SOCIOLOGY

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is the study of human society. It was a late comer among other discipline. Sociology is
relatively a new science.

As a Sociologist:

1. You must be imaginative: Make judgments based on objectivity and not subjectivity
2. Sociology also uses object of science
3. Sociology is based on operation
4. Sociology helps to understand the society

N/B you understand from the point of view of scientific methods

NEED TO STUDY SOCIOLOGY

1. We need to study man and their environment

2. We need to look at things from their perspective
3. Some changes help in the society

CULTURE
WHAT IS CULTURE?
Culture is something that varies from different society. Culture is a system of knowledge, beliefs,
patterns of behaviors, artifacts and institution that are created, learnt and shared by a group of people.
It also talks about norms, values, symbol, and the mental maps of reality, structure of power etc.

THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT CULTURE

1. Culture is learnt and taught. It is not an inheritance from birth to death, you learn culture. The
act of learning culture is called ENCULTURATON. Learning is not restricted to humans alone,
animals also learn culture but man learn and teach(school) culture.
2. Culture is shared yet it can be contested i.e. it can be argued about, it can be faulted
3. Culture is symbolic and material: Through the concept of ENCUTURATION, culture is symbolic
e.g. the use of different currency in countries.

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
1. Norms: These are rules on how we should behave in a society or in a particular place. It is what
is considered normal in a society. Norms varies from one destination to another. It is widely
accepted just as culture but they can be contested.
2. Values: These are fundamental believes about what is important. It is also what is good for a
man’s life. It talks about one’s ultimate standard.
3. Symbols: They talk about meaning.
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 • This is something that stands for another thing
• Symbols are not universal
• Symbols convey a particular meaning when they are use in a cultural context
• Symbolic representative can be non-verbal
• Most symbols exist in religion
• Symbols change overtime
4. Mental Maps of Reality:
• They are human structured
• Mental Maps helps us to organize our world into categories and compartments i.e. they
help us create shortcuts
TWO FUNCTIONS OF MENTAL MAPS
• It helps to classify what is real and what is not real
• It helps to assign meaning to what has been classify

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's culture is better than any other culture.

Culture Relativism: this is what an anthropologist uses for cross cultural research. This is used to look at
two or more cultures, it is used to counter or combat ethnocentrism idea or used to compare two or
more cultures. It is the suspension of your judgement to understand people's belief from their cultural
context.

Culture is a major discussion in anthropology. This is seen from the definition of scholars like Edward
Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), he defined culture or civilization in its ethnographic sense. He defined culture
of civilization in his work called Primitive Culture, published in 1871. He defined culture as a complex goal
which include belief, knowledge, acts, law, custom and any other capabilities or habit acquired by man
as a member of the society. Edward is a British anthropologist.

Four Development Concept of Culture in Anthropology

1. Evolutionary Framework The founder of this idea of culture include E.B Tylor (1832-1917),
James Frazer (1854-1941). They are both British Anthropologist. Luis Morgan (1818-1881) is an
American anthropologist. Their works were influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of Biological
Evolution which states that the diversity of different species is as a result gradual changes in the
environmental. There are plead in the proponent through which this theory concluded that
culture develop.
2. Historical Particularism It emerged as a result of criticism levelled against evolutionary
framework. It opposes biological evolution of culture. The proponent of this is called Franz Boaz,
(1858-1942). He said culture arises from different causes and not in sequence of stages. T
culture does not move in uniform processes. He made mention of the evolutionary work as a
tool for discrimination. Ruth Benedict (1818-1947), Margaret Mead (1901-1979).

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 3. British Structural Functionalism: They view human society as a living organism and they want to
analyze each part of that organism. They don’t look at the historical background of a society,
they only look at the present.
4. Interpretivist Approach It looks for meaning within culture, it embraces culture as a set of ideas
that is shared by group of people and provide common body of information on how people
should behave and why they behave that way and what the behavior means.

Culture and Power

Culture is seen as a set of ideas while power is the ability to bring about a change through action, threat
or force. Simple influential act is in every social relationship, there must be a power relationship. Power
and culture influences satisfaction.

How does Power and Culture Interact in the Society

1. There is power in cultural institution i.e. they work together

2. Hegemony Integration: this is when a dominant group create consent and agreement within a
population without the use of threat or force, such as inter interracial marriage.
3. Human Agency: The potential power to contest cultural norms, values, symbols as structures of
power e.g. debating, negotiating etc. Culture exert greater influences on how we behave and
how our body functions.

Culture and Behaviour

Culture is learnt irrespective of our background. Behavior is our attitudes.

Culture and Nature

Human beings are born with the ability to learn culture, to master beliefs. What you regard as norm is
not applicable to all other cultures.

How is Culture Created

1. Culture does not drop from the sky, it is created over time.
2. Culture is shaped by people and institutions created by the people
3. Culture is created through negotiation
4. Culture is not fixed e.g. costumer culture – it changes over time

Culture and Values

Max Webber, as capitalism grow, same as how culture grow and change over time.

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 How Globalization Transform Culture
Globalization is the flow of ideas through migration, trade, invasion etc. people through this global
cooperation produced global culture. Globalization tend to make everyone look the same, migration and
the two ways transference of culture. It increases cross politicization like Lagos. No culture is embraced
above the other.

Effects of globalization on local culture homogenization: when there is no change at all

Concept of Race
Race is a social construct even though it has its own biological aspect. However, as a social science
construct, it refers to the category of people who have been single out as inferior or superior often on
the basis of physical characteristics such as skin, color, hair texture, eye shapes etc. Early scholars
categorized or classified race into the following:

1. Ethiopian
2. Mongolian
3. Malay
4. American
5. Caucasian

This is according to Samuel Morton's (1839): This classification was based on physical appearance, level
of aggression, intelligence response to pain.

Race theories were used to justify slavery, Imperialism, Fascism, Nazism, the Holocaust

Ethnicity
The real, probably or in some cases mythical, common origins of people who have a shared identity
which maybe manifested in terms of marriage, language, religion, work, family, patterns etc. peculiar to
them.

An ethnic group therefore is the collection of people with shared cultural traits and interacting with one
another and regards themselves as one cultural unit.

Note: The self-identification of group members is important.

Hirshon 1996 identified 6 characteristics of Ethnic Groups.

1. Proper Name
2. Common Ancestry
3. Shared historical memories in form of literature, poetry, arts etc.
4. Common culture
5. Common homeland
6. A sense of solidarity

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Concept of Ethnocentrism
This is the assumption that one's ethnic group or way of life is better and superior to another.

Minority and Majority (Dominant Group)

Dominant Group or Majority group is one that is advantaged or has superior resources and right in the
society.

Minority Group
A minority group is also known as subordinate group. This group is one whose members because of
physical and cultural characteristics are disadvantaged or subject to unequal treatment by the dominant
group.

Racialized Group
They are category of people who have been single out by others or by themselves as inferior or superior
on the basis of subjectively selected physical traits.

Racial and Ethnic Inequality can be expressed through the following:

1. Prejudice It is a negative attitude about people based on gender racialization or race, age,
religion or sexual orientation.
2. White Privilege Privileges enjoyed by people with white skin color and can trace their ancestry
to Europe.
3. Racism These are attitudes and actions that single out people on the basis of racial, ethnic,
heritage and discriminating against them on such basis.

SOCIAL INSTITUTION
Man has always lived in group because we are social beings. Social institution is defined as the basic
focus of social organization that is common to all societies and dealing with some of the basic universal
problem of other social life.

Aspects of Social Institution That is Emphasized

1. Pattern of behavior regulated by the institution

2. It involves the regulation of the behaviors of individuals in the society according to definite,
continuous and organized patterns.
3. It has some norms and sanctions which are legitimized.

There are 5 basics social institutions which are;

1. Family
2. Religion
3. Government
4. Education
5. Economy

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All institutions have cultured symbols e.g. each government has a flag that citizens are expected to
respect. Religion also has its own symbols. (Christianity uses Cross etc.). Family (wedding rings), Schools
(symbol, color).

Codes of Behaviour
People that are involved in institutions discovered that they just find themselves in a predefined
institution which they are to play their roles. There are codes of ethics surrounding the appropriate role.
Such body of behavior can be formal or informal. Social code of conduct define how people are to
behave.

Ideology as a Trait of Social Institution

Ideology explains why they behave that way and why people do fail to behave as the way they should.
Ideology includes central belief and the institution. An institution ideology is rationale for the existence
of that institution. The social institution must interest and contribute positively for the survival of the
society. The social institution relates collectively to shape the cultural fabrics of the society.

Family as a Social Institution

It is the group of people who are related by blood, affinity and or by adoption.

Functions of Family Institution

Family is the primary agent of socialization. Socialization starts from birth which is introduced by the
family (learn, love, generosity, authority)

1. Biological Function: it can be seen in two

a. It regulates individual social behaviors
b. It sanctions the acceptable medium through which children should be born.
2. Maintenance Function: the family provides for the affectionate and material needs for its
members. It is also believed that the family will also contribute to physical and psychological
status.
3. Manifest Function: These are the intended function of a particular function.
4. Latent Function: Family also provides any future and potential responsibilities.
- Family of Orientation is family into which you're born (I.e. you're a child with a parent).
- Family of procreation is the family created by individuals (husband and wife). Family of
orientation has much to say about potential means of Marriage.

THE ECONOMY
Economic institutions provide the need for production and distribution of goods and services needed by
members of the society. There are two basic universal things in economic institutions:

1. It is a system of organizing the production of commodities.

2. It arranges how what is produced is distributed.

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There are three types of Economic System
1. Economy Run by Tradition: It is the oldest form of economy that exists. It depends on
procedures that originated in the distance part. In order to produce, it has a system where
production procedure is hereditary. It ensures that certain skill pass from one generation to
another. Production methods is repeated on exactly the same way for so long and at a time, it
might become sacred that it just must be done that way. Means of distribution is also pass down
to other generation. Its method of distribution is static.
2. Economy Run by Command: This is a planned economy, How, for whom and who, command, it
depends on the time, the place it’s been conducted. It has existed in both in totalitarian and
democracy. It is ability to bring about rapid and significant economic and social change.
3. Economy Run by Market: it is almost referring to as capitalism. It is based on private ownership
of the means of production and distribution. It assumes that when individuals pursue one
interest, the entire interest of the society is enhanced or pursued.
The regulation of commodities that are produced are determined by the forces of demand and
supply.

Functions of Economic Institutions

1. The manifest function is to produce and distribute goods and services.
2. The latent function is that for economy run by this, it can stand in the way of progress and
things are done the same way from one generation to another in economy by tradition. While
command & market economy can function as accelerator of ecological target or as emeritus of
ecological strategy.

POLITICS
All societies have governmental system. It is referred to as politics. Political institutions vary from one
society to another. It depends on population, size etc. A government is an ultimate power that is
recognized as legitimate. The political system can also change from time to time. No government can
remain in power and exercise authority without people's consent. There are forms of authorities that
must be conferred on government to exercise their authority.

1. Traditional Authority
2. Charismatic Authority
3. Legal Rational Authority

Traditional Authority are based on tradition, it is the oldest form. Leaders assume power by virtue of
certain traditional laws or succession and they can be passed from one generation to another. There are
certain sacred laws attached to it which is compelled by tradition. There are set of unwritten laws that
traditional authority is attached to.

Charismatic Authority are based on certain people who have certain qualities of leadership which
inspires people to follow them and be loyal to them. It is not transferable or inheritable.

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Legal rational Authority It is characterized by its partocratic organizational structure and those who
occupies positional authorities plays roles that are already defined. An office holder is required to fulfill
the requirements of its office. This kind of authority has become widespread.

Functions of Political Institution

The manifest function
• They help in institutionalization of norms
• Making of norms
• Adjudication of conflicts
• Promotion of general welfare
• Protection from external attacks.

The latent function

• They educate political members and society on voting etc.

• Serves as educator of masses

Religion
Religion according to Emile Durkheim as a system of believes and practices that are related to sacred
things which unites into one single community called a church, mosque. All those who adhere to them.
Religion grow out of the believe that what we know through our senses e.g. the eyes are just part of
greater reality. i.e. we cannot know everything through our senses because of clear limitation of
perception, we can know better thing only through our faith.
There are different views about the future of what the religion looks like. According to Auguste Conte,
he asserted that the world is witnessing increase in rationalization. That the world was moving from one
metaphysical to scientific mode of thought that talk of rationalism, empiricism. Augustine Conte believe
religion will go to extinction but Emile Durkheim believe that religion will persist.

Features of Religion
• Every religion has a set of beliefs modified in a book e.g. Qur'an, Bible etc. The non-literate
believe that they are relay from mouth to mouth.
• Every religion has hierarchy, each position has certain privileges that accompany them.
• Each religion has symbols. Cross in Christianity, half-moon and the star in Islam
• Each religion has rituals. All religion has special ceremonies and activities. These rituals are
considered to be sacred.

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Functions of Religion
1. Personal Functions
a. It provides a feeling of security
b. It provides certainties in place of mysteries.
c. It provides solace
d. It gives believers a sense of power.
2. Social Function
a. It serves as a socialization force and as a means of social control.
b. It also supports other social institution by providing guild line on approved behavior accepted
in the society.
c. It attempts to improve contemporary human lives.
d. It promotes social change e.g. it fosters move that lead to the abolition of slave trade.
e. It can also retard social change
f. It can also promote and diminish conflict.

EDUCATION
Education is the deliberate and organized transmission of values and skills, for the transmission of values
and skills to be made possible, schools are established.
Formal education compliment the informal learning at home. formal learning is very useful in meeting
the requirements of modern industrial age/era.

Functions of Religion
Manifest function (primary function)
• To preserve the culture by passing it from one generation to another.
• It also encourages Democratic participation in the society i.e. it helps students to reason
rationally through former education.
• It enriches student lives by expanding intellectual and aesthetics horizon.
• It helps improve personal adjustment through personal counseling by offering some courses
that will help.
• It promotes physical exercise and courses in hygiene to improve the health of the population
• It provides citizens to understand their nation history and who are dedicated to its future

Latent Functions
• Schools functions as a marriage market.
• It widens individuals circle of acquaintance and facilitate various alignment.
• It exposes students protracted organizations. Thereby, proving them for post school large scale
organization.
• It also gives students some experience in managerial post because of the network of political
ability and extra-curricular activities
• Formal education: it keeps younger children out of the labor market.

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 SOCIALIZATION
This the process of learning basis of which an individual learns a belief, values and behavior pattern of
the society. Socialization is an ongoing from the birth of the child till death.
Socialization are in two forms: Formal and Informal. When it is formal socialization, it is structured and
organized way. It’s an informal one when it is provided by not really organized or structured way.

Goals of Socialization
• To inculcate basic disciplines by restraining a child or even an adult from immediate
gratification.
• To instill aspirations.
• To teach social role.
• To teach skills
• To teach conformity to norms.
• To create acceptable and constructive personal identity.

Scholars have divided socialization into

1. Primary Socialization
2. Secondary Socialization.

Primary Socialization is what happen in the early stage of life, how to respect, how to eat, how to
behave in the society etc.

Secondary Socialization takes place at the later part of human life, especially life after secondary school.

Agents of Socialization
It can be referred to individuals, groups, that provide situation in which Socialization occurs.
1. Family: is the most important agent of Socialization because it is the family that will teach you how to
inculcate with the society.
2. Peer Group: most powerful agent of Socialization, very influential and destructive. It is your peer that
will teach you how to smoke, drink, different sexual styles etc.
3. School plays an important role in educating children and adults.
4. Mass Media: it can create both positive and negative impact in an individual.
Other agents of Socialization are religion institutions, social class, community, workplace, toys,
government etc.

Re-Socialization and De-Socialization

Re Socialization means the adoption by adults of radically different norms and life-ways that are more
or less completely different from previous ones they have learnt.
De-Socialization This refers to stripping or removing completely from an individual, their beliefs and
norms. Removing completely former behavior in an individual.
Anticipatory Socialization is the desire to find out

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Reverse Socialization This refers to the process of Socialization whereby, the dominant socializing
person, such as parents are now in need of been socialized by their children.

Social Inequality
What is Inequality: this is when there is disproportionate access to the assets of the society. Social
inequality refers to extent to which culturally valued materials and social rewards are allocated
disproportionately to individuals, families and others groups.

Forms of Social Rewards that are Evident in various Society

1. Wealth or Ownership of Value Materials Goods.
2. Power or the ability to make other do want you want them to do based on coercion or
legitimacy.
3. Prestige or honor it is a socio reward based on judgements about an individual personal
worthiness or on contributions of individuals make to others in a group.

These three social commodities are not often available to everybody at most times

Three forms of classification of society.

1. Egalitarian Society
2. Rank Society
3. Stratified Society

Egalitarian Society this is a society that all members have equal access to social rewards and not based
on sex or age. e.g. Mobile Forager, Gardeners & Hunters, The Bambutu, King etc. this classification was
by Morton Fried

Rank Society they are limited number of high ranking position usually title or some kind of formal or
named offices. The title confers high honor on people who hold them. In some cases, the privilege of
holding that title is based on hereditary either with certain families, lineage, clans or other kings group.
Usually, reward is based on kinship. There are limited number of formal positions with formal authority
which usually inherited but they could be achieved. Chiefdoms are usually ranked and not complex as
the kingdoms.

Stratified Society
Key indicators of a stratified society

1. They are marked or obvious inequality in access to all the three kinds of reward, which includes
wealth, power, and prestige. This form of inequality is as a result of unequal access to
productive resources.
2. Unequal access to reward has a strong tendency to be heritable throughout the generation.

NB A social group whose members share about the same degree of access to reward is called a social
stratum.

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Two major types of Strata

• Class
• Caste

Difference Between Class & Caste Stratification

1. Class is achieved though born into it, you can choose not to remain in it. It is based on choice
unlike Caste System of Stratification which is assured.
2. Class Stratification is Dynamic it is a flexible socio-division which allow a child to move or change
social status whereas in the Caste System a Child belongs to that particular stratum to which his
or her parent belongs.
3. Class is not Endogamous (within a particular group) i.e. choice of marriage is not restricted to
the same class whereas the Caste System is Endogamous.
4. The Class system in terms of occupation is optional while the Caste system is Traditional.
5. The Class system is based on a secular principle while Caste system is based on Religion
principle.

Gender Inequality
Sex and Gender
• Sex: This is the biological/physical characteristics that shows that a person is a male or female
• Gender: this is a social construct

Sex: this is the biological difference between males and females. It is first label we receive at birth.
Within the two-sex model i.e. male and female, males are seen as standard sex and females are seen as
opposite and its measure against the standard. this is referred to Androcentricity.

Gender: Gender is the culturally and socially constructed differences between males and females based
on belief or meaning associated with feminity or masculinity.

Masculinity It is the stereotypes generally associated with males like aggressiveness, independence, lack
of emotional expressions etc.

Feminity this is generally associated with females like dependence, compassionate, emotional, calm,
kind, lovely etc.

Issues of Gender Inequality

Gender Ideology is simply a belief that masculinity and feminity are valid.

Gender Division of Labour

This is the process whereby productive task are assigned to individuals on the basis of gender.

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Factors That Support Gender Ideology
1. Socialization supports gender inequality by keeping women away from public places.
2. Religion: Some religious beliefs promote female seclusion as we found in northern Nigeria and
others encourage veiling.

NB Sociologists believe that roles are scripted hence individuals play the roles they are expected to. This
is enforced by what is called gender socialization. Gender Socialization occurs when gender distinctions
and hierarchies are maintained through differential treatments.

Glass Ceiling is a barrier that are placed over women, because of certain constraints. Glass Ceiling are
invisible barriers by male management to prevent women from reaching top positions. Most time it is
believed that male executive would not work with female executives. Another popular notion is that
women work better in service sector than in places which requires strategic thinking.

Broad Theoretical Explanation for Gender Inequality

1. The Interactionist Perspectives It examines how language or linguistics perpetuate sexism and
gender roles, thereby encouraging male dominants. (The use of language like 'He' and some
other languages like “Man and his environment” why not women, so some of these generic
words serves as dominant on females).
2. Functionalist Perspectives(functionalism) they ascribe or attribute gender inequality to
biological differences which resulted into gender division of labor. (When a female is pregnant
there is nothing she can do again while a male can continue to work. This always give edge to
males).
3. Conflict Perspectives This gives attention to male control over women and their resources
accounting for gender inequality found in many societies.
4. The Feminist Perspective this is like a reaction to traditional perspectives
a. Feminine Socialist Theory they believe that when men gain power over women
properties, such women are brought under subjugation.
b. Radical Feminism it attributes gender inequality to patriarchy i.e. males’ oppressive
dominance over women facilitated by religion and the media. Patriarch is an oppressive
rule over women for the benefit of men.
c. Liberal Feminism they attributed gender inequality to gender role socialization.
d. Black Feminism: for black feminist, indigenous women and other women of colors face
inequality based on socialization, class, gender. Especially African-American women.

Interactionalist advocate for language modifications while functionalist seek to redefine function role
and seek to educate women about how they can use their women capital.

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Globalization, ICT and Social Change
The word Globalization came to be in the second half of the 20th century, however you can trace it to
1450 and 1500 A.D. Some people view it as a term

Globalization is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It is a process of international integration as a

product of exchange of world views, products, ideas and other aspects of culture.

It means several things to different people, for some it creates positive things in economic, technology
and political space. For others, they see the power of the state controlled by corporative firms.

The effects of globalization on developing countries are not optional but it compelling and imperative.

Factors leading to emergence of Globalisation

1. 16th Century expansion of European Capitalism.
2. Post-world war 2 Era
3. The 1970s crumbling of Breton halt
4. The crumbling of the Breton halt fixed exchange rate system.
5. Disintegration of Soviet Union
6. The fall of Berlin wall.
7. The ICT revolution of the 1990s.

Positive Impacts of Globalisation

1. It brings about the integration of culture.
2. Speedily access to other culture via the internet.
3. It brings about pluralization of culture
4. Access via Digitization of cultural artifacts

Negative Impacts
1. Commercialization of culture.
2. Fundamentalization of culture and religion.
3. Depopulation of traditional religion by youths
4. It has negative effects on the family and upbringing
5. It has widened the gap between the rich and the poor.
6. It has affected our value system e.g. dressing, greetings
7. The policy of liberation
8. Electronic economy
9. There is access to social media

Cultural dimension of Globalization

Uniqueness is lost in globalization. Many foreign countries now adopt local culture because of
globalization.

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Coming up of world organization
Globalization and employment

Culture of consumption and globalization

Shopping is no longer a necessity we have different organizations ad industries like: the music industry

Culture of presumption where there are different industries like music, film etc. in which they have
adopted their own culture

Corporate culture

Environment, Ecosystem and Social life

The concept of environment
The term environment is physically defined as a physical space and the surrounding in which man lives
and resides. The society or community in which man lives and resides is located in a specific place and
setting known as environment. In a sense therefore, environment is anything outside of humans that
constitute the environment. In sociological terms, the environment is usually broken down into series of
constituent parts.

• Political environment
• Physical or natural environment
• Technological environment
• Regional environment
• Socio-economic environment

Social environment- this describes the environmental contents of norms, values customs, tradition,
attitude, philosophy, family systems, thought and collective experience of man in a particular setting.
Social environment encompasses the culture which determines the behavior of people. It is also
important to note that no man lives in isolation or in a vacuum

Economic environment- this deals with the production and consumption of goods and services in a
particular setting or location. It also deals with the factors of production such as land, Labour capital. In
addition, it is concerned with the forces of demand and supply in the environment. So, when economic
environment is favorable for humans all economic resources that re needed for good living will be
available in needed quantity and quality.

Physical environment- this constitute if aspects things that nature has placed in a particular setting or
location. Or things placed by man itself e.g. trees, mountain, oceans, building, bridges etc.

Note that climate is perhaps the most important component of the physical environment. The profound
influence of climate and weather is seen in human activities in everyday life. It regulates to a very large
extent the food we eat, what we wear, how we live and work.

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The chief components of physical environment(natural) include

1. Geographical location
2. Topography or relief
3. Geological structure
4. Climate
5. Soil
6. Vegetation
7. Animal life

Political environment- this is described in terms of power and authority systems in use in a particular
setting. It deals with the institution of government and politics. It pays attention to the following

1. Government
2. Territory
3. Law and the use of force

Whenever man comes to live in community of other men, some must lead. Hence, polarizing the
community into two groups – the ruled and the ruler. How power is obtained and used is a main issue in
a political environment. One important feature of the political environment is that it is a potential
source of social inequality

Technological environment- this is defined as the systematic use of organized knowledge to solve
practical problems. Thus, technological environment deals with the level of scientific advancement.
Technological environment determines the following

1. The type of healthcare facilities available to humans like fascination, immunization, surgery,
level of sanitation etc.
2. Determines the communication facilities that will be used by example television, radio, satellite
dishes, internet.
3. It also determines the extent to which humans can be able to subdue and control nature e.g.
drainage, irrigation
4. It also determines the technique of production to be used in industries and farms whether it can
be Labour intensive or capital intensive
5. It also determines the mode of transportation

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Concept of Ecosystem
The ecosystem is defined as the functioning interactive system composed of one or more living
organism and their environments both physical and biological.

Ekong (2003) defined ecosystem as the system composed of the interaction of all living organisms and
their natural environment.

Robertson defined the Ecosystem as a self-sustaining community of all organism within its natural
environment.

Every Ecosystem is consisting of two large parts:

1. The physical i.e. Abiotic
2. The biological i.e. Biotic Community.

The physical part consists of water, soil, compounds. The abiotic or physical components of the
Ecosystem provides the necessary resources i.e. non-material and physical spaces for the use of living
organism and these organisms includes human and animals who belong to the biotic or biological
community.

The Biotic Community: it is made up of 3 levels of living organism, these are:

a. The primary producers known as " Autotrophs " which are mainly green plants capable of
producing their own food through the process of photosynthesis.
b. The Consumers (heterotrophs): they are animals both lower and higher that feed on organic
matter provided by plants and animals.
c. The Decomposers or Reducers: They are micro-organisms i.e. bacteria and fungi that promote
the decay of dead organic matter.

The Ecosystem Process

The Ecosystem process is maintained by the constant flow of resources supplied almost entirely within
the system itself.

There are three important concepts in this analysis:

• Chain
• Flow
• Cycle

A chain is a form of interdependence among species and the most common example is the food chain,
in which one specie becomes food for another.

Cycle: is defined as a form of interdependence which feeds on itself creating a loop. Good example is
the photosynthesis of the sun's energy by plants become food for herbivores, some of which become
food for carnivores and all of them become food for microorganisms that composed death plants and
animals into nutrients and the nutrients are made available for plants.

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Flow: it is defined as a broader movement of forces, energy and various of organized or unorganized
matter through Ecosystem. The Ecosystem is maintained as a constant flow of resources supplied
entirely within the environment.

Humans and Their Social Environment

Sociology as a discipline is primarily concerned with the investigation of the social bonds that exist in
human group society, it also investigates the forces that enable human stick together in groups and
social settings. Human does not live in isolation. According to Thomas Hobbes the life of a man in his
natural state is solitary, nasty, brutish, poor and short. In realization of these negative consequences,
man began to live in community of other fellow humans. Hence, what humans do, eat, drink, say, belief,
think, exchange are all dictated and determined by the society in which they live. As a matter of fact,
social environment is a potential and strong determinant of social behavior.

Functions of Environment
1. The environment provides resources essential for life e.g. Water, Air, and the raw materials used
to build houses, roads, food and other essential need.
2. The environment serves as a repository: Humans more than any other thing produces large
quantity and variety of waste product i.e. body waste, garbage, and sewage. The environment
helps in absorbing this.

Environment Problem
Human damages the environment sometimes intentionally and other times by accident. According to
Schaefer and Lamm (1995), they identified three broad areas of concerns of Environmental problems:

• Air pollution
• Water Pollution
• Contamination of the land.

Pollution of the environment threatens environment ecological balance of the planet and the health of
man and other living species.

Air Pollution: according to the study of United Nations Environment programs and W.H.O, more than 1
billion people on the planet exposed to damaging effect of air pollution. This is as a result of burning of
fuels and waste, the raising of forest, thereby increasing the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It can
cause health problems such as eye irritation and long cancer.

Water Pollution: many bodies of water have become unsafe for drinking, fishing and swimming as a
result of waste dumping, fuel leakages from ships and occasional oil spillage.

Contamination of Land: it is becoming seriously contaminated as a result of industrial dumps of

hazardous waste and chemicals.

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