Q1. Why there is per user or per process file descriptor table?

The per-user file descriptor table and per-process file descriptor table are used in the UNIX
operating system to keep track of the files that are open for a particular user or process.

The per-user file descriptor table is allocated per process and keeps track of the files that are
open for that specific user. This allows each user to have their own set of file descriptors,
ensuring that one user's file operations do not interfere with another user's.

The per-process file descriptor table is a global kernel structure that keeps track of the files that
are open for a specific process. This allows each process to have its own set of file descriptors,
enabling different processes to independently manage their file operations without affecting each
other.

Having separate file descriptor tables for users and processes helps in maintaining file access
control and isolation between users and processes. It also allows for efficient management of file
operations within the UNIX system.

Q2. Why processes in kernel mode cannot be preempted? Justify?

Processes in kernel mode cannot be preempted in the UNIX operating system to maintain the
consistency and integrity of the system's data structures. Here are the justifications for why
processes in kernel mode cannot be preempted:

1. Data Consistency: When a process is executing in kernel mode, it may be manipulating

critical data structures or performing operations that require exclusive access to certain
resources. Preempting a process in the middle of such critical operations could lead to
data corruption or inconsistency.
2. Mutual Exclusion: By not allowing processes in kernel mode to be preempted, the system
ensures mutual exclusion in accessing shared resources. If multiple processes in kernel
mode were allowed to run concurrently and be preempted, it could lead to race
conditions and data integrity issues.
3. Controlled Execution: Kernel mode operations are typically privileged and involve
low-level system functions. Allowing preemptive scheduling of processes in kernel mode
could result in unpredictable behavior and potentially compromise system stability.
4. System Integrity: The kernel is responsible for managing system resources and ensuring
the overall stability of the system. By preventing preemptive scheduling of processes in
kernel mode, the kernel maintains control over critical system operations and prevents
unauthorized access to sensitive areas of the system.

Overall, by restricting preemption of processes in kernel mode, the UNIX operating system
prioritizes system integrity, data consistency, and controlled access to system resources.
OR
Processes in kernel mode cannot be preempted because the kernel is non-preemptive, meaning
that a process executing in kernel mode will continue to execute until it enters the sleep state or
until it returns to execute in user mode. The kernel maintains the consistency of its data
structures by enforcing the policy of non-preemption and by blocking interrupts when executing
critical regions of code. This helps in solving the mutual exclusion problem, ensuring that critical
sections of code are executed by at most one process at a time. Additionally, the kernel allows a
context switch only when a process moves from the state "kernel running" to the state "asleep in
memory". This approach protects the integrity of global kernel data structures and prevents
corruption, thus ensuring the stability and reliability of the system.

Q3. Bases on 13 entries of table of content for regular file, What is max size of file a file
system support?

With 13 entries in the table of contents for a regular file in the UNIX system, the maximum size of
a file that can be supported depends on the indirect block structure used for addressing disk
blocks.

Assuming the following structure:

● 10 direct blocks
● 1 single indirect block
● 1 double indirect block
● 1 triple indirect block

Each direct block can address one disk block, the single indirect block can address 256 disk
blocks, the double indirect block can address 256 * 256 = 65,536 disk blocks, and the triple
indirect block can address 256 * 256 * 256 = 16,777,216 disk blocks.

If each disk block is 1 KB in size, the maximum file size can be calculated as follows:

● 10 direct blocks * 1 KB = 10 KB
● 256 single indirect blocks * 1 KB = 256 KB
● 65,536 double indirect blocks * 1 KB = 65,536 KB
● 16,777,216 triple indirect blocks * 1 KB = 16,777,216 KB

Adding these up, the total maximum file size supported by the file system would be: 10 KB + 256
KB + 65,536 KB + 16,777,216 KB = 16,842,018 KB or approximately 16.8 GB.

Therefore, with 13 entries in the table of contents for a regular file in the UNIX system, the
maximum file size that can be supported is approximately 16.8 GB.

Q4. Which system call is used to send the signal?

Q4. Which system call is used to send the signal?
The system call used to send a signal in the UNIX operating system is kill().

The kill() system call is used to send a signal to a process or a group of processes. It allows
one process to send a signal to another process, specifying the process ID of the target process
and the type of signal to be sent.

The syntax of the kill() system call is:

int kill(pid_t pid, int sig);

● pid is the process ID of the target process to which the signal is being sent.
● sig is the signal to be sent to the target process.
By using the kill() system call, a process can send various signals to another process, such as
terminating the process, interrupting the process, or requesting the process to reload
configuration files, among others.

Q5. Whether a signal handling is optional to a process, if yes/no justify? Which system
call is used to make it optional?
Signal handling is not optional for a process in the UNIX operating system. Every process in
UNIX must have a default action defined for each type of signal it may receive. If a process does
not explicitly handle a signal, the default action associated with that signal will be taken.

However, a process can choose to handle signals by setting up signal handlers. Signal handlers
are functions that are executed when a specific signal is received by a process. By setting up
signal handlers, a process can customize its response to signals, allowing for more control over
how signals are handled.

The system call used to establish a signal handler for a specific signal is signal(). The signal()
system call allows a process to define a custom signal handler function for a specific signal. The
syntax of the signal() system call is:

void (*signal(int signum, void (*handler)(int)))(int);

● signum is the signal number for which the handler is being established.
● handler is a pointer to the signal handler function.

By using the signal() system call, a process can make signal handling mandatory rather than
optional, allowing it to define custom actions for specific signals.

Q6. Advantages and disadvantages of buffer cache.

Advantages of Buffer Cache:

1. Improved Performance: One of the main advantages of a buffer cache is that it improves
system performance by reducing the frequency of disk accesses. By storing frequently
accessed data in memory, the system can retrieve it more quickly, leading to faster read
and write operations.
2. Reduced Disk I/O: The buffer cache helps reduce the number of disk I/O operations by
keeping data in memory. This reduction in disk I/O can lead to lower disk wear and tear,
improved disk longevity, and overall system efficiency.
3. Data Consistency: The buffer cache helps maintain data consistency by ensuring that
only one copy of a disk block is present in memory at a time. This prevents data
corruption that could occur if multiple copies of the same block were modified
independently.
4. Caching Auxiliary Data: In addition to file data, the buffer cache can also store auxiliary
system data such as inodes, improving the efficiency of system operations that require
access to this data.

Disadvantages of Buffer Cache:

1. Data Integrity: One of the main disadvantages of a buffer cache is the risk of data loss in
the event of a system crash. Data stored in the buffer cache may not have been written
 to disk yet, leading to potential data loss if the system crashes before the data is flushed
to disk.
2. Extra Data Copy: When reading or writing data to and from the buffer cache, an
additional data copy operation is required. This can introduce overhead and potentially
impact system performance, especially when dealing with large amounts of data.
3. Delayed Write: The concept of delayed write, where data is not immediately written to
disk, can lead to uncertainty about the actual state of data on disk. This can be a concern
for applications that require immediate data persistence.
4. Memory Usage: The buffer cache consumes system memory, which could potentially limit
the amount of memory available for other processes. If the buffer cache uses a
significant portion of memory, it may lead to increased swapping and reduced overall
system performance.

Overall, while the buffer cache provides significant performance benefits by reducing disk I/O and
improving data access speeds, it also introduces challenges related to data integrity, memory
usage, and potential data loss in certain scenarios.

Q7. Define zombie state. Why it is designed in lifecycle of process?

The zombie state in the lifecycle of a process occurs when a process has completed execution
but still has an entry in the process table. This happens when the parent process has not yet
read the exit status of the terminated child process. The zombie state is designed in the process
lifecycle to ensure that the parent process can still retrieve the exit status of the terminated child
process, as this information may be needed for proper resource management and cleanup. Once
the parent process retrieves the exit status, the entry for the terminated child process is removed
from the process table, and the process is finally eliminated.

Q8. When a process terminates, the kernel performs clean-up, assigns any children of the
existing process to be adopted by inti, and sends the death of a child signal to the parent
process. Why? / What is orphan process? Who is parent of orphan process? Why?

When a process terminates, the kernel performs clean-up tasks to release resources associated
with the process, update process-related data structures, and ensure proper handling of any
child processes. Here's why the kernel performs these actions:

1. Clean-up: The kernel releases resources held by the terminated process, such as
memory, file descriptors, and other system resources, to prevent resource leaks and
ensure efficient resource utilization.
2. Adoption of Children by init: If the terminated process had any child processes that were
still running, the kernel assigns these orphaned child processes to be adopted by the init
process (process ID 1). This ensures that orphaned processes have a parent process to
manage them and prevents them from becoming zombie processes.
3. Death of a Child Signal: The kernel sends a "death of a child" signal to the parent
process of the terminated process. This signal, typically SIGCHLD, notifies the parent
process that one of its child processes has terminated. The parent process can then
handle this signal, collect the exit status of the terminated child process, and perform any
necessary clean-up tasks.

An orphan process is a process whose parent process has terminated or is no longer running.
Orphan processes are adopted by the init process (process ID 1) in Unix-like operating systems.
Here's why orphan processes are handled in this way:
 1. Parent Process Termination: If a parent process terminates before its child processes,
the child processes become orphaned. Without a parent process to manage them,
orphan processes could potentially become zombie processes, consuming system
resources without proper cleanup.
2. Adoption by init: By assigning orphan processes to be adopted by the init process, these
processes have a new parent process to manage them. Init reaps the exit status of
orphan processes, prevents them from becoming zombies, and ensures proper resource
cleanup.
3. Stability and Resource Management: Adopting orphan processes by init helps maintain
system stability, prevents resource leaks, and ensures that all processes have a parent
process responsible for their management. This mechanism is essential for maintaining a
well-organized process hierarchy and efficient resource utilization in the operating
system.

Q9. What is system call? Why they are designed in OS?

A system call is a mechanism provided by the operating system that allows user-level processes
to request services from the kernel. These services include actions such as creating a new
process, reading or writing to a file, allocating memory, and performing input/output operations.
System calls provide an interface for applications to interact with the underlying operating system
kernel.

Here's why system calls are designed in an operating system:

1. Privileged Operations: Many operations, such as managing hardware devices, memory

allocation, and process scheduling, require privileged access that user-level processes
do not have. System calls provide a controlled way for user processes to request these
privileged operations from the kernel.
2. Isolation and Protection: System calls help maintain the isolation and protection of user
processes from each other and from the underlying hardware. By providing a controlled
interface to the kernel, system calls ensure that processes can only perform authorized
actions and cannot interfere with each other's memory or resources.
3. Abstraction: System calls abstract the complex operations of the operating system kernel
into high-level functions that are easy for application developers to use. This abstraction
simplifies the development of applications by providing a standardized interface for
interacting with the kernel.
4. Resource Management: System calls allow processes to request and manage system
resources such as memory, files, and devices. By using system calls, processes can
allocate and release resources in a controlled manner, preventing resource conflicts and
ensuring efficient resource utilization.
5. Interprocess Communication: System calls provide mechanisms for interprocess
communication, allowing processes to communicate and synchronize with each other.
Operations like creating pipes, signals, and shared memory segments are facilitated
through system calls.
6. Security: System calls play a crucial role in enforcing security policies and access control
in the operating system. By controlling access to privileged operations through system
calls, the kernel can enforce security policies and prevent unauthorized access to system
resources.

In summary, system calls are designed in an operating system to provide a secure, controlled,
and standardized interface for user processes to interact with the kernel and access system
resources and services. They form the bridge between user-level applications and the low-level
operations of the operating system, enabling efficient and secure operation of the system.

Q10. What information does wait finds when child process invokes exit without a
parameter? This is, the child process call exit() instead of exit(n).

When a child process invokes the exit() function without a parameter (i.e., without specifying an
exit status code), the wait() system call in the parent process can still retrieve some information
about the child process's termination. Here's what wait() can find in this scenario:

1. Exit Status: Even if the child process calls exit() without a parameter, the wait()
system call can still determine that the child process has terminated. The absence of an
exit status code does not prevent the parent process from knowing that the child process
has exited.
2. Termination Reason: The wait() system call can determine that the child process has
terminated, but it may not have specific information about the reason for the termination.
Without an exit status code, the parent process may not have detailed information about
the success or failure of the child process's execution.
3. Process State: The wait() system call can retrieve information about the state of the
child process after termination. It can determine whether the child process exited
normally, encountered an error, or was terminated due to a signal.
4. Resource Cleanup: When the child process exits without specifying an exit status code,
the kernel still performs resource cleanup tasks associated with the child process. The
wait() system call allows the parent process to collect the exit status of the child process
and perform any necessary resource cleanup.

In summary, when a child process invokes exit() without a parameter, the wait() system call in
the parent process can still determine that the child process has terminated and perform
necessary cleanup tasks, but it may not have detailed information about the specific exit status or
reason for the termination of the child process.

Q11. What are the advantages in kernel, when devices are treated as file?
Treating devices as files in the kernel has several advantages, which include:

1. Uniform Interface: By treating devices as files, the kernel provides a uniform interface for
interacting with different types of devices. This simplifies the programming model for
device access, as applications can use familiar file operations (such as open, read, write,
close) to communicate with devices.
2. Consistent Access Control: Treating devices as files allows the kernel to apply consistent
access control mechanisms to both devices and regular files. Permissions can be set on
device files just like on regular files, enabling secure access control for device operations.
3. Ease of Management: Treating devices as files makes device management more
straightforward. Device files can be easily created, deleted, and manipulated using
standard file system operations, simplifying device configuration and maintenance.
4. Interoperability: Treating devices as files promotes interoperability between different
applications and devices. Applications can interact with devices using standard file I/O
operations, making it easier to integrate device functionality into various software
systems.
5. Simplified I/O Operations: By abstracting devices as files, the kernel simplifies
input/output operations for applications. Applications can use the same read and write
 operations to communicate with devices as they do with regular files, reducing complexity
and improving code reusability.
6. Device Independence: Treating devices as files allows applications to access devices
without needing to know the specific details of each device. This abstraction layer
provided by device files shields applications from the underlying hardware
implementation, promoting device independence.
7. Standardization: Treating devices as files follows the Unix philosophy of "everything is a
file," which promotes standardization and consistency in the system. This approach
simplifies system design and maintenance by providing a common interface for device
access.

Overall, treating devices as files in the kernel offers a range of benefits, including a uniform
interface, consistent access control, ease of management, interoperability, simplified I/O
operations, device independence, and standardization. These advantages contribute to a more
efficient and user-friendly system design.

Q12. Which memory management technique suitable for multiuser OS?

Q15. How many signals are there in system V UNIX? Give the correspondence between
PID and set of processes/process in kill system call for sending the signal? Or What are
the system calls that support the processing environment in Kernel? How Kernel uses
these system calls for processing?

In System V UNIX, there are about 64 system calls, of which fewer than 32 are used frequently.
These system calls provide various functionalities for the processing environment in the kernel.
Some of the key system calls that support the processing environment in the kernel include:

1. fork: Create a new process.

2. exec: Overlay the image of a program onto the running process.
3. exit: Finish executing a process.
4. wait: Synchronize process execution with the exit of a previously forked process.
5. brk: Control the size of memory allocated to a process.
6. signal: Control process response to extraordinary events.

These system calls are essential for process management, memory allocation, and handling
exceptional conditions in the kernel.

When it comes to sending signals to processes using the kill system call, the correspondence
between PID (Process ID) and the set of processes or a specific process is as follows:

● To send a signal to a specific process, you would specify the PID of that process in the
kill system call.
● To send a signal to a group of processes, you would specify the Process Group ID
(PGID) in the kill system call.
● To send a signal to all processes in the same session as the calling process, you would
specify -1 as the PID in the kill system call.

The kernel uses these system calls to manage processes, handle process synchronization,
control memory allocation, and respond to various events. For example, when a process
executes the fork system call, the kernel creates a new process. The exec system call allows
the kernel to overlay a new program onto an existing process. The exit system call is used to
terminate a process, and the wait system call allows a process to wait for the termination of
another process. The signal system call is used to control how a process responds to signals or
exceptional events.

Overall, these system calls play a crucial role in the processing environment of the kernel,
enabling process creation, management, memory control, and event handling in a System V
UNIX system.

Q16. Explain the system boot steps or (Start) algorithm

The system boot process involves a series of steps that the computer goes through when it is
powered on or restarted. Here is an overview of the typical system boot steps:

1. Power On: When the computer is powered on, the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or
UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) firmware is activated. The firmware
initializes the hardware components of the computer, performs a Power-On Self-Test
(POST) to check for hardware issues, and locates the boot device.
2. Boot Device Selection: The firmware locates the boot device, which is usually the hard
drive, SSD, or a USB drive, where the operating system is installed. It checks the boot
order specified in the BIOS/UEFI settings to determine which device to boot from.
3. Boot Loader: Once the boot device is selected, the firmware hands over control to the
boot loader stored on the boot device. The boot loader is responsible for loading the
operating system kernel into memory and initializing the operating system.
4. Kernel Initialization: The boot loader loads the operating system kernel into memory and
initializes essential system components. The kernel sets up the system environment,
initializes device drivers, and prepares the system for user interaction.
5. Init Process: The kernel starts the init process, which is the first user-space process in
the system. The init process is responsible for initializing the system services, starting
daemons, and bringing the system to a usable state.
6. User Space Initialization: Once the init process is running, it starts other system services
and processes required for the system to function properly. This includes starting
networking services, file systems, user interfaces, and other essential components.
7. User Login: Finally, the system reaches a state where it is ready for user interaction.
Users can log in to the system, start applications, and perform tasks on the computer.

The system boot process may vary slightly depending on the operating system and system
configuration. Additionally, modern systems may have additional steps or optimizations in the
boot process to improve boot times and system performance.

In summary, the system boot process involves hardware initialization, boot device selection,
loading the operating system kernel, initializing system components, starting user-space
processes, and reaching a state where the system is ready for user interaction.

OR
Boot procedures vary according to machine type, but the goal is common to all machines: to get
a copy of the operating system into machine memory and to start executing it. This is usually
done in a series of stages; hence the name bootstrap.
 1. The bootstrap procedure eventually reads the boot block (block 0) of a disk, and loads it into
memory. The program contained in the boot block loads the kernel from the file system (from the
file "/unix".
2. After the kernel is loaded in memory, the boot program transfers control to the start address of
the kernel, and the kernel starts running. The kernel initializes its internal data structures.
3. After completing the initialization phase, it mounts the root file system onto root ("/") and
fashions the environment for process 0, creating a u initializing slot 0 in the process table and
making root the current directory of process 0.
4. When the environment of process 0 is set up, the syste running as process 0. Process 0
forks, invoking the fork algorithm directly from the kernel, because it is executing in kernel mode.
5. The new process, process 1, running in kernel mode, creates its user-level context by
allocating a data region and initializing slot 0 in the process table and making root the current
directory of process 0. 4. When the environment of process 0 is set up, the syste running as
process 0. Process 0 forks, invoking the fork algorithm directly from the kernel, because it is
executing in 5. The new process, process 1, running in kernel mode, creates level context by
allocating a data region and attaching it area , initializing slot 0 in the process table and making
root the 4. When the environment of process 0 is set up, the system is running as process 0.
Process 0 forks, invoking the fork algorithm directly from the kernel, because it is executing in 5.
The new process, process 1, running in kernel mode, creates attaching it to its address space. It
grows the region to its proper size and copies code (described shortly) from the kernel address
space to the new region. 6. The text for process 1, copied from the kernel, consists of a call to
the exec system call to execute the program "/etc/init". Process 1 calls exec and executes the
program in the normal fashion. Process 1 is commonly called init because it is responsible for
initialization of new processes. }

Q17. What is the difference between fork and vfork? What sequence operation fork does
on calling? Or With example explain, how fork system call is different from vfork system
calls.

1. fork:
● Operation: When fork is called, it creates a new process by duplicating the
calling process. The new process is known as the child process, and it is an
exact copy of the parent process at the time of the fork call.
● Memory: In fork, the child process gets a copy of the parent process's memory
space. Any changes made by the child process do not affect the parent process,
and vice versa.
● Parent-Child Relationship: After fork, the parent and child processes run
independently of each other. The child process has its own PID (Process ID) and
can have its own execution path.
● Copy-on-Write: Modern implementations of fork use a technique called
copy-on-write, where memory pages are shared between the parent and child
processes until one of them modifies the page.
2. vfork:
● Operation: vfork is similar to fork, but it is optimized for efficiency. Instead of
creating a copy of the parent process's memory space, vfork creates a new
process that shares the parent's memory space.
● Memory: In vfork, the child process runs in the address space of the parent
process until it calls exec or exit. This means that any changes made by the
child process directly affect the parent process.
 ● Parent-Child Relationship: The parent process is suspended until the child
process calls exec or exit. This is because any modifications made by the child
process could affect the parent process.
● Efficiency: vfork is more efficient than fork because it avoids the overhead of
copying the entire memory space of the parent process.

Example:

Explain

#include <stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>

int main() {
pid_t pid;

pid = fork(); // Using fork system call

if (pid == 0) {
// Child process
printf("Child process\n");
} else if (pid > 0) {
// Parent process
printf("Parent process\n");
} else {
// Error
fprintf(stderr, "Fork failed\n");
return 1;
}

return 0;
}

In the above example, the fork system call is used to create a new process. The child process
will print "Child process" and the parent process will print "Parent process". The key difference
between fork and vfork is in how they handle memory and the parent-child relationship.

Q18. Why there is need of wait system call between parent and child?

The wait system call in UNIX is used to allow the parent process to wait for the child process to
finish its execution. There are several reasons why the wait system call is needed between the
parent and child processes:

1. Synchronization: The wait system call allows the parent process to synchronize its
execution with the child process. It ensures that the parent process does not continue
executing before the child process has completed its task.
2. Resource Cleanup: When a child process terminates, it becomes a "zombie" process
until the parent process collects its exit status using the wait system call. By calling wait,
the parent process can clean up resources associated with the child process, such as
memory and process control blocks.
 3. Handling Child Termination: The wait system call allows the parent process to handle the
termination status of the child process. The parent can determine if the child process
terminated normally or if it encountered an error.
4. Preventing Orphan Processes: If the parent process terminates before the child process,
the child process may become an orphan process and be adopted by the init process. By
using wait, the parent ensures that it waits for the child to complete before exiting,
preventing orphan processes.
5. Exit Status: The wait system call allows the parent process to retrieve the exit status of
the child process. This exit status can provide information about how the child process
terminated and any errors encountered during its execution.

Overall, the wait system call is essential for proper coordination and communication between
parent and child processes in a multi-process environment. It ensures that the parent process
can manage and control the execution of its child processes effectively.
OR
Ans: A call to wait() blocks the calling process until one of its child processes exits or a signal is
received. After child process terminates, parent continues its execution after wait system call
instruction. In the case of a terminated child, performing a wait allows the system to release the
resources associated with the child; if a wait is not performed, then the terminated child remains
in a "zombie" state.

Q19. What happen to situation where parent itself to die before the child dies and what
Kernel do with the such process?

In UNIX systems, when a parent process terminates before its child process, the child process
becomes an orphan process. Orphan processes are then adopted by the init process (process ID
1), which is the ancestor of all processes in the system. The init process automatically adopts
any orphaned processes to prevent them from becoming zombie processes and to ensure that
they can be properly cleaned up.

Here is what happens when a parent process dies before its child process in UNIX:

1. Orphaned Child Process: When the parent process dies before the child process, the
child process becomes an orphan process. This means that the child process no longer
has a parent process to wait for its termination and collect its exit status.
2. Adoption by init Process: The init process, which has a PID of 1, automatically adopts
orphan processes. The init process becomes the new parent of the orphaned child
process.
3. Prevention of Zombie Processes: By adopting orphan processes, the init process
prevents them from becoming zombie processes. Zombie processes are terminated
processes that have completed execution but still have an entry in the process table until
their exit status is collected by the parent process.
4. Cleanup and Reaping: The init process will wait for the orphaned child process to
terminate and then clean up its resources. Once the child process terminates, the init
process reaps the process entry and releases any resources associated with it.
5. Ensuring Proper Termination: By adopting orphan processes, the init process ensures
that all processes in the system have a parent process to manage their termination and
prevent resource leaks.
In summary, when a parent process dies before its child process, the child process becomes an
orphan process and is adopted by the init process. This mechanism ensures that orphan
processes are properly handled, terminated, and cleaned up to maintain system stability and
prevent

OR

Q20. When a process terminates, the Kernel performs cleanup, assigns any children of
the exiting process to be adopted by init, and sends the death of child signal to the parent
process. Why? In what state init process is?
Ans: If parent itself dies before the child, the kernel disconnects the parent from the process tree
by making process 1 (init) adopt all its child processes. That is, process 1 becomes the legal
parent of all live children that the exiting process had created. If any of the children are zombie,
the exiting process sends init a "death of child" signal so that init can remove them from the
process table.

When a process terminates in a UNIX system, the kernel performs several actions to ensure
proper cleanup and management of the process and its children. These actions include:

1. Cleanup: The kernel cleans up resources associated with the terminating process, such
as memory, file descriptors, and process control blocks.
2. Orphaned Children Adoption: Any children of the exiting process become orphaned and
are adopted by the init process (process ID 1) to prevent them from becoming zombie
processes.
3. Death of Child Signal: The kernel sends a "death of child" signal to the parent process of
the terminating process. This signal, known as SIGCHLD, notifies the parent that one of its
child processes has terminated.

The reason for sending the SIGCHLD signal to the parent process is to allow the parent process to
handle the termination of its child processes. The parent process can then collect the exit status
of the terminated child process using the wait system call. By handling the SIGCHLD signal, the
parent process can perform any necessary cleanup, update its state, and take appropriate
actions based on the termination status of the child process.

As for the state of the init process (process ID 1) in this scenario, the init process is typically in
the "waiting" state to handle orphaned processes. The init process acts as the ultimate parent
process in the system and is responsible for adopting orphaned processes, reaping zombie
processes, and ensuring the overall stability and integrity of the system. By adopting orphaned
processes, the init process ensures that all processes have a parent to manage their termination
and prevent resource leaks.

Q23. State various functions of clock interrupt handler.

The clock interrupt handler in an operating system performs several important functions related
to managing time and scheduling processes. Here are some of the key functions of a clock
interrupt handler:

1. Timekeeping: The clock interrupt handler is responsible for updating the system clock
and keeping track of time. It ensures that the system time is accurate and increments the
system clock at regular intervals.
 2. Process Scheduling: The clock interrupt handler plays a crucial role in process
scheduling. When a clock interrupt occurs, the handler may trigger the scheduler to
determine which process should run next based on the scheduling algorithm in place.
3. Preemption: The clock interrupt handler can initiate preemption by interrupting the
currently running process to allow the scheduler to select a new process to run. This
helps in enforcing fairness and ensuring that no process monopolizes the CPU for an
extended period.
4. Timer Management: The clock interrupt handler manages timers set by processes or the
operating system. It can handle timer expiration events, trigger actions when timers
expire, and update timer values.
5. System Maintenance: The clock interrupt handler may perform system maintenance
tasks triggered by timer events. For example, it can initiate periodic system checks,
cleanup processes, or other maintenance activities.
6. Power Management: In some systems, the clock interrupt handler may be involved in
power management functions such as managing CPU sleep states, adjusting clock
speeds, or handling power-saving features based on timer events.
7. Real-Time Operations: For real-time systems, the clock interrupt handler is critical for
ensuring timely responses to time-sensitive events. It can trigger real-time tasks, enforce
deadlines, and maintain system responsiveness.
8. Performance Monitoring: The clock interrupt handler can be used for performance
monitoring and profiling purposes. It may collect data on process execution times, CPU
utilization, and other performance metrics at regular intervals.

Overall, the clock interrupt handler is a fundamental component of the operating system that
manages time-related functions, process scheduling, preemption, and system maintenance tasks
to ensure the efficient operation of the system.

Q25. What is the stat system call? Enlist and explain the various fields shown by stat
system call?

The stat system call in UNIX-like operating systems is used to retrieve information about a file
specified by its pathname. It provides detailed information about the file, such as its size,
permissions, timestamps, and other attributes. The stat system call fills a struct stat data
structure with information about the specified file.

The struct stat data structure typically contains the following fields:

1. st_dev: This field represents the device on which the file resides.
2. st_ino: The inode number of the file.
3. st_mode: This field contains the file type and mode (permissions) of the file.
4. st_nlink: The number of hard links to the file.
5. st_uid: The user ID of the file's owner.
6. st_gid: The group ID of the file's owner.
7. st_size: The size of the file in bytes.
8. st_atime: The time of last access to the file.
9. st_mtime: The time of last modification of the file.
10. st_ctime: The time of last status change of the file (inode data modification).
11. st_blksize: The optimal block size for I/O operations.
12. st_blocks: The number of 512-byte blocks allocated for the file.
When the stat system call is invoked with the pathname of a file, it populates a struct stat
data structure with these attributes, providing detailed information about the specified file. This
information can be used by programs to determine various properties of the file, such as its size,
ownership, permissions, and timestamps

Q26. Enlist the function of system administrator

The roles and responsibilities of a system administrator can vary widely from one organization to
another. Here are the four types of system administrators based on their roles and
responsibilities:

Network Administrators:

Network administrators manage the entire network infrastructure of an organization. They design
and install computer systems, routers, switches, local area networks (LAN), wide area networks
(WAN), and intranet systems. They also monitor the systems, provide maintenance and
troubleshoot any problems when they arise.

Database Administrators

Database administrators (DBA) set up and maintain databases used in an organization. They
may also be required to integrate data from an old database into a new one or even create a
database from scratch. In large organizations, there are specialized DBAs who are only
responsible for managing databases. In smaller organizations, the roles of DBAs and server
administrators can overlap.

Server/Web Administrators

Server or web administrators specialize in maintaining servers, web services and operating
systems of the servers. They monitor the speed of the internet to make sure that everything runs
smoothly. They also analyze a website’s traffic patterns and implement changes based on user
feedback.

Security Systems Administrators

Security systems administrators monitor and maintain the security systems of an organization.
They develop organizational security procedures and also run regular data checkups - setting up,
deleting and maintaining user accounts.

In large organizations, all these roles may all be separate positions within one department. In
smaller organizations, they may be shared by a few system administrators, or even one single
person.

Q27. Data structure for my own OS

1. Process Management:
● Doubly Linked List: Used for maintaining a list of processes in a doubly linked
manner, allowing for efficient insertion and deletion operations.
● Process Table: A data structure that stores information about each process, such
as process ID, state, priority, and other relevant details.
2. File Management:
● Tree: Used for organizing and representing the hierarchical structure of
directories and files in the file system.
● User File Descriptor: Stores information about open files for a specific user or
process.
● File Table: Contains entries for open files, including file pointers, access
permissions, and other file-related information.
● Inode Table: Stores metadata about files, such as file size, ownership,
permissions, and pointers to data blocks.
3. Buffer Cache Management:
● Free List: A list of available buffers in the buffer cache that can be allocated for
storing data temporarily.
● Hash Queue: Used for efficiently locating buffers in the buffer cache based on a
hash function, reducing search time and improving performance.
4. Region Management:
● Stack: Used for managing the stack memory of processes, including function call
information, local variables, and return addresses.
● Region Table: Stores information about memory regions allocated to a process,
such as code, data, and stack segments.
● Per Process Region Table: Contains entries specific to each process, detailing
the memory regions allocated to that process.

Q29 What is a system call (syscall)?

A system call, or syscall or short, is a method used by application programs to communicate with

the system core. In modern operating systems, this method is used if a user application or

process needs to pass information onto the hardware, other processes or the kernel itself, or if it

needs to read information from these sources. This makes these calls a link between user mode
and kernel mode, the two key access and security modes for processing CPU commands in

computer systems.

Until a system call has been processed and the data required has been transmitted or received,

the system core takes control of the program or process, which will temporarily stop running. As

soon as the action required by a system call is carried out, the kernel gives control back again,

and the program code is continued from the point it had reached before the syscall was started.

Q30. Difference between named and unnamed pipes.

Named pipes (FIFOs) and unnamed pipes are both mechanisms for inter-process
communication in Unix-like operating systems, but they have some key differences:

1. Named Pipes (FIFOs):

● Named pipes are also known as FIFOs (First-In-First-Out) and are created using
the mkfifo command or the mkfifo() system call.
● Naming: Named pipes have a name associated with them, which is created in the
file system and can be accessed by multiple processes.
● Persistence: Named pipes exist persistently in the file system even after the
processes using them have finished.
● Communication: Named pipes allow communication between unrelated
processes, as long as they know the name of the pipe.
● Usage: Named pipes are commonly used for communication between processes
running on the same system or even on different systems.
2. Unnamed Pipes:
● Unnamed pipes are created using the pipe() system call and are typically used
for communication between parent and child processes or between related
processes.
● No Naming: Unnamed pipes do not have a name associated with them and are
created in memory, existing only as long as the processes using them are alive.
● Communication: Unnamed pipes allow one-way communication between
processes, typically in a producer-consumer pattern.
● Limitation: Unnamed pipes are limited to communication between related
processes, such as a parent process and its child processes.

In summary, the main differences between named and unnamed pipes lie in their naming,
persistence, scope of communication, and typical use cases. Named pipes are more versatile
and can be used for communication between any processes, while unnamed pipes are more
limited in scope and are typically used for communication between related processes.

Q31.Why various fields of u-area are required to access during process execution?

During process execution in an operating system, various fields of the u-area (user area) are
required to be accessed for different purposes. The u-area is a data structure associated with
each process that contains information specific to that process. Here are some reasons why
various fields of the u-area are required to be accessed during process execution:

1. Process Control Block (PCB) Information: The u-area contains essential information
about the process, such as the process ID (PID), user IDs, group IDs, and other process
control information. This information is needed for process management and
identification.
2. System Call Parameters and Return Values: When a process makes a system call, the
parameters for the call are passed through the u-area. After the system call is executed,
the return values are also stored in the u-area for the process to access.
3. File Descriptors: The u-area contains file descriptors for all open files by the process.
When the process performs file operations, it needs to access these file descriptors to
interact with the files.
4. Internal I/O Parameters: Internal I/O parameters, such as buffer sizes, I/O flags, and
other I/O-related information, are stored in the u-area. These parameters are necessary
for performing I/O operations efficiently.
5. Current Directory and Root Directory: The u-area stores information about the current
working directory of the process and the root directory of the file system. This information
is crucial for resolving relative path names and accessing files.
6. Process and File Size Limits: The u-area may contain information about the limits
imposed on the process, such as memory limits, file size limits, and other resource
constraints. Accessing these limits ensures that the process operates within the defined
boundaries.
7. Signal Handling and Process State: Information related to signal handling, process state
transitions, and process synchronization may be stored in the u-area. Accessing this
information is necessary for handling signals and managing process states effectively.

Overall, accessing various fields of the u-area during process execution is essential for the
proper functioning and management of the process within the operating system environment.
The u-area serves as a container for process-specific information that is crucial for the execution
and control of the process.

Q32. Is the management of regions of process is similar to management of inodes in

kernel if yes why is it similar to inode management

The management of regions of a process and the management of inodes in the kernel share
some similarities, particularly in terms of resource allocation and tracking. Here's why the
management of regions of a process can be considered similar to inode management:

1. Resource Allocation:
● Inodes: Inodes in the kernel represent individual files and contain metadata about
those files, such as ownership, permissions, and data block pointers. When a
new file is created, the kernel allocates a new inode to represent that file.
● Process Regions: Process regions represent different segments of a process's
address space, such as text, data, and stack. When a process is created or when
memory is allocated for a process, the kernel allocates and manages these
regions to store the process's code, data, and stack.
2. Tracking and Management:
 ●Inodes: The kernel maintains a pool of inodes, tracks their usage, and ensures
that each inode is associated with the correct file. Inodes are managed to track
file attributes and data block pointers.
● Process Regions: Similarly, the kernel manages process regions to track the
memory allocated to each process, ensure proper isolation between processes,
and maintain the integrity of the process's address space. The kernel keeps track
of which regions belong to which process and manages their allocation and
deallocation.
3. Dynamic Allocation:
● Inodes: Inodes are dynamically allocated and deallocated as files are created,
modified, and deleted. The kernel must manage the pool of inodes efficiently to
avoid running out of available inodes.
● Process Regions: Process regions are also dynamically allocated and
deallocated as processes are created, execute, and terminate. The kernel must
manage the memory allocated to process regions to prevent memory leaks and
ensure efficient memory utilization.
4. Metadata Management:
● Inodes: Inodes store metadata about files, such as file ownership, permissions,
timestamps, and pointers to data blocks. This metadata is crucial for file system
operations.
● Process Regions: Process regions store metadata about the process's address
space, such as the location of code, data, and stack segments. This metadata is
essential for managing process execution and memory access.

In conclusion, the management of regions of a process can be considered similar to inode

management in the kernel due to the allocation, tracking, and management of resources
(memory for processes and inodes for files) in a structured and efficient manner to support the
operation and integrity of the system. Both processes involve dynamic allocation, tracking of
resources, and metadata management to ensure proper functioning within the operating system
environment.

Q33.When attaching the region to Process ,how can the kernel check theat the region
does not overlap virtual address in regions already attached to the Process?
When attaching a region to a process, the kernel can check that the region does not overlap with
virtual addresses in regions already attached to the process by following these steps:

1. The kernel needs to maintain information about the virtual address space allocated to
each region in the process. This information can be stored in the per-process region table
entries.
2. Before attaching a new region, the kernel can iterate through the existing per-process
region table entries to check the virtual address ranges of each region.
3. By comparing the starting and ending virtual addresses of the new region with the virtual
address ranges of existing regions, the kernel can determine if there is any overlap.
4. If there is no overlap, the kernel can proceed with attaching the new region to the
process. If there is overlap, the kernel should handle this situation appropriately, which
may involve adjusting the virtual addresses of the regions to avoid conflicts.

By performing this check before attaching a region, the kernel ensures that the process's virtual
address space remains properly organized and prevents conflicts between different regions.
Q34.Suppose a process goes to sleep and the system contain no processes ready to run
.What happen when the sleeping process does its context switch
When a process goes to sleep and there are no other processes ready to run in the system, the
behavior during the sleeping process's context switch will depend on the specific implementation
of the operating system. Here are some possible scenarios:

1. Process Remains Asleep: If there are no other processes ready to run, the sleeping
process may simply remain in the sleep state. Since there are no other processes to
schedule for execution, the sleeping process will not be preempted, and it will continue to
wait for the event it is sleeping on.
2. Idle Loop Execution: In some operating systems, when there are no processes ready to
run, the system may enter an idle loop where the CPU remains idle until an event occurs
that triggers the waking up of a sleeping process or the creation of a new process.
3. Context Switch and Immediate Return: The sleeping process may still go through the
context switch process, even though there are no other processes ready to run. In this
case, the sleeping process will save its context, but since there are no other processes to
run, it will immediately return to its execution without any actual scheduling of another
process.
4. Kernel Handling: The kernel may have specific handling for such scenarios, such as
putting the CPU into a low-power state or performing other system maintenance tasks
until a process becomes ready to run.

Overall, the exact behavior in this situation will depend on the design and implementation of the
operating system's scheduler and how it handles process scheduling when there are no other
processes ready to run.

Q36.difference between interrupt and exception?

Interrupts and exceptions are both mechanisms used in operating systems to handle events that
require the attention of the CPU, but they differ in their nature and how they are triggered. Here
are the key differences between interrupts and exceptions:

1. Triggering Event:
● Interrupt: Interrupts are external events that occur asynchronously to the currently
executing program. They can be generated by hardware devices (such as timers,
I/O devices, or network interfaces) or by software (such as system calls or
signals).
● Exception: Exceptions are synchronous events that occur as a result of the
currently executing program. They are typically caused by the program itself,
such as division by zero, accessing invalid memory, or executing privileged
instructions.
2. Handling Mechanism:
● Interrupt: When an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the current program
execution, saves its state, and transfers control to the interrupt handler routine.
The interrupt handler then processes the interrupt and resumes the interrupted
program.
● Exception: Exceptions are typically handled within the context of the currently
executing program. When an exception occurs, the CPU transfers control to the
 exception handler routine, which may handle the exception within the same
program context or escalate it to the operating system for further handling.
3. Cause:
● Interrupt: Interrupts are caused by external events that require immediate
attention, such as data arrival on a network interface or a timer expiration.
● Exception: Exceptions are caused by conditions that violate the normal execution
flow of a program, such as arithmetic errors, memory access violations, or
attempts to execute privileged instructions.
4. Asynchronicity:
● Interrupt: Interrupts are asynchronous events that can occur at any time during
program execution, independent of the program's instructions.
● Exception: Exceptions are synchronous events that occur as a direct result of
executing specific instructions within the program.

In summary, interrupts are external events that disrupt the normal flow of program execution,
while exceptions are internal events that signal errors or exceptional conditions within the
program itself. Both interrupts and exceptions play crucial roles in ensuring the stability and
responsiveness of an operating system.

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