Owner neglect

84. Four general factors contribute to the success rate of small businesses. Which of the following is NOT one
of those factors?
A. Managerial competence
B. Luck
C. Hard work, drive, and dedication
D. Empathy with customers
E. Careful analysis of market conditions

85. ____________________ are people who engage in planning, organizing, operations, and assuming risk in a
business venture.
________________________________________

86. A(n) ____________________ is an enterprise with sales and assets that are not large enough to influence its
environment.
________________________________________
87. Entrepreneurial business ____________________, more than business size, accounts for most new job
creation.
________________________________________

88. ____________________ businesses supply over half of all "innovations" introduced into the U.S.
marketplace each year.
________________________________________

89. ____________________ businesses provide ____________________ businesses with many of the services,
supplies, and raw materials they need.
________________________________________

90. The three strategic challenges facing small firms are choosing an industry in which to compete, emphasizing
distinctive competencies, and ____________________.
________________________________________

91. Rachel wants to sell products designed for churches that meet in movie theaters. She has found a(n)
____________________ market.
________________________________________

92. Primarily because they require few resources, ____________________ businesses are the fastest-growing
segment of small-business enterprise.
________________________________________

93. A(n) ____________________ business sells directly to consumers products manufactured by other firms.
________________________________________

94. The distinctive competencies of small business usually fall into three areas: the ability to identify new
niches in established markets, the ability to identify new markets, and the ability to move
____________________.
________________________________________
95. According to the National Federation of Independent Businesses, ____________________ are the most
important sources of money for entrepreneurs.
________________________________________

96. The SBA program that is designed to help small businesses that cannot afford consultants is called
____________________.
________________________________________

97. In addition to helping small business operators obtain funding, the SBA also provides
____________________ assistance.
________________________________________

98. Minorities and women are starting ____________________ small businesses than in the past.
________________________________________

99. ____________________ systems are needed to keep a business on track and to help alert entrepreneurs to
potential trouble.
________________________________________

100. The most common causes of small business success are hard work, ____________________, managerial
competence, and luck.
________________________________________

101. Match the following. You may use a response once, more than once, or not at all.

1. Entrepreneurs who are overly optimistic about

when they will start earning a profit Control system ____
2. Characterized by entrepreneurs who assume Insufficient
common sense and hard work will lead to success capital ____
3. Characterized by entrepreneurs who try to launch Managerial
businesses in their spare time incompetence ____
4. This is needed to alert entrepreneurs to trouble Neglect ____
102. Special Exercises

Jennifer Laurash was a middle manager in corporate America. She switched to work as a full time mother when
her children were young. Then she started the Tiny Little T-shirt Company in her basement. Her clothing line is
now international.

Match the following. You may use a response once, more than once, or not at all.

1. Because she has a start-up business, she needs a

business mentor, preferably one who is familiar
with the retail distribution business and who is not
caught up in running his or her own business. Small Business
Where can she find such a person? Administration (SBA) ____
2. She was having a problem deciding on what
went in her business plan and heard of other
businesses getting college business classes to Service Corps of
design a plan for them. Where did she go to locate Retired Executives
such a program? (SCORE) ____
The National
Association of Women
Business Owners
3. Where can she go to network? (NAWBO) ____
4. If she wanted to ask advice later from someone
currently in business who would be unbiased and
able to give her an honest answer, which agency Small Business
should she contact? Institute (SBI) ____
5. Where should she go for a loan if she is unable Active Corps of
to get private financing at reasonable terms? Executives (ACE) ____

103. What is the nature of entrepreneurship?

104. The media often portray big business as crushing small business. In fact, what is the relationship between
big and small business more likely to be like?

105. Describe the role of entrepreneurship in society.

106. Briefly describe industries in which small businesses seem to be most effective and why this seems to be
the case. In what area are small businesses least successful in comparison to large businesses?

107. The distinctive competencies of small business usually fall into three areas. Briefly discuss each of those
areas.
108. Describe the four major types of information presented in a business plan.

109. When the business plan is finished, the entrepreneur must choose a structure. What does that mean?

110. Imagine you are working for 3M, a company known for supporting innovation. In your private time you
create a new product. Will you start your own company? Why or why not?

111. A new business can be started either from scratch or by buying an existing business. Which method seems
best to you? Explain your answer.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The printers,
stationers and bookbinders of Westminster
and London from 1476 to 1535
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The printers, stationers and bookbinders of Westminster

and London from 1476 to 1535

Author: E. Gordon Duff

Release date: April 1, 2024 [eBook #73310]

Language: English

Original publication: Cambridge: University Press, 1906

Credits: Alan, deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

PRINTERS, STATIONERS AND BOOKBINDERS OF
WESTMINSTER AND LONDON FROM 1476 TO 1535 ***
The Sandars Lectures
1899 and 1904
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
C. F. CLAY, Manager.
London: FETTER LANE, E.C.
Glasgow: 50, WELLINGTON STREET.

Leipzig: F. A. BROCKHAUS.
New York: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.
Bombay and Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.

[All Rights reserved]

 The Printers, Stationers
and Bookbinders
of Westminster and London
from 1476 to 1535
By

E. GORDON DUFF, M.A. Oxon.

Sometime Sandars Reader in Bibliography in
the University of Cambridge

Cambridge
at the University Press
1906
 Cambridge:
PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
 TO

FRANCIS JOHN HENRY JENKINSON

IN REMEMBRANCE OF MUCH KINDNESS

AND MUCH PLEASANT WORK

IN CAMBRIDGE
 PREFACE

T HE lectures contained in the present volume I delivered as

Sandars Reader in two series, the first in the Lent Term 1899,
the second in the May Term 1904 and they are thus separated
by an interval of five years. Of the first series a small edition was
privately printed for presentation, but never published, the second
series is now printed for the first time. Though the second part forms
a continuation of the first, the two are quite distinct. With the close of
the fifteenth century many important changes took place in the
English book-trade, and its conditions altered to a great extent, so
that the period from 1476 to 1500 has many essential points of
difference from the period between 1501 and 1535 and they can with
advantage be treated separately. I have thought it best therefore not
to attempt to combine the two series, but to issue them, with certain
corrections and additions in their original form.
It remains to express my sincere thanks to Dr Jenkinson, the
University Librarian who was kind enough to read the proofs, and to
Mr H. G. Aldis to whom I am indebted for the excellent index.
E. G. D.
April, 1906.
 LIST OF PLATES
(These plates are the full size of the originals.)
1. Title-page to W. de Worde’s edition of the to face p.
‘Book of Good Manners’ 36
From the unique copy in the University Library,
Cambridge.
2. Machlinia Border used by R. Pynson in to face p.
‘Aphthonii Sophistae Praeexercitamenta’ 56
From the copy in the University Library, Cambridge.
3. Page of the Sarum Breviary printed by R. de to face p.
Novimagio at Venice in 1483 74
From the unique copy in the Bibliothéque Nationale.
4. Binding of Frederick Egmont on a copy of to face p.
‘Lavacrum Conscientiae’ printed at Rouen 114
From the example in the library of Caius College,
Cambridge.
5. Unrecorded device used by W. de Worde in to face p.
the ‘Manipulus Curatorum’ of 1502 132
From the unique copy in the Bodleian Library.
6. Title-page to R. Redman’s edition of
Lyndewode’s to face p.
‘Constitutions’ of 1534 176
From the copy in the University Library, Cambridge.
7. Device of Christopher Endhoven from the
Sarum to face p.
‘Processionale’ printed at Antwerp in 1525 222
From the copy in the Bodleian Library.
 PART I.
1476-1500.

LECTURE I.
THE PRINTERS AT WESTMINSTER.
While the history of the invention and introduction of the art of
printing into the various countries of Europe is not only obscure, but
still the subject of endless controversy, the history of its introduction
into England is now practically settled.
There are no troublesome and incomprehensible documents as in
the case of France. No questionable references or undatable
fragments such as Dutch and German bibliographers have to
contend with. The only attempt that has been made to bring forward
an earlier printer than William Caxton is founded upon the misprinted
date in the first book printed at Oxford.
In 1664, while the Company of Stationers and the King were
quarrelling over the question which had or should have the most
power in matters pertaining to printing, a certain Richard Atkyns put
forth a tract, now exceedingly rare, called The Original and Growth of
Printing. In this tract, intended to uphold the King’s rights, attention
was drawn for the first time to the Oxford book. “A book came into
my hands,” writes Atkyns, “printed at Oxford, a.d. 1468, which was
three years before any of the recited authors would allow it to be in
England.” Around this book Atkyns wove a wonderful romance, in
the style of the earlier legends about Coster and Gutenberg.
Rumours of the new art, he suggests, having reached England,
trusted men were sent over to bribe or kidnap an eligible printer and
bring him over secretly, along with a press, type, and other
impedimenta, to England. This was accordingly done, and a certain
Frederick Corsellis was conveyed into England, and set up a press
in Oxford. One curious point has escaped all commentators on this
story, and that is that a real person named Corsellis did come over to
England from the Low Countries about that time, and was an
ancestor of several well-known London families in Atkyns’s time,
such as the Van Ackers, the Wittewronges and the Middletons.
Atkyns referred for evidence to documents which have never been
found, and his story has met with the disbelief it deserved, but the
Oxford book with the date of 1468 not only exists, but still has
supporters who consider, or say they consider, the date to be
genuine.
Singer in the early part of the century wrote a book in favour of its
authenticity, though, as he afterwards attempted to suppress his
work, we may conclude he had changed his opinion. Mr Madan of
the Bodleian, in his recent admirable history of Oxford printing, clings
hesitatingly to 1468, “but quaere” as he would himself say. Generally,
however it is agreed that the date is a misprint for 1478. The book
has printed signatures, which are not known to have been used
before 1472, and when the book is placed alongside the two others
issued from the same press in 1479 and printed in the same type, it
falls naturally into its proper place, taking just the small precedence
which its slightly lesser excellence of workmanship warrants.
Having now disposed of Caxton’s only rival, let us turn to Caxton
himself. It would, I think, be out of place here to recapitulate however
shortly the history of Caxton’s early life, since it has been so fully and
excellently done in that standard book Blades’s Life of Caxton. What
is more to our purpose is to pass on to the time when, as an
influential and prosperous man, he laid the foundations of his career
as a printer. By 1463 Caxton had been appointed to the office of
governor of the English nation in the Low Countries, a post of
considerable importance, and entailing the supervision of trade and
traders, and this office he held until about the year 1469. At this latter
date he was also in the service of the Duchess of Burgundy, though
in what capacity is not stated; but he certainly employed himself at
her request in making translations of romances. The Recuyell of the
Historyes of Troye, a well-known romance of the period, was
translated between the years 1469 and 1471, and presented to the
duchess in September of the latter year. In the prologue of the
printed edition Caxton explains that after the duchess had received
her copy, many other persons desired copies also, but that finding
the labour of writing too wearisome for him, and not expeditious
enough for his friends, he had “practised and learnt, at his great
charge and expense, to ordain the book in print, to the end that
every man might have them at once.”
Now in 1471, when Caxton finished his translation of the Recueil, he
was living at Cologne, a city remarkable even at that time for the
number of its printers, and the first town that Caxton had visited
where the art was practised. He had just finished the tedious copying
of a large manuscript, so that the advantages of printing would be
manifest to him; and we may be tolerably certain that it was about
this time and at this town that he took his first lessons in the art and
mastered the mechanical processes.
Printing by this time had ceased to be a secret art, nor was there
such a demand for books as to make it a very valuable one. The
printed books of Germany had at an early date found their way to
Bruges, and people’s eyes were accustomed to the sight of the
printed page, though the nobles still preferred manuscripts, as being
more ornamental and costly. There are copies in the Cambridge
University Library and at Lambeth of the Cicero de officiis, printed at
Mainz by Schoiffer in 1466, which were bought in 1467 at Bruges by
John Russell, afterwards Bishop of Lincoln, when abroad on a
diplomatic mission; and a speech of his, delivered at Ghent in 1470,
on the occasion of the investiture of the Duke of Burgundy with the
order of the Garter, was one of Caxton’s earliest printed productions.
A very strong piece of evidence to my mind that Caxton learnt at
Cologne is to be found in the epilogue to the English translation of
the De proprietatibus rerum, by Bartholomæus Anglicus, which was
printed by W. de Worde, Caxton’s apprentice and successor, in
1496. This epilogue, written by De Worde himself, contains these
lines:—

And also of your charyte call to remembraunce,

 The soule of William Caxton, first prynter of this boke,
In Laten tonge at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce,
That every well disposyd man, may theron loke.

Now this is a perfectly clear statement that Caxton printed a

Bartholomæus in Latin at Cologne, and we know an edition of the
book manifestly printed at Cologne about the time Caxton was there.
The type in which it is printed greatly resembles that of some other
Cologne printers, and it seems to be connected with some of
Caxton’s Bruges types. At any rate, the story cannot be put aside as
without foundation. It is not, of course, suggested that Caxton printed
the book by himself or owned the materials, but only that he assisted
in its production. He was learning the art of printing in the office
where this book was being prepared, and his practical knowledge
was acquired by assisting to print it.
Returning to Bruges, he set about turning his knowledge to account,
and in partnership with a writer of manuscripts, named Colard
Mansion, began to make or obtain the necessary materials.
Between the years 1471, when Caxton had learned the art at
Cologne, and 1474, when he set about obtaining material, printing-
presses had started work at Utrecht, Alost, and Louvain. Caxton
would most naturally turn for assistance to a town in his own
neighbourhood, and there is very little doubt that this town was
Louvain, and that the printer who assisted him was John Veldener.
About 1475 their first book was issued, the Recuyell of the Historyes
of Troye, the first book printed in the English language. It is a small
thick folio of 352 leaves, and though not uncommon in an imperfect
condition, is of the very greatest rarity when perfect. Two other books
were printed by 1476, The Game and Playe of the Chesse and the
Quatre derrenières choses, the latter a very rare book, of which only
two copies are known.
In 1476 Caxton obtained a new fount of type, and leaving the first
fount with Colard Mansion, who continued to use it for a short time,
prepared to set out with his new material for England.
It must have been early in 1476 that Caxton returned and set to
work. He took up his residence in Westminster at a house with the
heraldic sign of the “Red Pale,” which was situated in the Almonry, a
place close to the Abbey where alms were distributed to the poor,
and where Margaret, Countess of Richmond, the mother of Henry
VII., and a great patroness of learning, built alms-houses. The exact
position of Caxton’s house is not known, but it was probably on
some part of the ground lately covered by the Westminster
Aquarium.
The first dated book printed in England was the Dictes or Sayengis
of the Philosophres, translated from the French by Earl Rivers, a
friend and patron of Caxton, and edited by Caxton himself, who
added the chapter “concernyng wymmen,” a chapter which, with its
prologue, exhibits a considerable amount of humour.
It is interesting to notice that, as the book is in English, we alone of
European nations started our press with a book in the vernacular.
The ordinary copies of the Dictes are without colophon, though the
printer and year are in the epilogue, but a copy formerly in the
Althorp Library and now at Manchester has an imprint which states
that the book was finished on the 18th November, 1477. Although we
count the Dictes or Sayengis as the first book printed in England on
account of its being the first dated book, it is quite possible that some
may have preceded it. Between the time of Caxton’s arrival in 1476
and the end of 1478 about twenty-one books were printed, and only
two have imprints, so that the rest are merely ranged conjecturally by
the evidence of type or other details. Now in 1510 W. de Worde
issued an edition of King Apolyn of Tyre, translated from the French
by one of his assistants, Robert Copland, who in his preface writes
as follows: “My worshipful master Wynken de Worde, having a little
book of an ancient history of a kyng, sometyme reigning in the
countree of Thyre called Appolyn, concernynge his malfortunes and
peryllous aduentures right espouuentables, bryefly compyled and
pyteous for to here, the which boke I Robert Coplande have me
applyed for to translate out of the Frensshe language into our
maternal Englysshe tongue at the exhortacion of my forsayd
mayster, accordynge dyrectly to myn auctor, gladly followynge the
trace of my mayster Caxton, begynnynge with small storyes and
pamfletes and so to other.” Now this Robert Copland was spoken of
a little later as the oldest printer in England, so that he may well have
known a good deal about the beginning of Caxton’s career. We find
a very similar case in Scotland. Printing was introduced there mainly
for the purpose of printing the Aberdeen Breviary, but the first thing
the printers did was to issue a series of small poetical pieces by
Dunbar, Chaucer, and others, an exactly similar kind of set to the
small Caxton pieces in the Cambridge University Library.
In connexion with these Caxton pieces I noticed the other day a
strange statement. The writer was speaking of Henry Bradshaw’s
knowledge of Caxton, and went on to say that “to his bibliographical
genius the Cambridge University Library owes the possession of its
many unique Caxtons and unique Caxton fragments.” The library,
however, owes them mainly to the much-maligned John Bagford,
who collected the early English books which came to the University
with Bishop Moore’s library. The monstrous collection of title-pages
in the British Museum, generally associated with Bagford’s name,
was made by the venerated founder of English bibliography, Joseph
Ames.
Before the end of 1478 Caxton had printed about twenty-one books.
Of these sixteen were small works, all containing less than fifty
leaves; of the others the most important is the first edition of the
Canterbury Tales, of which there is, I think, no perfect copy. Blades
speaks of a fine perfect copy in the library of Merton College, Oxford,
and remarks also that Dibdin ignorantly spoke of it as imperfect. In
Dibdin’s time, however, it certainly was imperfect, for I have seen
some notes of Lord Spencer’s referring to his having sent some
leaves from an imperfect copy to the college to assist them in
perfecting their own, a courtesy which they repaid by presenting to
the library at Althorp their duplicate and only other known copy of
Wednesday’s Fast printed by W. de Worde in 1532.
Among the other books of the period of special interest is the
Propositio Johannis Russell, which has often been ascribed to the
Bruges press, as the speech of which it consists was delivered in the
Low Countries. Lord Spencer’s copy had a curious history. It is
bound up in a volume of English and Latin MSS., and in the Brand
sale in 1807 the volume appeared among the MSS., with a note, “A
work on Theology and Religion with five leaves at the end, a very
great curiosity, very early printed on wooden blocks, or type.” It was
bought by the Marquis of Blandford for forty-five shillings, and at his
sale ten years after cost Lord Spencer £126.
Another interesting book is the Infancia Salvatoris, of which the only
known copy is at Göttingen, being one of the two unique Caxtons
which are in foreign libraries. It was originally in the Harleian Library,
which was sold entire to Osborne the bookseller, and was bought
with many other books for the Göttingen University. It is in its old red
Harleian binding, with Osborne’s price, fifteen shillings marked
inside, and the note of the Göttingen librarian: “aus dem Katalogen
Thomas Osborne in London 12 Maii 1749 (No. 4179) erkauft.”
In the first group of books comes also the only printed edition of the
Sarum Ordinale or Pica, which was superseded by Clement
Maydeston’s Directorium Sacerdotum. Unfortunately the book is only
known from some fragments rescued from a binding and now in the
British Museum. To it refers the curious little advertisement put out
by Caxton, the only example of a printer’s advertisement in England
in the fifteenth century, though we know of many foreign specimens:
“If it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to bye ony pyes of two and
thre comemoracions of salisburi use, enpryntid after the forme of this
present lettre whiche ben wel and truly correct, late hym come to
westmonester in to the almonesrye at the reed pale and he shal
haue them good chepe.” So far the advertisement; below it is the
appeal to the public, “Supplico stet cedula.” It seems curious that this
should be in Latin, for one would naturally suppose that the ones
most likely to tear down the advertisement would be the persons
ignorant of that language.
Two copies of this advertisement are known, one in the Bodleian,
and another, formerly in the Althorp collection, at Manchester. It has
been suggested that both copies may have been at one time
extracted from some old binding in the Cambridge University Library.
The example at Manchester certainly belonged at one time to
Richard Farmer, who was University Librarian, but the Bodleian
example was found by Francis Douce in a binding in his own
collection.
The group of eight small books in the University Library which I
spoke of as perhaps printed earlier than the Dictes or Sayengis were
originally all bound together in one volume in old calf, and lettered
“Old poetry printed by Caxton.” This precious volume contained the
Stans Puer ad Mensam, the Parvus Catho, The Chorle and the Bird,
The Horse the Shepe and the Goose, The Temple of Glas, The
Temple of Brass, The Book of Courtesy, and Anelida and Arcyte,
and of five of these no other copies are known.
About 1478-9 was issued the Rhetorica Nova of Laurentius of
Savona, of which two copies are known, one in the Library of Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, the other in the University Library of
Upsala. Now although this book had been known and examined by
many for two hundred years, and is printed in the most widely used
of Caxton’s types, yet it was not recognised as a Caxton until it was
examined by Henry Bradshaw in 1861. The colophon says that the
work was compiled in the University of Cambridge in 1478, and it
was in consequence described by all the early writers as the first
book printed at Cambridge. Strype wrote an account of the Corpus
copy to Bagford, who in his turn wrote of it to Tanner, and he in his
turn communicated it to Ames. Ames then inserted it at the head of
his list of books printed at Cambridge, and the mistake, as is usual in
such cases, was copied in turn by each succeeding writer on
printing.
In 1480 considerable changes are to be found in Caxton’s methods
of work, owing no doubt to competition, for in this year a press was
started in London by a certain John Lettou. He appears to have been
a practised printer, and his work is certainly better than Caxton’s, his
type much smaller and neater, and the page more regularly printed.
He also introduced into England the use of signatures. Signatures
are the small letters printed at the foot of the page which were
intended to serve as a guide to the bookbinder in gathering up the
sheets. From the earliest times they were added in writing both to
manuscripts and the earliest printed books, but about 1472 printers
began to print them in type, and the habit soon became general.
Caxton’s use of signatures begins in 1480 and was doubtless copied
from the London printer.
At the beginning of 1480 Caxton had printed an indulgence in his
large type, the second of his founts, and immediately afterwards the
London printer issued another edition in his small neat type. Caxton
promptly had another fount cut of small type, and issued with it a
third edition of the indulgence.
It is a matter much to be regretted that Henry Bradshaw never
issued one of his Memoranda on the subject of these indulgences,
for he had collected much interesting information, and was the first to
point out the variations in the wording of the different issues as well
as the discoverer of several unknown examples.
The year 1481 saw the introduction of illustrations, which were first
used in the Mirror of the World. In it there are two sets of cuts, one
depicting various masters, either alone or with several pupils, the
other are merely diagrams copied from those found in manuscripts of
the work. These diagrams are meagre and difficult to understand, so
much so that the printer himself has put several in their wrong
places. The explanatory words inside the diagrams, which would no
doubt have been printed in type had Caxton had a fount small
enough, are written by hand. It is interesting to notice that in all
copies of the book the same handwriting is found, though I am afraid
it would be unsafe to conclude it to be Caxton’s. The period from
1480 to 1483 is the least interesting as regards Caxton’s books.
Besides the Mirror of the World only two books contain woodcuts;
the Catho, and the second edition of the Game and Playe of the
Chesse. The two cuts in the Catho had been used before in the
Mirror, but the sixteen in the chess-book are specially cut, though
clearly by a different artist from the one who made those for the
Mirror. Mr Linton in his book on wood-engraving expressed the
opinion that many of these cuts were of soft metal, treated in the
same manner as a wood-block, but whenever we find any of them in
use for a long period, the breaks which occur in them and the
occurrence sometimes even of worm-holes show that the cut must
have been of wood.