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Full download Redefining Diversity & Dynamics of Natural Resources Management in Asia, Volume 3. Natural Resource Dynamics and Social Ecological Systems in Central Vietnam: Development, Resource Changes and Conservation Issues 1st Edition Ganesh Shivakoti file pdf all chapter on 2024
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REDEFINING DIVERSITY AND DYNAMICS
OF NATURAL RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN ASIA
VOLUME 3
Natural Resource Dynamics and Social Ecological System in Central Vietnam: Development,
Resource Changes and Conservation Issues
Tran Nam Thang, Ngo Tri Dung, David Hulse, Shubhechchha Sharma and Ganesh P.
Shivakoti; editors
Volume 3 is dedicated to Nobel Laureate Elinor Ostrom who is the source of inspiration in
drafting these volumes and all chapter authors of these volumes have benefited from her
theoretical framework.
Book Title: Re-defining Diversity and Dynamism of Natural Resource Management in Asia
Book Editors: Ganesh P. Shivakoti, Shubhechchha Sharma and Raza Ullah
Other volumes published:
1) Sustainable Natural Resources Management in Dynamic Asia Volume 1
Ganesh P. Shivakoti, Ujjwal Pradhan and Helmi; editors
2) Upland Natural Resources and Social Ecological Systems in Northern Vietnam Volume 2
Mai Van Thanh, Tran Duc Vien, Stephen J. Leisz and Ganesh P. Shivakoti; editors
3) Reciprocal Relationship between Governance of Natural Resources and Socio-Ecological
Systems Dynamics in West Sumatra, Indonesia Volume 4
Rudi Febriamansyah, Yonariza, Raza Ullah and Ganesh P. Shivakoti; editors
REDEFINING DIVERSITY
AND DYNAMICS OF
NATURAL RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN ASIA
Natural Resource Dynamics and
Social Ecological Systems in Central
Vietnam: Development, Resource
Changes and Conservation Issues
VOLUME 3
EDITED BY
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ISBN: 978-0-12-805452-9
H.V. Chuong University of Agriculture and H.T.A. Phuong Hue University of Sciences
Forestry, Hue University, Hue City, Vietnam (HUS), Hue, Vietnam
R. Cochard Institute of Integrative Biology, H.T.H. Que Hue University of Agriculture and
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Forestry, Hue, Vietnam
Switzerland; Asian Institute of Technology, S. Sharma WWF Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand
G. Shivakoti The University of Tokyo, Tokyo,
N.T. Duc Hue University of Agriculture and Japan; Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok,
Forestry, Hue City, Vietnam Thailand
N.T. Dung Hue University of Agriculture and R.P. Shrestha Asian Institute of Technology,
Forestry, Hue, Vietnam Pathumthani, Thailand
D.T. Duong Hue University of Agriculture and T.N. Thang Hue University of Agriculture and
Forestry, Hue, Vietnam Forestry, Hue, Vietnam
H.D. Ha Hue University of Agriculture and Thiha The Treedom Group, Bangkok,
Forestry, Hue, Vietnam Thailand
N.X. Hong Hue University of Science, Hue, N.D.A. Tuan Forest Protection Department of
Vietnam Thua Thien Hue, Vietnam
D. Hulse Ford Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia L. Van An Hue University of Agriculture and
M.Q. Huy Hue Forest Protection Department, Forestry, Hue City, Vietnam
Hue, Vietnam L. Van Lan Hue University of Agriculture and
N.T.T. Lien Hue University of Sciences, Hue, Forestry, Hue, Vietnam
Vietnam E.L. Webb National University of Singapore,
T.D. Ngo Hue University of Agriculture and Singapore
Forestry, Hue, Vietnam V.T. Yen Hue University of Agriculture and
P.T. Nhung Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue, Vietnam
Forestry, Hue, Vietnam
T.T. Phuong University of Agriculture and
Forestry, Hue University, Hue City, Vietnam
ix
Words From Book Editors
xi
xii WORDS FROM BOOK EDITORS
countries and the Western Sumatra is such resource degradation and deforestation is
typical example mainly due to earlier log- often the result of overexploitation by users
ging concessionaries, recent expansion of who make resource-use decisions based on
State and private plantation of para-rubber a complex matrix of options, and potential
and oil palm plantation. These new frontiers outcomes.
have created confrontations among the local South and Southeast Asia are among the
community deriving their livelihoods based most dynamic regions in the world. The fun-
on inland and coastal natural resources and damental political and socioeconomic setting
the outsiders starting mega projects based has been altered following decades of polit-
on local resources be it the plantations or the ical, financial, and economic turmoil in the
massive coastal aqua cultural development. region. The economic growth, infrastructure
To document these dynamic processes Ford development, and industrialization are hav-
Foundation Country Office in Jakarta funded ing concurrent impacts on natural resources
collaborative project between Andalas in the form of resource degradation, and
University and Asian Institute of Technology the result is often social turmoil at different
(AIT) on Capacity building in Integrated scales. The natural resource base is being
Natural Resources Management. The main degraded at the cost of producing economic
objective of the project was Andalas faculty output. Some of these impacts have been
participate in understanding theories and offset by enhancing natural resource use effi-
diverse policy arenas for understanding and ciency, and through appropriate technology
managing common pool resources (CPRs) extension. However, the net end results are
which have collective action problem and di- prominent in terms of increasing resource
lemma through masters and doctoral field re- depletion and social unrest. Furthermore,
search on a collaborative mode (AIT, Indiana climate change impacts call for further ad-
University and Andalas). This laid founda- aptation and mitigation measures in order
tion for joint graduate program in Integrated to address the consequences of erratic pre-
Natural Resources Management (INRM). cipitation and temperature fluctuations, salt
Major activities of the Ford Foundation ini- intrusions, and sea level increases which ul-
tiatives involved the faculty from Andalas timately affect the livelihood of natural re-
not only complete their degrees at AIT but source dependent communities.
also participated in several collaborative Governments, Non-governmental orga-
training. nizations (NGOs), and academics have been
searching for appropriate policy recommen-
dations that will mitigate the trend of nat-
1 BACKGROUND ural resource degradation. By promoting
effective policy and building the capacity
Throughout Asia, degradation of natural of key stakeholders, it is envisioned that
resources is happening at a higher rate, and sustainable development can be promoted
is a primary environmental concern. Recent from both the top-down and bottom-up per-
tragedies associated with climate change spectives. Capacity building in the field of
have left a clear footprint on them, from de- natural resource management, and poverty
forestation, land degradation, and changing alleviation is, then, an urgent need; and sev-
hydrological and precipitation patterns. A eral p
olicy alternatives have been suggested
significant proportion of land use conversion (Inoue and Shivakoti, 2015; Inoue and
is undertaken through rural activities, where Isozaki, 2003; Webb and Shivakoti, 2008).
WORDS FROM BOOK EDITORS xv
The importance of informed policy guid- Mahdi, Shivakoti and Schmidt-Vogt, 2009;
ance in sustainable governance and the man- Shivakoti et al., 1997; Dung and Webb, 2008;
agement of common pool resources (CPRs), Yonariza and Shivakoti, 2008). However,
in general, have been recognized due to the there are still several issues, such as the fail-
conflicting and competing demand for use ure to comprehend and conceptualize social
of these resources in the changing economic and ecological systems as coupled systems
context in Asia (Balooni and Inoue, 2007; that adapt, self-organize, and are coevolu-
Nath, Inoue and Chakma, 2005; Pulhin, Inoue tionary. The information obtained through
and Enters, 2007; Shivakoti and Ostrom, these studies tends to be fragmented and
2008; Viswanathan and Shivakoti, 2008). scattered, leading to incomplete decision
This is because these resources are unique in making, as they do not reflect the entire
respect to their context. The management of scenario. The shared vision of the diverse
these resources are by the public, often by lo- complexities, that are the reality of natural re-
cal people, in a partnership between the state source management, needs to be fed into the
and the local community; but on a day-to- governance and management arrangements
day basis, the benefits are at the individual in order to create appropriate management
and private level. In the larger environmen- guidelines for the integrated management of
tal context, however, the benefits and costs natural resources, and CPR as a whole.
have global implications. There are several Specifically, the following issues are of
modes of governance and management ar- interest:
rangement possible for these resources in a
private-public partnership. Several issues re- a. How can economic growth be
lated to governance and management need encouraged while holding natural
to be addressed, which can directly feed into resources intact?
the ongoing policy efforts of decentralization b. How has the decentralization of natural
and poverty reduction measures in South management rights affected the resource
and South East Asia. conditions, and how has it addressed
While there has been a large number of concerns of the necessity to incorporate
studies, and many management prescrip- gender concerns and social inclusion in
tions made, for the management of natural the process?
resources, either from the national develop- c. How can the sustainability efforts to
ment point-of-view or from the local-level improve the productive capacity of CPR
community perspectives, there are few stud- systems be assessed in the context of the
ies which point toward the interrelation- current debate on the effects of climate
ship among other resources and CPRs, as change, and the implementation of new
mediated by institutional arrangement, and programs such as Payment for Ecosystem
that have implications for the management Services (PES) and REDD+?
of CPRs in an integrated manner, vis-a-vis d. How can multiple methods of
poverty reduction. In our previous research, information gathering and analysis (eg
we have identified several anomalies and use of various qualitative and quantitative
tried to explain these in terms of better man- social science methods in conjunction
agement regimes for the CPRs of several with methods from the biological
Asian countries (Dorji, Webb and Shivakoti, sciences, and time series remote sensing
2006; Gautam, Shivakoti and Webb, 2004; data collection methods) on CPRs be
Kitjewachakul, Shivakoti and Webb, 2004; integrated into national natural resource
xvi WORDS FROM BOOK EDITORS
policy guidelines, and the results be used ditional agricultural fields into rubber and oil
by local managers and users of CPRs, palm plantations.
government agencies, and scholars? The research also shows that the differ-
e. What are the effective polycentric ent levels of communities, administration,
policy approaches for governance and people are sometimes highly interactive
and management of CPRs, which are and overlapping, for that reason, it is neces-
environmentally sustainable and gender sary to undertake coordinated activities that
balanced? lead to information capture and capacity
building at the national, district, and local
levels. Thus the impacts of earlier interven-
2 OBJECTIVES OF THESE tion efforts (various policies in general and
VOLUMES decentralization in particular) for effective
outcomes have been limited, due to the un-
At each level of society, there are stake- willingness of higher administrative officials
holders, both at the public and private level, to give up their authority, the lack of trust
who are primarily concerned with efforts of and confidence of officials in the ability of
management enhancement and policy ar- local communities in managing CPR, local
rangements. Current theoretical research elites capturing the benefits of decentraliza-
indicates that this is the case whether it is tion in their favor, and high occurrences of
deforestation, resource degradation, the con- conflicts among multiple stakeholders at the
servation of biodiversity hotspots, or climate local level (IGES, 2007).
change adaptation. The real struggles of these In the areas of natural resource manage-
local-level actors directly affect the manage- ment particular to wildlife ecology moni-
ment of CPR, as well as the hundreds of peo- toring and climate change adaptation, the
ple who are dependent upon them for a living. merging of traditional knowledge with sci-
This book is about those decisions as the ence is likely to result in better management
managers of natural resources. Basically, the results. Within many societies, daily prac-
authors of these chapters explore outcomes tices and ways of life are constantly changing
after decentralization and economic reforms, and adapting to new situations and realities.
respectively. The volumes of this book scruti- Information passed through these societies,
nize the variations of management practices while not precise and usually of a qualitative
with, and between, communities, local ad- nature, is valued for the reason that it is de-
ministration, and the CPR. Economic growth rived from experience over time. Scientific
is every country’s desire, but in the context of studies can backstop local knowledge, and
South and South East Asia, much of the eco- augment it through the application of rig-
nomic growth is enabled by the over use of orous scientific method derived knowledge,
the natural resource base. The conundrum is examining the best practices in various natu-
that these countries need economic growth to ral resource management systems over spa-
advance, but the models of economic growth tial and temporal scales. The amalgamation
that are advanced, negatively affect the envi- of scientific studies and local knowledge,
ronment, which the country, depends upon. which is trusted by locals, may lead to pow-
Examples of this are seen in such varied con- erful new policies directed toward nature
texts as the construction of highways through conservation and livelihood improvements.
protected areas, the construction of massive Ethnic minorities, living in the vicinity to
hydropower dams, and the conversion of tra- giant infrastructure projects, have unequal
WORDS FROM BOOK EDITORS xvii
access, and control over, resources compared pability of local agrarians to respond to chal-
to other more powerful groups. Subsistence lenges and opportunities. This study has also
agriculture, fishery, swiddening, and a few shown that institutions are the primary attri-
off-farm options are the livelihood activi- bute in fostering individuals and households
ties for these individuals. But unfortunately, to diversify livelihoods in order to adapt to a
these livelihood options are in areas that will changing climate. In the context of REDD+,
be hit the most by changing climatic scenar- a system is required that can transcend na-
ios, and these people are the least equipped tional boundaries, interconnect different gov-
to cope; a situation that further aggravates ernance levels, and allow both traditional
the possibility of diversifying their liveli- and modern policy actors to cooperate. Such
hood options. Increasing tree coverage can a system emphasizes the integration of both
help to mitigate climate change through the formal and informal rule making mechanisms
sequestering of carbon in trees. Sustainably and actor linkages in every governance stage,
planting trees requires technical, social, and which steer toward adapting to and mitigat-
political dimensions that are mainly possi- ing the effects of local and global environmen-
ble through the decentralization of power to tal change (Corbera and Schroeder, 2010).
local communities to prevent issues of de- Based on the above noted discussions, the
forestation and degradation. The role of tra- volumes in this book bring these issues for-
ditional institutions hence becomes crucial to ward for a global audience and policy makers.
reviving social learning, risk sharing, diver- Though earlier studies show that the relation-
sifying options, formulating adaptive plans ship between scientific study and outcomes
and their effective implementation, foster- in decision making are usually complex; we
ing stress tolerance, and capacity building hope that the studies examined and discussed
against climate change effects. here can have some degree of impact on aca-
Though, the role of institutions in man- demics, practitioners, and managers.
aging common pool resources has been ex-
plained in literature, it is also worth noting G. Shivakoti, S. Sharma, and R. Ullah
that institutions play significant roles in
climate change adaptation. A study con-
ducted by Gabunda and Barker (1995) and References
Nyangena (2004) observed that household
Balooni, K.B., Inoue, M., 2007. Decentralized forest man-
affiliations in social networks were highly
agement in South and Southeast Asia. J. Forest. 2007,
correlated with embracing soil erosion re- 414–420.
taining technologies. Likewise, Jagger and Corbera, E., Schroeder, H., 2010. Governing and
Pender (2006) assumed that individuals in- Implementing REDD+. Environ. Sci. Pol. http://dx.
volved in natural resource management fo- doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2010.11.002.
Dorji, L., Webb, E., Shivakoti, G.P., 2006. Forest prop-
cused programs were likely to implement
erty rights under nationalized forest management in
land management expertise, regardless of Bhutan. Environ. Conservat. 33 (2), 141–147.
their direct involvement in particular organi- Dorward, A., Kirsten, J., Omamo, S., Poulton, C., Vink,
zations. Friis-Hansen (2005) partially verifies N., 2009. Institutions and the agricultural develop-
that there is a positive relationship among ment challenge in Africa. In: Kirsten, J.F., Dorward,
A.R., Poulton, C., Vink, N. (Eds.), Institutional
participation in a farmer’s institution and the
Economics Perspectives on African Agricultural
adoption of smart agriculture technology. Development. IFPRI, Washington DC.
Dorward et al. (2009) correspondingly notes Dung, N.T., Webb, E., 2008. Incentives of the forest land al-
that institutions are vital in shaping the ca- location process: Implications for forest management
xviii WORDS FROM BOOK EDITORS
in Nam Dong District, Central Vietnam. In: Webb, E., European Association of Environmental and Resource
Shivakoti, G.P. (Eds.), Decentralization, Forests and Economics, Budapest.
Rural Communities: Policy outcome in South and Ostrom, E., Benjamin, P., Shivakoti, G.P., 1992.
South East Asia. SAGE Publications, New Delhi, pp. Institutions, Incentives, and Irrigation in Nepal: June
269–291. 1992. (Monograph) Workshop in Political Theory and
Friis-Hansen, E., 2005. Agricultural development among Policy Analysis, Indiana University, Bloomington,
poor farmers in Soroti district, Uganda: Impact Indiana, USA.
Assessment of agricultural technology, farmer em- Ostrom, E., Lam, W.F., Pradhan, P., Shivakoti, G.P.,
powerment and changes in opportunity structures. 2011. Improving Irrigation Performance in Asia:
Paper presented at Impact Assessment Workshop at Innovative Intervention in Nepal. Edward Elgar
CYMMYT, Mexico, 19–21. October. http://citeseerx. Publishers, Cheltenham, UK.
ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.464. Pulhin, J.M., Inoue, M., Enters, T., 2007. Three decades
8651&rep=rep1&type=pdf. of community-based forest management in the
Gautam, A., Shivakoti, G.P., Webb, E.L., 2004. A review Philippines: emerging lessons for sustainable and
of forest policies, institutions, and the resource con- equitable forest management. Int. For. Rev. 9 (4),
dition in Nepal. Int. Forest. Rev. 6 (2), 136–148. 865–883.
Gabunda, F., Barker, R., 1995. Adoption of hedgerow Shivakoti, G., Ostrom, E., 2008. Facilitating decentral-
technology in Matalom, Leyte Philipines. Mimeo. ized policies for sustainable governance and man-
In: Bluffstone, R., Khlin, G. (Eds.), 2011. Agricultural agement of forest resources in Asia. In: Webb, E.,
Investment and Productivity: Building Sustainability Shivakoti, G.P. (Eds.), Decentralization, Forests
in East Africa. RFF Press, Washington, DC/London. and Rural Communities: Policy Outcomes in South
IGES, 2007. Decentralization and State-sponsored and Southeast Asia. Sage Publications, New Delhi/
Community Forestry in Asia. Institute for Global Thousand Oaks/London/Singapore, pp. 292–310.
Environmental Studies, Kanagawa. Shivakoti, G.P., Ostrom, E. (Eds.), 2002. Improving
Inoue, M., Isozaki, H., 2003. People and Forest-policy Irrigation Governance and Management in Nepal.
and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russian Institute of Contemporary Studies (ICS) Press,
Far East and Japan. Kluwer Academic Publishers, California, Oakland.
Netherlands. Shivakoti, G.P., Vermillion, D., Lam, W.F., Ostrom,
Inoue, M., Shivakoti, G.P. (Eds.), 2015. Multi-level Forest E., Pradhan, U., Yoder, R., 2005. Asian Irrigation
Governance in Asia: Concepts, Challenges and in Transition-Responding to Challenges. Sage
the Way Forward. Sage Publications, New Delhi/ Publications, New Delhi/Thousand Oaks/
California/London/Singapore. London.
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Organizations on the Adoption of Sustainable A., Thapa, G., 1997. People and participation in
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Mahdi, Shivakoti, G.P., Schmidt-Vogt, D., 2009. Rampur, Chitwan.
Livelihood change and livelihood sustainability Viswanathan, P.K., Shivakoti, G.P., 2008. Adoption of
in the uplands of Lembang Subwatershed, West rubber integrated farm livelihood systems: contrast-
Sumatra, Indonesia, in a changing natural resource ing empirical evidences from Indian context. J. For.
management context. Environ. Manage. 43, 84–99. Res. 13 (1), 1–14.
Nath, T.K., Inoue, M., Chakma, S., 2005. Prevailing Webb, E., Shivakoti, G.P. (Eds.), 2008. Decentralization,
shifting cultivation in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Forests and Rural Communities: Policy Outcomes
Bangladesh: some thoughts on rural livelihood and in South and Southeast Asia. Sage Publications,
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Nyangena, W., 2004. The effect of social capital on tech- Yonariza, Shivakoti, G.P., 2008. Decentralization and
nology adoption: empirical evidence from Kenya. co-management of protected areas in Indonesia.
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Foreword
For more than two decades, Vietnam has accessing the forest and harvesting products.
been one of the most dynamic and rapidly For these people, it is critical to continue
developing countries in Southeast Asia. The to access the forest in order to supplement
emergence of a market-based economy re- incomes and diets with forest products.
sulting from the introduction of economic re- Communities still require rights over forests,
forms (đổi mới) in the mid-1980s resulted in and can contribute to their conservation and
rapid economic gains and poverty reduction. management. In fact, it is necessary to main-
According to the World Bank, extreme pov- tain, not only residents’ rights over forest ac-
erty has been reduced to only about 3% of cess, but also to retain their connection with
the population from about 50% in the 1990s. the forest; a connection that can ultimately
Similarly, the per-capita GDP has increased erode if, over generations, fewer and fewer
to more than US$ 2000 in 2014, up from ap- people remain in contact with the natural
proximately US$ 400 in the year 2000. And, environment.
remarkably, the Gini coefficient—a measure Thus, on the one hand, economic prog-
of wealth inequality—has remained consis- ress is occurring rapidly and is benefitting
tently low, signaling that increased wealth the citizens of Vietnam. On the other hand,
is not being concentrated into fewer hands. there is still a major sector of society that re-
Indeed, development in Vietnam appears to mains in close contact with forests, derives
be positively benefitting stakeholders in both benefits from it, and should be integrated
urban and rural areas. into long-term visions of conservation and
One of the underlying factors of this initial management of resources. It was this com-
success is that attention has been paid to ru- plex framework that was the foundation
ral communities during the reform process. for inquiry into multidisciplinary research
For example, in the central province of Thừa focused on reconciling these somewhat con-
Thiên-Huế, the introduction of commercial flicting goals.
tree plantations, in particular Acacia man- The chapters in this third volume are the
gium, A. auriculiformis and their hybrids, has result of more than a decade of research and
provided opportunities for rural residents to collaboration between the Asian Institute of
enter into the economy by growing trees for Technology’s Natural Resources Management
the pulp and paper industry on land that has field of study and the Hue University of
been allocated to them through the Forest Agriculture and Forestry (HUAF). Initial
and Land Allocation program. Incomes have funding came in 2003 and 2006 from grants
increased, and one can see the evidence of by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur
this in the types of houses that have been Foundation’s (USA) Conservation and
built in recent years. Sustainable Development program. In 2009
And yet, people in the rural districts of the Ford Foundation’s Hanoi office provided
Thừa Thiên-Huế province still rely on natural six years of funding to AIT to continue train-
forests and derive significant benefits from ing and research collaboration between AIT
xix
xx FOREWORD
and HUAF. Both foundations provided the Ostrom’s leadership, interdisciplinary re-
necessary support for capacity building and search tools to study communities and for-
conservation research, executed through ests were developed by the International
postgraduate scholarships for key faculty Forest Resources and Institutions (IFRI) re-
members at HUAF and civil servants in Thừa search network. Professor Ganesh Shivakoti
Thiên-Huế province. The chapters herein and I had the privilege of participating in
reflect the individual efforts of the program IFRI trainings, which provided us with the
collaborators as part of their MSc or PhD theoretical and practical foundations for es-
research. tablishing an IFRI Collaborating Research
The subject matter addressed in these Centre at the Asian Institute of Technology,
chapters is quite varied, reflecting the com- Thailand.
plexity facing policymakers as they try to bal- This volume, therefore, represents not
ance out the multiple intersecting agendas: only the direct research outcomes of the
conservation of biological diversity, com- authors, but also the intellectual heritage
munity access to forests, gender-informed that can be traced through contributing
policy, conflict resolution, soil conserva- faculty members at AIT to the interdisci-
tion, education, and species propagation. plinary theoretical foundations pioneered
Although extensive, the research contained by Professor Elinor Ostrom. It is hoped by
in this volume is not exhaustive. Much more all of us—authors and colleagues alike—
effort is needed to continue to inform poli- that this volume will inform policy makers,
cymakers so that science-based planning, practitioners, and researchers as they seek
decision making, and policy can emerge that solutions to the complex problems associ-
will promote continued economic growth, ated with conservation and maintenance of
while safeguarding the natural heritage and forest resources, while at the same time con-
ecosystem services provided by Vietnam’s tinuing to improve livelihoods through eco-
forests. nomic opportunity. If it does, then it will be
The theme that binds the research in this a successful bridging of academic research
volume is that solutions to natural resources with practical implementation; a goal that
management dilemmas require governance, has been a central motivation of Elinor
livelihoods, conservation, and management Ostrom and those of us who have worked
dimensions. In our research group, this with her through the past several decades.
theme has its intellectual roots in The Ostrom
Workshop at Indiana University (previously E.L. Webb
called the Workshop in Political Theory and Department of Biological Sciences
Policy Analysis). Under Professor Elinor National University of Singapore
Preface
During the last one and a half decades, we in managing the forest by exploring ways to
have learned numerous modules concerned protect the forest of central Vietnam, and in
with the understanding of major issues re- supporting forest dependent communities
lated to the management of natural resources. through long-term monitoring on biodiver-
For example, speculative issues linked to the sity and domesticating valuable plant species.
management of the environment and of nat- Continuing these efforts of the MacArthur
ural resources are important for enhancing Foundation, the Ford Foundation coun-
our understanding of the mechanisms of try office in Hanoi supplemented grants to
managing natural resource bases in the re- strengthen knowledge at the graduate level
gions, as well as how different stakeholders on capacity building, and provided train-
interact with each other in managing natu- ing workshops to provincial and local-level
ral resources. Similarly, we have been able forest authorities and university instructors
to summarize the ways in which institutions for further training on forestry authorities in
function, and to adjust over time by observ- Central Vietnam.
ing these institutions, whereby the individ- As a single blue-print solution is not
ual choices made render consequences which enough to improve technological and man-
are due to these particular choices. This is agerial advances in resource management,
one aspect of a “multi-level conceptual map” research priorities, and methodologies have
which offers a study of a specific hierarchical changing socio-political settings. These ad-
section of interactions made in a system. vances have helped policy makers pursue
Issues concerning natural resources are not and prioritize development actions, which
static, neither are methodological advances in are based on unique case studies that have
analyzing and studying dynamism. Central been reported in this volume for Central
to the informed policy formation process Vietnam mostly in regards to natural re-
in natural resource management, it has be- source issues and effective management
come possible to capture the possible status approaches. These include: (a) Land use
of resources, institutional arrangements, and changes and influences on forest conserva-
structural complexities and their outcomes at tions and livelihoods after implementation
diverse spatial and temporal scales. In recent of the forest land allocation mechanisms.
years, significant advances in the scale of re- (b) Issues concerned with forest and biodi-
search inquiry have changed, and such meth- versity loss, and governance issues in Central
ods have generated growth in environmental Vietnam. (c) Climate change impacts among
and livelihood outcomes of significance to local communities, and ways of adapting to
key policy. these changes. (d) Concerns about recon-
Similarly, studies put forward by the ciling science with traditional practices in
MacArthur foundations have embarked on natural resource management. (e) Institu
long training programs to aid communities tions, policy arenas, and decentralization of
xxi
xxii PREFACE
forest management. (f) Opportunities of pay- easily managed. This was further supported
ment for environmental services and pilot by number of field research conducted in col-
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and laboration between AIT and HUAF. This no-
Forest Degradation (REDD) + Measurement, tion was the basic foundation for undertaking
Reporting and Verification (MRV) for future joint graduate program in INRM. The process
emission trading in retrospect. Though the of exchanging knowledge was academically
case studies are from Central Vietnam, the strengthened by collaborative training pro-
issues and problems talked about, in gen- grams, such as by the International Forestry
eral, replicate those present at a global scale, Resources and Institutions (IFRI) with the
with a particular similarity to Africa and Ostrom Workshop in Political Theory and
Latin America. Policy Analysis at Indiana University. A net-
The chapters presented in this volume work was also developed through participa-
have received research support from the tion in the International Association for the
Ford Foundation country office in Hanoi, the Study of Commons (IASC); the outcome of
Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry which was this volume.
(HUAF) in its capacity building and concerted
knowledge sharing pursuit in integrated nat- Worsak Kanok-Nukulchai
ural resources management (INRM), and the President
Asian Institute of Technology (AIT). This par- Asian Institute of Technology
ticular collaboration between HUAF and AIT Bangkok, Thailand
was aimed to make faculty members aware on
Le Van An
theoretical understanding on policy and prac-
Rector
tical ongoing complex policy environments.
Hue University of Agriculture
Through this understanding, those common
and Forestry
pool resources which have collective action
Hue City, Vietnam
dilemma would be easily understood and
C H A P T E R
1
Natural Resources Dynamism
and Management Concerns
in Central Vietnam
G. Shivakoti*,†, S. Sharma‡, D. Hulse§, N.T. Dung¶,
T.N. Thang¶
*
The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan †Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand
WWF Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal §Ford Foundation, Jakarta, Indonesia ¶Hue University of
‡
1.1 OVERVIEW
Central Vietnam is among one of the most dynamic regions of Southeast Asia. The fun-
damentals of the political and socioeconomic setting have been altered following the finan-
cial and economic turmoil in the region. Central Vietnam has observed 20 years of economic
growth, and Vietnam is currently at “lower-middle-income country” status (World Bank,
2011). The economic growth, infrastructure development, and industrialization are swelling
impacts on natural resources in the form of resources degradation and social turmoil at many
stances (World Bank, 2011). The basic natural resources bases are decreasing at the cost to
produce economic output. In a way, a part of these challenges have been offset by enhanc-
ing natural resource use efficiency and technology extension. However, the net end results
are prominent in terms of increasing resources depletion and social unrest. Furthermore, cli-
mate change impacts have demanded further need for adaptation and mitigation measures
to the consequences of erratic precipitation and temperature fluctuations, salt intrusions,
and sea level increases that ultimately affect the livelihood of natural resource-dependent
communities.
Redefining Diversity and Dynamics of Natural Resources Management in Asia 3 © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805452-9.00001-1
4 1. NATURAL RESOURCES CONCERNS IN THE CENTRAL VIETNAM
I. Introduction
1.1 Overview 5
conservation and environmental organizations as the route passes through biodiversity rich
landscapes. The Central Highlands, home to some of the world’s rarest species, has been bi-
sected posing further threats to extinction. According to WWF (2007), highway construction
has clearly resulted in soil erosion that has damaged surrounding forest area. Additionally,
this has then impacted surrounding local rivers through clogged waterways and declining
fish stocks. With the highway construction and hasty urbanization increasing, it has be-
come easier for hunters to reach animals in remote areas. Animals often migrate for great
distances to find mates and food, but the literature shows that infrastructure development
has “lowered the space for free roaming and blocked wildlife corridors, fragmented habitats
and pushed species towards extinction.” Although the highway was intended to improve
socioeconomic growth through better market access and establishing strong rural commu-
nication, its construction has speeded up cultural identity and livelihood loss of 37 ethnic
minorities (WWF, 2007). Environment and social concerns were little considered during the
design and planning of this construction project and this omission is responsible for major
social, environmental, and political turmoil in Central Vietnam. In particular, shoreline areas
have an intrusion of both freshwater and seawater from a distinctly brackish water ecosys-
tem with high biodiversity, which forms an integral system of livelihood security for fishing
communities. Ever since rapid sociodevelopment was undertaken, coastal urbanization has
increased concomitantly affecting the overall ecosystem. There have been incidences of soil
and land degradations, accelerated by climate change. As in many other developing coun-
tries, Vietnam needs a great amount of energy for its development and meeting targets con-
ferred by its master plans. The demand for electricity has grown as other sources of energy
are less developed. Especially, forests were destroyed during the hydropower boom from
2001 to 2010. According to informal statistics, there are more than 268 hydropower projects
in Central Vietnam while another 205 are under construction; this means the deforestation
scale is very high.
Together with infrastructure development, there are other socioeconomic development
programs that equally influence the dynamics of natural resource use in the region. The
national targeted program on New Rural Development (NRD) (2011–20) has forwarded 19
criteria for developing rural communes sustainably, which includes poverty alleviation,
income generation, and socioeconomic enhancement. Along with this, the nexus between
socioeconomic and environmental criteria is incorporated at local communes to enhance par-
ticipation and foresee informed decision-making. In terms of forest conservation and local
livelihood improvement, Decree 99/2010 has brought a new financing mechanism for forest
conservation through the payments for forest environmental services (PFES) program. PFES
in Vietnam has generated more than US$50 million annually. 85% of which has been paid to
local communities to protect forest areas.
The Cancun Agreements ensures Vietnam will incorporate climate mitigation measures
and development goals together with integrating the abovementioned issues through future
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) programs. Earlier
experience of successful implementation Payment for Environmental Services (PES) and doi
moi could aid in assigning “property rights, transaction rules, conflict resolution mechanism,
community benefit sharing schemes, transparent government and people’s participation in
decision making.” REDD+ calls for ethnic minority participation in the policy and strategic
plan formulation process though a transparent informed decision-making process.
I. Introduction
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différence, pour le bruit, que du vol d’une hirondelle à celui d’un
aéroplane. Il balançait une espèce de pique, longue de plus de cinq
fois la longueur de son propre corps, et visait quelque chose, dans
un arbre. Son bras se détendit pour atteindre, à quarante mètres, un
magnifique perroquet, jaune et bleu, que je n’avais même pas su
voir. Mais ce n’était pas cette volaille qui m’intéressait, c’était la
pique, mince comme une canne à pêche : elle avait dix mètres de
haut ; et légère, et dure, inflexible ! Plus tard ce vieux m’expliqua qu’il
fallait abattre tout un gros arbre pour en tailler seulement deux. Il
coupait le tronc à la hache, et c’est encore avec cet outil civilisé qu’il
dégrossissait d’abord ses javelots : mais tout leur finissage était fait
avec des racloirs de pierre : un travail de six mois pour chacun
d’eux ! Au fond, des trucs comme ça, c’est peut-être plus difficile à
inventer et à fabriquer qu’un téléphone ; il y faut une espèce de
génie, et une adresse que nous n’avons pas. Ça m’amusait
tellement de le voir se servir de son bird’s spear — c’est le nom que
lui donnent les colons anglais — que je ne tirai plus un coup de
fusil : je le suivais comme un enfant pour le regarder. Ça le rendit
fier, et il devint ami avec moi, très vite. Il parlait assez bien pidgin, le
« sabir » international des mers du Sud, de sorte qu’on s’entendait
sans trop de peine. Il portait dans un sac en fibres de cocotier le
produit de sa chasse, près de deux douzaines d’aras de toutes les
couleurs, de beaux pigeons bleus, et deux porte-lyres. Je lui
demandai :
« — Tu les manges ? »
Il secoua la tête :
« — Manteau !… » fit-il brièvement.
Je sentis le cœur me sauter de joie. Ainsi, sans le vouloir, par un
pur hasard, j’étais tombé sur un bonhomme — le seul qui restât aux
Samoa, probablement, et dans toute l’Océanie — chez qui l’on
pratiquait encore cette industrie perdue. Je ne dis rien. J’ai vu assez
de sauvages dans ma vie pour savoir qu’il ne faut pas les brusquer.
Mais je le menai à mon petit campement, j’ouvris devant lui mon
bagage en regardant ses yeux pour voir quelles choses tenteraient
ses désirs. Il demeura d’une froideur suprême, jusqu’au moment où,
ne croyant plus que rien le pourrait séduire, je refermais, presque
aussitôt que je l’avais ouverte, une boîte d’hameçons anglais, tout à
fait ordinaires. Alors il fit : « Heu ! » du fond de la gorge, avec
admiration, car il fabriquait encore ses hameçons avec des arêtes de
poissons et les esquilles du squelette de petits oiseaux. Je lui donnai
tout de suite la boîte, bien entendu.
C’est ainsi que j’achevai sa conquête. Il me conduisit chez lui. Il
avait planté sa case dans un endroit délicieux, au bord d’une lagune
qui n’est séparée de la mer que par une étroite bande de coraux.
Des cocotiers qui poussent dans le sable, un sable fait de toutes
petites coquilles ; près de là, une petite rivière ombragée de
fougères arborescentes. C’était là qu’il vivait, avec sa vieille vahiné,
son fils aîné, un beau diable aux traits presque européens, et pas
plus brun de peau qu’un Italien, aussi grand et aussi fort que lui,
mais qui boitait très bas d’une jambe ; la vahiné de ce fils, encore
jeune et très jolie, ma foi, malgré les yeux un peu enfoncés de sa
race, qui donnent l’air de regarder en dessous, et les deux enfants
du ménage, tout nus, souples, câlins et malins comme de petits
chats. Je croyais que c’était tout, mais j’entendis geindre et tousser
dans la case ; et quand j’y pénétrai, bien qu’il n’y sentît pas bon, car
elle n’avait qu’une fenêtre et une porte, toutes deux très basses, à la
mode du pays, je vis se lever à demi, pour me faire honneur, son
second fils, roulé dans des tas de couvertures, et grelottant. Ce
n’était plus qu’un squelette ambulant : il me parut au dernier degré
de la phtisie.
… Et puis la grosse vahiné et sa bru, en train de tisser le
manteau de plumes ! On ne peut pas se figurer ça, même en rêve,
même en fumant l’opium ! Le vieux, qui s’appelait Taouhaki, me dit
qu’il serait fini dans quinze jours.
J’en avais une envie, une envie, de ce manteau ! Je savais qu’à
Londres ou à Paris je le revendrais bien mille livres. Alors je tirai mes
plans pour me le faire donner… Je vois que je vous choque, mais
vous n’y êtes pas ; dans les mers du Sud, on n’achète jamais rien :
vous faites un cadeau, on vous rend un cadeau. J’envoyai mon
matelot, avec la barque, à Apia, en lui disant de me rapporter le plus
beau gramophone qu’il pourrait trouver.
J’en eus pour mes vingt-cinq livres ; c’était un gramophone
boche, tout ce qui se fait de mieux. Et, en effet, quand ils entendirent
la Marseillaise, Rule Britannia, la Wacht am Rhein, la chanson de
Mignon, et Plus près de toi, mon Dieu, l’hymne qu’on jouait, vous
savez, quand le Titanic a sombré, ils furent éperdus d’enthousiasme.
Le tuberculeux lui-même sortit pour entendre ; il pleurait d’émotion et
de volupté. Ces pauvres gens ne pouvaient croire qu’il y eût au
monde chose plus merveilleuse.
Je finis par leur laisser mettre les disques qu’ils voulaient, et
pendant ce temps-là, m’appliquai à lire les journaux. Vous vous
souvenez qu’elles n’étaient pas gaies, les nouvelles de la guerre, au
printemps 1918. Ça m’absorbait, et je n’avais pas envie de rire.
Taouhaki s’en aperçut. Il me demanda, compatissant :
« — Ton cœur est sous la pluie ?
« — Ce sont des nouvelles de la guerre, en Europe, lui dis-je.
Sa réponse m’étonna. Il prit une figure toute riante :
« — Vous avez la guerre, en Europe ? Vous êtes bien heureux !
— Heureux ! fis-je sévèrement ; notre guerre a coûté des millions
et des millions de vies ! »
Parler de millions à des gens qui ne peuvent compter que jusqu’à
cinq, sur les doigts d’une seule main, c’était une bêtise. Il ne comprit
pas, et me crut encore moins.
« Vous êtes bien heureux ! reprit-il. Ah ! si nous pouvions encore
avoir la guerre, aux Samoa ! Je n’aurais pas un fils infirme pour le
reste de sa vie, et l’autre qui va mourir ! »
Je traduis son pidgin, vous concevez. Et voilà l’histoire
incroyable, l’histoire absurde qu’il me conta :
« — Il y a beaucoup de feuilles mortes depuis ce temps-là
(beaucoup d’années écoulées), on se faisait la guerre une fois par
lune, aux Samoa ! Tantôt avec une tribu, tantôt avec une autre, un
seul jour, une fois par lune, et c’était un jour de réjouissance…
« — Mais les morts, les blessés ? lui représentai-je.
« — Il n’y avait jamais de morts, jamais de blessés, protesta-t-il,
stupéfait. On essayait de se surprendre, il y avait des règles établies
depuis toujours, pour montrer celui qui est le plus fort… Alors le plus
faible se reconnaissait vaincu : ce n’est pas la peine de se laisser
tuer quand on est le plus faible… Une fois, dans ma jeunesse, il y a
eu un mort, pourtant, par accident. Ça causa une telle tristesse que
les deux armées rentrèrent tout de suite chez elles, et c’est la seule
fois où il n’y a eu ni vainqueur ni vaincu !
« Mais les missionnaires protestants d’Amérique et d’Angleterre
sont arrivés, ils nous ont convertis, et ils ont dit : « Comment, vous
faites la guerre ! C’est immoral, c’est épouvantable, c’est défendu
par Dieu ! Il ne faut plus faire la guerre ! »
« On jour a répondu : « Mais c’est la seule chose qui nous
amuse ! — Nous allons vous apprendre un jeu qui a la faveur de
Notre Seigneur Jésus-Christ, ont dit ces missionnaires, et qui est
bien plus amusant que la guerre. Ça s’appelle le kika (le cricket). »
« Ils nous ont appris le kika. Ça se joue avec des boules très
lourdes, entourées de peau, et des espèces de bottes encore plus
lourdes. A la première partie, notre roi est tombé, la tête fracassée
par une de ces boules, et il est mort encore trois Samoëns, parce
que nous y mettions beaucoup de vigueur. Alors les hommes de la
tribu qui avaient eu le plus de tués ont demandé leur revanche pour
le samedi suivant, et depuis ce moment-là, il meurt au cricket cinq
ou six Samoëns par semaine. C’est un fléau abominable ! Mon
second fils a eu la poitrine broyée par une boule, et c’est depuis ce
jour-là qu’il est malade. L’aîné a eu la jambe cassée… Je me suis
dit : « Ils vont le faire mourir aussi ! » Et c’est pour ça que je suis allé
m’établir avec ma famille à Toutouila, où on ne joue pas au kika. »
« — Voilà ! reprit le capitaine Birchwood ; j’appris ainsi qu’il est
toujours funeste de changer les usages d’un peuple, et ça me fit
plaisir de voir que les missionnaires avaient fait une sottise, parce
que nous, les marins et les commerçants, nous n’aimons pas les
missionnaires… Mais je pensais toujours au manteau ! Quand il fut
tout à fait fini, je dis à Taouhaki, en lui montrant le gramophone :
« — Tiens, je te le donne. »
Il secoua la tête :
« — Je ne puis l’accepter, dit-il, je ne puis rien te donner en
échange qui le vaille ! »
Je m’attendais bien à ça ; je suggérai :
« — Si, le manteau ! »
Il prit une figure désolée, et fit : « Non, non ! » de la tête. J’insistai.
Il s’obstina. Je devenais enragé ! Livre par livre, j’allai jusqu’à lui offrir
cinq cents guinées pour le manteau, en sus du gramophone. Il
secouait toujours la tête. « Cinq cents guinées ! fis-je. Tu pourras te
faire bâtir une belle maison, venue toute faite d’Amérique, avec un
toit en tôle ondulée ! » Je lui disais ça parce que c’est leur rêve, à
tous les Samoëns, d’avoir une maison américaine. Il répondait
toujours : « Non ! ».
— Mais enfin, pourquoi ne veux-tu pas ?
— Le manteau est pour mon fils qui va mourir, dit-il. Pour
l’ensevelir : afin qu’il soit chaudement et magnifiquement vêtu, sous
la terre ! »