Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Research papers

Numerical simulation and analysis of heat transfer and melting rate of

nano-enhanced PCM composite embedded in a concentrator
photovoltaic system
Atef Chibani a, b, *, Slimane Merouani b, Houssem Laidoudi c, Aissa Dehane b, Larbi Bendada d,
Leila Lamiri a, Ghania Mecheri e, Cherif Bougriou f, Noureddine Gherraf g
a
Research Center in Industrial Technologies CRTI, P.O.Box 64, Cheraga 16014, Algiers, Algeria
b
Laboratory of Environmental Process Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Process Engineering, University Salah Boubnider Constantine 3, P.O.
Box 72, 25000 Constantine, Algeria
c
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, USTO-MB, BP 1505, El-Menaouer, Oran 31000, Algeria
d
Faculty of Sciences and Applied Sciences, Mechanical Engineering Department, Larbi Ben M'hidi University, 04000 Oum El Bouaghi, Algeria
e
Faculty of Sciences and Applied Sciences, Department of Process Engineering, Larbi Ben M'hidi University, 04000 Oum El Bouaghi, Algeria
f
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Technology, University of Mostefa Ben Boulaid, Batna 2, 05000 Batna, Algeria
g
Laboratory of Natural Resources and Management of Sensitive Environments, Faculty of SE/SNV, Larbi Ben M'Hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi, Algeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The primary objective of this research is to explore the impact of nanoparticles-infused PCM (phase change
Nano-PCM material) in the context of nano-PCM-PV technology (PV: photovoltaic panel). Computational investigations
Melting evolution were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of RT25HC, a paraffin wax PCM, in conjunction with various
Photovoltaic (PV)
nanoparticles (MgO, TiO2, ZnO and CuO) in solar panel cooling. The study also considers the influence of PV
Phase change materials (PCM)
Electrical efficiency
module inclination angles (β: 0 to 90◦ ). High-resolution numerical simulations using the ANSYS-Fluent CFD
platform were employed. The findings highlight the intricate relationship between nanoparticle addition,
melting kinetics, electrical efficiency and PCM enthalpy. Specifically, the melting rate of RT25HC PCM exhibits
notable differences between horizontal (β = 0◦ ) and inclined panels (β ∕ = 0◦ ), with a melting fraction of 12 % at t
= 2 h for β = 0◦ compared to 40–44 % for β ∕ = 0◦ . Nanoparticles maintain a higher electrical efficiency (11.6 %)
for horizontal panels, whereas inclined panels (β ∕ = 0◦ ) experience declining electrical efficiency (7.5 % at t = 8
h). For β = 0◦ , the PCM system effectively maintains the surface panel's temperature constant at 44 ◦ C for a long
time (up to 8 h). However, when nano-PCM systems are introduced, this temperature stabilizes at a slightly lower
value of 40 ◦ C, representing a 4 ◦ C reduction attributed to the presence of nanoparticles. Conversely, for β ∕ = 0,
the surface panel's temperature stabilizes at 44 ◦ C for up to t = 2 h, then experiences a sharp increase, ultimately
reaching 120 ◦ C at t = 8 h, regardless of the type or absence of nanomaterials. Overall, the most effective
application of nano-PCM for cooling the PV panel was predicted at a horizontal orientation of the panel,
regardless of the nanomaterial type.

further exploration and advancement, particularly concerning the fac­

1. Introduction
The increased global demand for energy coupled with the environ­
mental challenges posed by fossil fuels has propelled the worldwide
focus on renewable energy sources. Consequently, governments across
the globe have recognized the pivotal role of renewable energy,
particularly solar energy, in their development plans [1–7]. While solar
energy stands as a matured renewable energy source, it remains ripe for
tors influencing PV efficiency and its sustainability impact [8–13]. The
conversion efficiency and durability of PV solar cells are profoundly
affected by excessive temperature rises. Traditional cooling systems,
such as water and air, have been employed in photovoltaic-
thermoelectric (PV-TE) coupling systems [14]. However, practical
implementation faces restrictions due to the high costs and technical
challenges [14].
Phase Change Materials (PCMs), encompassing a wide range of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chibaniatef@gmail.com (A. Chibani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.109247
Received 9 April 2023; Received in revised form 4 October 2023; Accepted 7 October 2023
Available online 17 October 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Chibani et al.
Nomenclature
Amush mushy zone constant
Cp heat capacity, (J/kg. K)
g gravitational acceleration, (m/s2)
KB Boltzmann constant
k thermal conductivity, (W/ m K)
H enthalpy of PCM,(J/kg. C)
◦
L latent heat capacity, (kJ kg− 1)
ΔH (J/kg. K)
h (J/kg. K)
hp (J/kg. K)
href (J/kg. K)
T temperature, (◦ C)
L latent heat of PCM, (J/kg)
q Constant heat energy, (W/m2)
n number of temperature measurement point of PV cell along
the x-direction
P pressure, Pa
S source term
u velocity in the x-direction
v velocity in the y-direction
Greek symbol
1
βexpansion thermal expansion coefficient of liquid phase PCM, K−
ρ density, kg/m3
substances such as paraffin wax, salt hydrates, organic compounds, and
eutectic mixtures, play a pivotal role in enhancing the efficiency of solar
panels [15]. PCMs possess the unique ability to manage thermal energy
through latent processes, maintaining a fixed temperature [16]. This
characteristic makes them an excellent choice for regulating the tem­
perature of PV-TE systems, offering enhanced heat management
[15,17–19]. Sharma [20] presented an up-to-date overview of PCM-
integrated PV technology advances. Concentrating and non-
concentrating PV modules integrated with PCMs are discussed in
detail [20]. The heat recovered from photovoltaic panels is utilized in
hybrid systems such as PCM integrated photovoltaic thermal (PVT/
PCM) systems and thermoelectric modules integrated PCM regulated
photovoltaic systems (PV/PCM-TE) for residential and industrial pur­
poses [20]. The effects of ambient temperature, sunlight intensity, PCM
melting point temperature, PCM channel orientation, various configu­
rations to improve heat transfer, … etc., on the performance of PV
modules were discussed [20].
On the other hand, many experimental and CFD calculations have
attempted to provide more details about the characteristics of the PV/
PCM systems with the improvement of PCM container performance in
the presence of fins and metal foams. Xu et al. [21] experimentally
examined the cooling characteristics of PCM on PV modules. They
studied the effect of the reverse process of PCM from a molten state to a
solidified state on the temperature of the cooled solar panel. They found
that PCM can effectively reduce the temperature of solar modules under
conditions of no wind, irradiance of 1000 W/m2 and ambient temper­
ature of 7.3 ◦ C. PCM can reduce the average temperature of the top and
back of the solar panel by 33.94 ◦ C and 36.51 ◦ C, respectively, within
300 min. In addition, PCM increased the average maximum power
generation efficiency of solar photovoltaic modules by 1.63 %, and the
average maximum output power increased by 1.35 W. On the other
hand, solar PV modules without PCM cooling require only 60 min. For
the cooling down of the Solar PV modules in a PV-PCM system to room
temperature, 480 min was required. Lotfi et al. [22] considered two
approaches to improve the efficiency of PV modules using phase change
materials (PCMs) as coolants and integrated reflectors. The results show
2
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
ɣ liquid fraction of PCM
ε small constant number
ƞ efficiency,%
ƞref efficiency of PV cell under reference solar radiation %
β tilt angle of the system, ◦
μ dynamic viscosity, Pa.s
σt temperature un evenness of the PV cell
volume concentration of nano-particles, %
Ø
Subscript
ave average
PCM phase change material
Ref reference
S solid phase of PCM
l liquid phase of PCM
e electrical
th thermal
x x-direction of the system
y y-direction of the system
np nano-particles
npcm nano-PCM
ESD energy storage density
PTC parabolic through collector
PV photovoltaic
PVT photovoltaic-thermal
that the use of reflectors increases the radiation received by photovoltaic
modules, but at the same time leads to an increase in the temperature of
photovoltaic modules. A mirror tilt angle of 30◦ provides the best results.
Jurcevic et al. [23] proposed and experimentally tested a photovoltaic
thermal (PVT) collector in Mediterranean climate conditions. A
comprehensive evaluation of PVT collector designs was carried out,
considering performance, economic and environmental aspects. The
specific PVT design consists of four cooling blocks, each equipped with
straight pipes (water as the working medium) and a plexiglass container
filled with an organic phase change material, i.e. pork fat. The examined
systems achieved a maximum total energy efficiency of 62.2 %. How­
ever, the estimated annual average overall energy efficiency is expected
to be below 50 %. Economic analysis shows that the average cost of the
total energy generated by PVT collectors is between 0.056 and 0.083 V/
kWh. Al-Nimr et al. [24] created models for phase change material
storage, thermal regenerative electrochemical cycling, and concen­
trating photovoltaics (CPV/T). The concentrating photovoltaics imme­
diately produce energy, heat water, and raise the temperature at which
the thermal regeneration electrochemical circuit is charged throughout
the day. Heat is stored in phase change materials in order to prevent heat
loss to the environment and reduce the discharge temperature of the
thermal regeneration electrochemical cycle. The heat from the storage
tank is used once again throughout the night to raise the temperature at
which the regeneration circuit is charged. The efficiency of the regen­
erative cycle and photovoltaic cells can reach 7.11 % and 15.74 %
during the day. At night, the regenerative circuit is the only power
source with a high efficiency of 6.13 %. Yusuf and Ballikaya [25] per­
formed a numerical study of stand-alone high-concentration photovol­
taic (CPV), CPV-PCM, CPV-TE, CPV-PCM-TE, and CPV-TE-PCM systems
in the COMSOL Multiphysics environment. In addition to analyzing the
system's energy efficiency, the study also examines the impact on the
system's energy efficiency of using different PCMs and PCM containers
with different internal configurations. The results showed that the en­
ergy conversion efficiencies of CPV-PCM, CPV-TE, CPV-PCM-TE, and
CPV-TE-PCM were 34.8 %, 97.3 %, 106.5 %, and 111.4 % higher than
monomeric CPV, respectively.
A. Chibani et al. Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1. Schematic of the physical model (a) and computational domain and grid structure for the Nano-PCM-Photovoltaic system (b).

3
A. Chibani et al. Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247

Table 1
Thermophysical properties of chosen materials: PCM, metal foam and PV panel components [40,41,56–58].
Material ρ (Kg/m3) λ dnp Cp Latent heat (J/kg) Phase change temperature (◦ C)
(W/m K) nm (J/Kg K)

Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 3580 61.923 35 921 – –

Titanium Oxide (TiO2) 4250 08.954 100 686 – –
Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 5630 27.196 100 494 – –
Copper Oxide (CuO) 6500 17.991 15–30 536 – –
PV 1190.667 0.2894 – 1552.006 – –
Glass 3000 0.98 – 500 – –
EVA 960 0.23 – 2090 – –
Si 2330 148 – 677 – –
Tedlar 1200 0.36 – 1250 – –
Paraffin wax (RT25HC) 880/770 0.2 – 2000 240,000 22–26
Steel 7830 13 – 468 – –
Copper 8933 350–401 – 381 – –

Zhang et al. [26] conducted a numerical study on a solar photovol­ In the nano-PCM system, the particles are assumed to be perfectly mixed
taic PCM collector with rectangular copper fins and studied the effects of in paraffin, forming a single phase (nano-PCM phase), either in the solid
PCM height and fin length, arrangement, and number on the tempera­ or liquid phase. The physical properties of this phase are calculated
ture characteristics and electrical efficiency of photovoltaic cells. The using Eqs. (14)–(18), which differ from those of the pure PCM. In
PCM height of 60 mm can meet the thermal management requirement of addition, this system is subjected to an inclination angle β from 0◦ to 90◦ ,
800 W/m2 heat flux input during the day. Compared with the finless PV- as shown in Fig. 1b. The thermophysical properties of the different
PCM model, the photovoltaic cell performance of the uniformly system components (PV, sheets 1–6 materials, Paraffin RT25HC, nano­
distributed three-fin model with a height of 33.33 mm was improved by particles) are regrouped in Table 1.
4.62 %. The eleven-fin model performed best, with average tempera­
ture, temperature non-uniformity, and efficiency of 48.58 ◦ C, 3.20, and
2.2. Mathematical model
11.19 %, respectively. These values are 16.11 ◦ C lower, 43.06 % lower,
and 7.70 % higher than the model without fins. Deng et al. [27] were
Building upon the preceding description, our mathematical frame­
looking for a way to characterize the distribution of pores in porous
work is articulated through the following equations [32]:
metal foams using fractal Brownian motion. A melting model for phase
change materials was created and employed to examine the significance
• Continuity equation
of pore distribution in the melting behavior of porous metal foams. The
heat transmission process was remarkably improved by the use of ∂ρ ∂(ρu) ∂(ρv)
+ + =0 (1)
porous metal foams. ∂t ∂x ∂y
Despite significant advancements in the field, it is noteworthy to
In this equation, ρrepresents the density, u and v and denote the
indicate that the use of nano-PCM as a melting process enhancer
velocity in the and x, y directions, respectively.
(cooling enhancer) in PV-PCM strategies has received limited attention.
Most researches have focused on the utilization of fins and metal foams.
• Momentum equations
While the addition of nanoparticles to PCM has demonstrated consid­
erable improvements in heat latent storage within thermal energy ∂(ρu) ∂(ρu) ∂(ρu) 1 ∂P ∂2 u ∂2 u
( )
( )
storage systems [28–31], its application within PV systems is absent. ∂t
+u
∂x
+v
∂y
=−
ρ ∂x
+μ +
∂x2 ∂y2
+ρgβexpansion cosβ T− Tref +Sx
Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to investigate the
(2)
impact of incorporating nanoparticles into PCM within the context of
nano-PCM/PV technology. To achieve this goal, we have conducted ∂(ρv) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρv) 1 ∂P ∂2 v ∂2 v
( )
( )
computational investigations to assess the effectiveness of RT25HC, a ∂t
+u
∂x
+v
∂y
=−
ρ ∂y
+μ +
∂x2 ∂y2
+ρgβexpansion sinβ T− Tref +Sy
paraffin wax PCM, when combined with various nanoparticles (MgO,
(3)
TiO2, ZnO and CuO) in the cooling process of solar panels. This study
also explores the influence of the inclination angle of PV modules, P is the pressure, μ is the dynamic viscosity, βexpansion is the thermal
ranging from 0 to 90◦ . Our research methodology is based on high- expansion coefficient, and g represents gravitational acceleration of the
resolution numerical simulations using the ANSYS-Fluent CFD platform. PCM. β is the inclination of the collector. Tref is the reference tempera­
ture, and Sx and Sy represent the source terms in the x- and y-directions,
2. Unit description, mathematical model and numerical method respectively [26].
The definitions of the source terms Sx and Sy are given as follows:
2.1. Unit description Amush u(1 − γ)2 Amush v(1 − γ)2
Sx = Sy = (4)
(γ + ε)
3 (γ3 + ε)
Fig. 1 shows a simplified scheme of the studied solar panel. The solar
panel consists of 6 solid sheets placed on each other for the purpose of In this study, the symbol γ represents the liquid fraction and Amush is
absorbing radiation and converting it into electricity, and a back a constant value specific to the mushy zone, equal to 105 kg m− 3 s− 1.
container containing PCM. The purpose of the container with PCM is to Additionally, a small value ε is used to prevent division by zero, it is set
absorb heat energy from the solid plates and thus reduce their temper­ to 0.001 [11,33,34].
ature in order to increase the performance of the solar panel. The
average solar irradiation was maintained at 800 W/m2. The cross- • Energy equation
section of the container has a length of 1 m and a width of 0.06 m (6 ( )
∂(ρH) ∂(ρH) ∂(ρH) ∂2 T ∂2 T
cm). The bottom side and both lateral walls of the container are adia­ +u +v =k + (5)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y2
batic. The container is filled with solid PCM (or nano-PCM), which
transitions into a liquid state when it absorbs a sufficient amount of heat. The enthalpy (H) of the PCM can be expressed as the sum of the

4
A. Chibani et al. Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247

sensible enthalpy (h) and the latent heat enthalpy (ΔH) as follows
[15,26,35]:
H = h + ΔH (6)

∫T
h = href + Cp dT (7)
Tref

The enthalpy at the reference temperature Tref is represented by href.

The latent heat enthalpy ΔH can be determined by using the latent heat
L of the PCM through the following calculation [36,37]:
ΔH = γL (8)
The liquid fraction γ is defined as follows [38]:
⎧
⎨ 0 T < Ts
γ= 1 T > Tl (9)
⎩
T − Ts /Tl − Ts Ts < T < Tl

• Initial and boundary conditions

The starting temperature of the simulated area was established as

25 ◦ C, at which point the PCM is fully solid. The initial conditions are
defined as follows:
u = v = 0, Tinitial = 25◦ C (10)
The authors' previous experiment found that the thermal efficiency
was around 80 % when the average solar radiation was 1000 W/m2.
Based on this, the 2D model used a constant heat flux boundary of 800
W/m2. The boundary conditions for the model are summarized as
follows:
The heat flow through the upper layer of the 2D model:
/
q = 800 W m2 (11)

The Other surrounding surfaces of the 2D model:

⃒ ⃒ ⃒
∂T ⃒⃒ ∂T ⃒ ∂T ⃒
⃒ = 0, ⃒⃒ = 0, ⃒⃒ = 0 (12)
∂n x=0 ∂n x=lp ∂t y=0

The heat fluxes on both sides of the interface at the points where the
metal fins, copper plate, and PCM are coupled are identical.
Fig. 2. Time step and grid size independency tests for of the average bed (CuO
u=v=0∈ (5 %)-PCM system) temperature vs. time.
∂TCu ∂TPCM (13)
− kCu = − kPCM
∂n ∂n and the subscripts np, npcm, and pcm refer to the nanoparticle, nano-
PCM, and pure PCM, respectively. The effective thermal conductivity
• Nano-PCM thermo-physical properties relations of the nano-PCM, which includes the effects of particle size, particle
volume fraction and temperature dependence as well as properties of the
To simulate the melting process of the PCM in the presence of metal- base PCM and the particle subject to Brownian motion, is given by
oxide nanoparticles, the following equations were used to obtain the [39–41]:
thermos-physical properties (density, specific heat capacity, latent heat, ( ) √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
and thermal expansion coefficient, respectively) of the nano-PCM sys­ knpcm =
knp + 2kpcm − 2 kpcm − knp ∅
( ) kpcm +5.104 ρpcm ∅cppcm
KB Tpcm
f(T,∅)
tem [39]: knp + 2kpcm + kpcm − knp ∅ ρnp dnp

ρnpcm = (1 − ∅)ρpcm + ∅ρnp (14) (18)

Where KB is the Boltzmann constant, 1.381 × 10− 23 J K− 1, and dnp is the

(1 − ∅)ρpcm cppcm + ∅ρnp cpnp
cpnpcm = (15) particle diameter. The correction factor f(T, ∅) is defined as [39,42–44]:
ρnpcm
( ) Tnpcm
f(T, ∅) = 2.8217 × 10− 2 ∅ + 3.917 × 10− 3
(1 − ∅)ρpcm Lpcm (
Tref
) (19)
Lnpcm = + − 3.0669 × 10− 2 ∅ − 3.91123 × 10− 3
ρnpcm (16)
Tref (273 K) is the reference temperature. The effective dynamic
(1 − ∅)ρpcm βpcm + ∅ρnp βnp viscosity is estimated as [40,41,45]:
βnpcm = (17)
ρnpcm
μnpcm = 0.983e(12.958.∅) .μpcm (20)
where Ø represents the nanoparticles volume fraction, Cp is specific heat

5
A. Chibani et al.
Fig. 3. Validation of the model with the numerical and experimental results of F. L Tan et al. [51] and M S. Mahdi et al. [50].
2.3. Numerical procedure
2.3.1. Simulation parameters
The Ansys fluent 15.0 commercial CFD software was used to find the
numerical solution. The energy and momentum equations were solved
using a second-order up-winding scheme, and the PRESTO Scheme was
used for the pressure [26,46,47]. The PISO was employed to handle the
6
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
coupling between velocity and pressure [40,48,49]. To improve stability
during convergence, the under-relaxation factors for momentum, pres­
sure, liquid fraction, and energy were set to 0.7, 0.3, 0.9 and 1 respec­
tively [50]. The maximum number of iterations for each time step was
set to 10, which met the convergence criteria for energy and velocity of
10− 7 and 10− 5 respectively.
A. Chibani et al.
(b)
Current
Simulation
1.0
(c)
Average Liquid Fraction
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20
2.3.2. Time step and grid size independency tests
A study was conducted to determine the optimal number of cells for
the mesh. Various cell numbers (8325, 18,500 and 32,016) were tested
using a time step of 1 s, as shown in Fig. 2b. The results indicated that a
mesh with 8325 cells is the most efficient for the current model, as there
is minimal deviation when increasing the cell number to 32,016. This
choice was made to save computational time. The same investigation
was also applied to all relevant PV models, and a mesh of 8325 cells was
selected due to their similar areas. Furthermore, the optimal time step
was determined to be 1 s after additional testing with time step sizes of
0.5, 0.75 and 1 s on a mesh with 8325 cells (Fig. 1a).
2.3.3. Model validation
We diligently ensured the confidentiality of our mathematical model
by rigorously validating it against many reported experimental data.
This validation process involved comparing our simulation results with
experimental data from Tan et al. [51] and both experimental and
theoretical investigations by Mahdi et al. [50]. The side-by-side pre­
sentation of our findings alongside those of esteemed researchers is
vividly depicted in Fig. 3a–c, serving as a critical benchmark for
assessing the accuracy of our simulations.
Our model notably tracks the 2D melting progression of n-octade­
cane (PCM) over an extended melting period of up to 100 min, as vividly
illustrated in Fig. 3a. While a slight deviation is discernible in compar­
ison to the experimental and theoretical findings of Mahdi et al. [50]
after 120 min of melting, as exhibited in Fig. 3b, our model demonstrates
commendable precision overall. This minor discrepancy, particularly in
the context of Lauric acid, underscores the inherent complexities of
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
Experimental Numerical
[M S. Mahdi et al.] [M S. Mahdi et al.]
Current model
F.L Tan et al. Experiment
40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)
Fig. 3. (continued).
dynamic systems.
Expanding the scope of validation, we conducted a rigorous assess­
ment of PCM melting fraction by comparing our model to an experi­
mental curve from Tan et al. [51], as shown in Fig. 3c. Remarkably, our
model aligns closely with the melting fraction evolution over 140 min.
Both experimental and simulated liquid fraction profiles progressively
evolve, reaching 100 % melting at 140 min for both, indicating a strong
fit. The convergence of our simulation results and experimental data
(Fig. 3c) underscores the robustness of our mathematical model in
capturing the intricate dynamics of PCM melting.
3. Results and discussion
In this study, we investigate the cooling mechanisms in the PV panel
shown in Fig. 1 using Paraffin wax (RT25HC) as the primary PCM.
RT25HC was selected because its phase change transition occurs at
approximately 26 ◦ C, which aligns with the optimal working tempera­
tures for PV panels [52]. To enhance the thermal properties of RT25HC,
we introduced 5 % solid nanoparticles with the aim of improving heat
transfer within the PV panel and optimizing its electrical efficiency. The
selection of a 5 % nanoparticle concentration was based on previous
studies [33,34], which demonstrated that this concentration level may
offer optimal thermal enhancement of PCM properties without causing
undesirable phenomena such as losing PCM weight as well as particle
agglomeration and increased viscosity, which are considered constraints
on heat transfer [53,54]. Our research involves a comprehensive ex­
amination of key parameters, including the nature of the added nano­
particles, the impact of time, and the angle of inclination of the PV panel.
7
A. Chibani et al.
Fig. 4. Average PCM liquid fraction variation vs. time during the melting of RT25HC for different inclination angle (β) and nano oxides (5 %) type: CuO, MgO, TiO2
and ZnO.
The selected nanoparticle types, specifically Magnesium Oxide (MgO),
Titanium Oxide (TiO2), Zinc Oxide (ZnO) and Copper Oxide (CuO), are
outlined in Table 1. Additionally, we explored five different inclination
angles (β) for the PV panels, ranging from 0◦ to 90◦ . This investigation
provides insights into how these parameters collectively influence the
PCM melting rate, electrical efficiency, system enthalpy and average
temperature.
Before delving into the analysis of the results, it is important to
consider some physical phenomena that help us to understand and
discuss the new findings. Initially, thermal energy is transferred from the
PV panel to the PCM (RT25HC) material through solid-to-solid contact
(conduction mode). Once the temperature of the PCM reaches 26 ◦ C (i.e.
RT25HC phase change transition), the melting process begins. As the
PCM transitions into a liquid state, another thermal phenomenon
emerges, known as buoyancy-driven flow. In this mode, the hot liquid
layers move counter to the force of gravity, while the cold layers move in
the direction of gravity.
8
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
Also, in our study, the PCM does not typically reach a fully liquid
state within the simulation time frame, as shown in Fig. 4. In cases where
complete melting does occur, it takes more than 7 h to reach that state,
and our simulations were stopped at 8 h (Fig. 4). As a result, the primary
mode of heat transfer in our experiments predominantly involves con­
duction and natural convection within the PCM, as indicated by the
results and simulations conducted. Therefore, while natural convection
can occur to some extent, it does not dominate the heat transfer in our
specific case due to the incomplete melting of the PCM. It's important to
note that if the PCM achieves complete melting, it would transformed
into a fully liquid state. In such a scenario, conduction heat transfer
would still take place, but the dominant mode of heat transfer would
likely shift towards natural convection due to the temperature gradient
within the liquid PCM. This transition from a conduction-dominated
heat transfer to natural convection is a complex process and would
depend on various factors, including the shape of the container and the
presence of nanoparticles.
A. Chibani et al.
Fig. 5. PV-Electrical efficiency variation vs. time during the melting of RT25HC for different inclination angle (β) and nano oxides (5 %) type: CuO, MgO, TiO2
and ZnO.
3.1. Effect of nano-oxides addition on the PCM melting fraction
In Fig. 4a-e, we observe the progression of melting kinetics measured
as the average liquid fraction of RT25HC over a period of 8 h. We
examine this progression both in the absence and presence of 5 % of
various nanoparticles. These observations are conducted at different
inclination angles of the panel: β = 0◦ (Fig. 4a), β = 30◦ (Fig. 4b), β = 45◦
(Fig. 4c), β = 75◦ (Fig. 4d), and β = 90◦ (Fig. 4e). It's important to note
9
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
that as the inclination angle varies, the average liquid fraction of the
PCM increases over time, but the rate of this increase differs based on the
angle. The slowest melting rate is observed when the panel is horizontal
(β = 0◦ ) as depicted in Fig. 4a. This trend is in line with the obtained
results by Abdulmunem et al. [55] on the effects of different tilt angles
on the PCM melting in a rectangular container. In contrast, for inclina­
tion angles β = 30, 45, 75, and 90◦ (Fig. 4b-e), the melting fraction
exhibits a consistent; independent evolution of β and nano-oxides
A. Chibani et al. Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247

Fig. 6. Average total enthalpy variation vs. time during the melting of RT25HC for different inclination angle (β) and nano oxides (5 %) type: CuO, MgO, TiO2
and ZnO.

10
A. Chibani et al.
presence and nature. Similar observations have been reported previ­
ously by another study [32], highlighting the influence of inclination
angles on the melting process (without nanoparticles). For instance, at t
= 2 h, the melting fraction reaches 12 % for a horizontal panel (β = 0◦ ),
while it ranges from 40 % to 44 % for all other angles (β ∕ = 0◦ ). Over a
longer duration at t = 6 h, the melting fraction increases to 20 % (25 %
with nanoparticles) for the horizontal panel (β = 0◦ ) and to 90–94 % for
all other angles (β ∕
= 0◦ ). Interestingly, the addition of nanoparticles at 5
% has a limited impact on the melting rate when the panel is in a hor­
izontal position (about 5 % reduction). Conversely, there is virtually no
noticeable effect of nanoparticle addition on the melting process for
panels at angles other than horizontal. All these remarks are explained
as follows:
(i) Lower Melting Rate in Horizontal Position: The lower melting
rate observed when the panel is in a horizontal position (β = 0◦ )
can be attributed to the influence of gravity. In this orientation,
the gravitational force acts directly against the movement of the
hot liquid layers within the PCM. Consequently, it hinders the
upward flow of hot liquid and the downward flow of cold liquid,
which are essential for efficient heat transfer and phase change.
This resistance to buoyancy-driven flow results in a slower
melting rate.
(ii) Lack of effect on melting Rate for inclined panels (β ≠ 0◦ ): In the
= 0◦ ), the effect on the melting rate of
case of inclined panels (β ∕
the PCM is minimal. This is because, at these angles, gravity does
not significantly impede the upward flow of hot liquid or the
downward flow of cold liquid within the PCM. As a result, the
gravitational force has little influence on the melting kinetics,
leading to consistent and independent evolution of the melting
fraction regardless of the inclination angle.
(iii) Limited impact of nanoparticle addition on the melting process:
The addition of nanoparticles at a 5 % concentration does not
significantly improve the melting rate of the PCM, especially in
the case of inclined panels. This limited impact can be attributed
to the fact that the primary heat transfer modes during PCM
melting are conduction and natural convection, rather than
convection driven by nanoparticles. In inclined panels, where
natural convection is relatively unaffected by the presence of
nanoparticles, their addition does not lead to a significant
enhancement in heat transfer during the melting process.
In addition, the effect of nano-oxide addition can vary depending on
specific factors such as operational conditions and the geometry and
design of the panel. It may either enhance the melting process (due to
increased PCM thermal conductivity) or inhibit it (due to increased
viscosity of the PCM). The dominance of one of these mechanisms over
the other depends on various factors, including reactor size and
configuration. For example, in the case of a small rectangular PCM bed,
the enhanced effect of nano-PCMs has been observed, while in large-
scale reactors, their impact on heat exchange has been reported to be
insignificant. In our case, involving an inclined PV panel, it appears that
we strike an optimal balance between the enhancing and decelerating
effects of nanoparticle addition, resulting in a negligible overall impact
on the melting rate of the PCM.
(iv) Slight Reduction in Melting Rate with Nanoparticle Addition for
Horizontal Panel: Interestingly, when nanoparticles are added at
5 % to a horizontal panel, there is a minor reduction in the
melting rate (by about 5 % at t = 8 h, Fig. 4a). This can be
attributed to the potential increase in viscosity caused by the
presence of nanoparticles. An increase in viscosity can impede the
flow of the PCM and slightly reduce the rate at which it melts
when the panel is horizontal. However, this effect is relatively
small and not as pronounced as the impact of gravity on melting
kinetics in this orientation.
11
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
3.2. Effect of nano-oxides addition on panel electrical efficiency
The panel's electrical efficiency responses under various scenarios, as
discussed in the context of melting fractions (Fig. 4a-e), are presented in
Fig. 5a-e. For the horizontal panel (β = 0◦ ), the electrical efficiency
showed a decline from an initial value of 12.5 % to 11.43 % during the
first 30 min. Subsequently, it stabilized at this lower value throughout
the 8-h simulation period. In contrast, when nano-PCM systems were
introduced, the electrical efficiency dropped from 12.5 % to only 11.6
%, and this value remained stable, regardless of the nano-material type.
This difference in behavior observed for β = 0◦ can be attributed to the
role of nanoparticles in enhancing thermal conductivity within the PCM.
In the case of the horizontal panel (β = 0◦ ), where natural convection is
limited due to the absence of an inclination angle, the addition of
nanoparticles enhances heat transfer efficiency within the PCM mate­
rial. This helps in maintaining a slightly higher electrical efficiency
compared to the pure PCM.
For panels with an inclination angle (β ∕ = 0◦ ), notably different
behavior was observed. In these cases, the electrical efficiency dropped
from 12.5 % to 11.6 % during the initial 30 min and stabilized at 11.6 %
for the first 2 h. However, beyond this point, there was a near-linear
decline in electrical efficiency, reaching 7.5 % at the end of the 8-h
simulation. It should be noted that the observed results for β ∕ = 0◦ are
independent of the nanomaterial type. Consequently, the added nano­
particles have only a small effect on the electrical efficiency of the solar
panel when the inclination angle of the panel is 0◦ .
The variation in electrical efficiency between horizontal and inclined
panels can be attributed to the combined effects of natural convection
and nanoparticle-enhanced heat transfer. In inclined panels, natural
convection plays a more significant role due to the inclination angle,
which promotes the movement of heated fluid layers. As a result, the
beneficial effect of nanoparticles on heat transfer becomes less pro­
nounced. This, coupled with the gravitational forces affecting natural
convection, leads to a steeper decline in electrical efficiency over time
for inclined panels compared to horizontal panels.
For β = 0◦ , it appears an inverse effect of the nano-systems on the
melting rate (limited reduction, Fig. 4a) and the electrical efficiency
(relatively higher value compared to pure PCM, Fig. 5a). This seemingly
inverse effect was attributed to the distinct roles that nanoparticles play
in heat transfer processes within the system. In the case of the melting
rate, the primary heat transfer mechanisms involved are conduction and
natural convection. Nanoparticles, while capable of enhancing thermal
conductivity, have a relatively limited impact on these mechanisms. As a
result, their contribution to speeding up the phase change process
(melting rate) remains modest. However, when considering electrical
efficiency, the role of nanoparticles becomes more pronounced. By
improving thermal conductivity, nanoparticles aid in the efficient
transfer of heat generated by the PV panel to the PCM. This, in turn,
helps maintain lower temperatures within the PCM, which is critical for
optimizing electrical efficiency. Thus, while nanoparticles may not
significantly affect the rate of phase change, their positive influence on
thermal conductivity benefits the overall electrical performance of the
panel by keeping temperatures lower. This nuanced interplay between
heat transfer mechanisms underscores the intricate relationship be­
tween nanoparticle addition and the thermal behavior of the PCM in
solar panels.
3.3. Effect of nano-oxides addition on PCM enthalpy
The evolution of nano-PCM total enthalpy under various scenarios is
depicted in Fig. 6a-e. Enthalpy is closely tied to temperature and the
motion of particles, so it naturally increases with time as temperature
rises. The influence of both the inclination angle (β) and the type of
nanoparticles on total enthalpy is readily apparent. For β = 0◦ , the
enthalpy of pure PCM experiences a rapid increase to 20 KJ/kg (15–20
KJ/kg for each nano-system) within the initial 30 min. Subsequently, it
A. Chibani et al.
Fig. 7. Average PCM temperature variation vs. time during the melting of RT25HC for different inclination angle (β) and nano oxides (5 %) type: CuO, MgO, TiO2
and ZnO.
continues to rise linearly, reaching 70 KJ/kg at t = 8 h. The impact of
nanoparticle type becomes evident at this point: 60 KJ/kg for MgO, 55
KJ/kg for TiO2, 50 KJ/kg for ZnO and 45 KJ/kg for CuO. On the other
hand, the nanoparticle effect is consistent across various inclination
angles (30◦ , 45◦ , 75◦ and 90◦ ), all exhibiting a similar trend. In these
cases, total enthalpy continues to increase, reaching 400 KJ/kg for pure
paraffin and 350 KJ/kg, 330 KJ/kg, 310 KJ/kg and 300 KJ/kg for the
MgO, TiO2, ZnO and CuO-based nano-systems, respectively.
Thus, the presence of nanoparticles in the PCM leads to a reduction in
stored enthalpy, primarily attributed to the increase in viscosity within
12
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
the PCM material. This increase in viscosity acts as a hindrance to
effective heat transfer across the PCM body. Among the nanoparticles
studied, CuO had the most pronounced effect in reducing enthalpy,
likely due to its lower thermal conductivity compared to MgO and ZnO.
Interestingly, the trend in the reduction of enthalpy aligns with the
thermal conductivity of the nanoparticles, except for TiO2. For instance,
MgO, with a higher thermal conductivity of 61.92 W/m K, had a rela­
tively smaller impact on enthalpy reduction compared to CuO, which
has a lower thermal conductivity of 17.99 W/m K. This suggests that the
nanoparticles' influence on enthalpy is influenced by their thermal
A. Chibani et al.
Fig. 8. Average solar cell temperature variation vs. time during the melting of RT25HC for different inclination angle (β) and nano oxides (5 %) type: CuO, MgO,
TiO2 and ZnO.
conductivity, except for the unique behavior exhibited by TiO2.
3.4. Effect of nano-oxides on PCM and PV cell temperatures
The evolution of the average PCM temperature is illustrated in
Fig. 7a-e, providing insights into its behavior under different conditions.
Fig. 7a reveals that, for a horizontal panel (β = 0◦ ), the mean PCM
temperature remains relatively constant at around 26 ◦ C. This stability
arises from the continuous melting transition phase in this scenario,
characterized by a higher percentage of the solid phase. In contrast, for
13
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
inclined panels (β ∕= 0), a notable increase in the mean temperature is
observed over time. Specifically, the temperature reaches 30 ◦ C at t = 2 h
and 110 ◦ C at t = 8 h, regardless of the type of nano-PCM system used.
These PCM temperature trends align with the findings from earlier
analyses. The constant temperature observed for β = 0◦ corresponds to a
slower melting rate, which contributes to the efficient cooling of the
solar panel, as demonstrated by the higher electrical efficiency observed
in this scenario. Conversely, for inclined panels (β ∕
= 0), the continuous
temperature rise reflects a faster melting process and a decline in elec­
trical efficiency over time. Additionally, the variation in PCM
A. Chibani et al.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9. Melt front of PCM at t = 12,000 s for different inclination angles. (a):
pure RT25HC, (b) MgO(5 %)-RT25HC. Black color: liquid part of PCM, White
color: solid part.
temperature correlates with the patterns observed in the liquid fraction
contours, where a slower melting rate leads to a more favorable cooling
effect. The findings underscore the intricate relationship between
melting kinetics, electrical efficiency, and temperature evolution in the
context of nano-PCM-enhanced solar panels.
Fig. 8a-e display the evolution of the average PV cell temperature,
corresponding to the same conditions as those explored in Fig. 7a-e. In
the specific case of horizontal panels (β = 0), as seen in Fig. 8a, the PCM
system effectively maintains the PV cell temperature at a constant 44 ◦ C
for a long time (up to 8 h). However, when nano-PCM systems are
introduced, this temperature stabilizes at a slightly lower value of 40 ◦ C,
representing a 4 ◦ C reduction attributed to the presence of nanoparticles.
14
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
Conversely, for inclined panels (β ∕ = 0), as shown in Fig. 8b-e, the tem­
perature evolution follows a pattern akin to that observed in different
PCM temperature scenarios (Fig. 7b-e). Initially, the PV cell temperature
stabilizes at 44 ◦ C for up to t = 2 h. Subsequently, it experiences a sharp
increase, ultimately reaching temperatures as high as 120 ◦ C at t = 8 h,
regardless of the type or absence of nanomaterial. This intricate tem­
perature behavior can be comprehended by considering the interplay
between several factors, including melting kinetics, PCM temperature,
electrical efficiency, and PV cell temperature. In scenarios where the
PCM temperature remains stable and the melting process proceeds
relatively slowly, such as in the case of β = 0 and nano-PCM-enhanced
systems, the PV cell temperature remains lower, leading to higher
electrical efficiency. Conversely, for inclined panels (β ∕ = 0), the faster
melting kinetics drive a significant rise in PV cell temperature over time,
resulting in elevated temperatures irrespective of the utilization of nano-
PCM. These observed temperature trends underline the complex rela­
tionship between melting kinetics, PCM properties, electrical efficiency,
and PV cell temperature, all of which collectively impact the overall
performance and thermal behavior of the solar panel system.
3.5. Melting contours
Fig. 9a-b illustrates the contours of liquid fraction concerning the
inclination angle β at a time of 3.33h. Fig. 9a represents pure RT25HC
(without any nanoparticles), while Fig. 9b represents MgO-RT25HC. In
these plots, the black color indicates the liquid state of the PCM, whereas
the white color represents the solid state. Upon comparing the contours
of Fig. 9a and Fig. 9b, the impact of MgO nanoparticles on the liquid
fraction appears to be relatively minor, with the exception of the case
where β = 0, where a slight change in the liquid fraction rate is
noticeable. Conversely, the inclination angle β exhibits a significant
influence on the melting rate, where a larger angle β corresponds to a
higher rate of liquid fraction, particularly when contrasting β = 0 with β
= 0. This behavior can be attributed to the movement of PCM liquid
∕
particles induced by thermal buoyancy forces, thereby enhancing heat
transfer from the PV to the PCM. Importantly, the observations in
Fig. 9a-b align with the trends observed in previous figures (especially
Figs. 4-6), wherein a slower melting process corresponds to more
effective cooling of the solar panel.
In conclusion, the contour findings presented in Fig. 9a-b corroborate
the trends observed throughout the study. They reaffirm that the rate of
PCM melting plays a crucial role in the cooling process of the solar panel.
The slight influence of MgO nanoparticles on the liquid fraction, except
at β = 0, underscores the nuanced relationship between nanoparticle
addition and the thermal behavior of the PCM in solar panels.
4. Conclusion
In this study, we set out to explore the impact of incorporating
nanoparticles into phase change materials (PCM) within the context of
nano-PCM/PV (photovoltaic) technology. Through comprehensive
computational investigations using ANSYS-Fluent CFD simulations, we
have shed light on critical aspects of this novel approach.
Our findings have unveiled a nuanced interplay of factors. For
instance, the addition of nanoparticles, including MgO, TiO2, ZnO and
CuO, demonstrated varying effects on the melting rates of PCM within
different PV panel inclinations. Notably, in the case of horizontal panels
(β = 0◦ ), the PCM system effectively maintained the panel's surface
temperature at 44 ◦ C for extended durations, with a slight reduction to
40 ◦ C observed when nano-PCM systems were introduced. Conversely,
for inclined panels (β ∕ = 0◦ ), the temperature evolution followed a
distinct pattern, stabilizing at 44 ◦ C for up to 2 h, then sharply rising to
120 ◦ C at t = 8 h, regardless of the presence or absence of nanomaterials.
Furthermore, our study delved into the electrical efficiency of the
panels, revealing that nanoparticles maintained higher electrical effi­
ciency (11.6 %) for horizontal panels, while inclined panels (β ∕ = 0◦ )
A. Chibani et al.
experienced declining efficiency, stabilizing at 7.5 % at t = 8 h,
regardless of nanoparticle type.
In conclusion, our research enhances our understanding of nano-
PCM applications in solar PV panels. The best application of nano-
PCM for cooling the PV panel was observed in a horizontal panel
orientation, irrespective of the nanomaterial type used. This insight is
pivotal in advancing the efficiency and sustainability of solar panel
technology.
As we continue to push the boundaries of solar panel technology,
future research could explore additional parameters and materials to
optimize the performance of nano-PCM systems. Investigating the ef­
fects of different nanomaterial compositions, such as hybrid nano­
materials, and their impacts on melting rates and electrical efficiency
could offer valuable insights. Additionally, the integration of smart
control systems to dynamically adjust the use of nano-PCM based on
varying environmental conditions is a promising avenue. These ad­
vancements have the potential to contribute significantly to the evolu­
tion of solar energy technology and its role in sustainable energy
solutions for the future.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Atef Chibani: Conceptualization, Software, Methodology, Original
draft preparation, Validation.
Slimane Merouani: Visualization; Data analysis, Writing-Reviewing
and Editing, Supervision.
Houssem Laidoudi: Visualization; Data analysis, Writing-
Reviewing and Editing.
Aissa Dehane: Visualization, Writing-Original draft, preparation,
Validation.
Larbi Bendada: Data analysis, Writing-Reviewing and Editing,
Methodology.
Leila Lamiri: Data analysis, Writing-Reviewing and Editing.
Ghania Mecheri: Data analysis, Writing-Reviewing and Editing.
Cherif Bougriou: Data analysis, Writing-Reviewing and Editing.
Noureddine Gherraf: Data analysis, Writing-Reviewing and
Editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
References
[1] J. Emhofer, K. Marx, A. Sporr, T. Barz, B. Nitsch, M. Wiesflecker, W. Pink,
Experimental demonstration of an air-source heat pump application using an
integrated phase change material storage as a desuperheater for domestic hot water
generation, Appl. Energy 305 (2022) 117890, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2021.117890.
[2] H.M. Teamah, Comprehensive review of the application of phase change materials
in residential heating applications, Alex. Eng. J. 60 (2021) 3829–3843, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.02.053.
[3] Y. Wang, J. Bailey, Y. Zhu, Y. Zhang, S.K.S. Boetcher, Y. Li, C. Wu, Application of
carbon nanotube prepared from waste plastic to phase change materials: the
potential for battery thermal management, Waste Manag. 154 (2022) 96–104,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.10.003.
[4] S. Mandal, S. Ishak, D.E. Lee, T. Park, Shape-stabilized orange peel/myristic acid
phase change materials for efficient thermal energy storage application, Energy
Rep. 8 (2022) 9618–9628, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.07.143.
[5] C. Li, Q. Li, R. Ge, A review of heat transfer performance enhancement and
applications of inorganic salt based shape-stabilized composite phase change
materials for medium and high temperature thermal energy storage, Energy Rep. 8
(2022) 12740–12764, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.09.073.
15
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
[6] T. Yamamoto, S. Hatayama, Y. Sutou, Design strategy of phase change material
properties for low-energy memory application, Mater. Des. 216 (2022) 110560,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110560.
[7] K. Faraj, M. Khaled, J. Faraj, F. Hachem, K. Chahine, C. Castelain, Short recent
summary review on evolving phase change material encapsulation techniques for
building applications, Energy Rep. 8 (2022) 1245–1260, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.egyr.2022.07.135.
[8] Z. Liu, M. Xie, Y. Zhou, Y. He, L. Zhang, G. Zhang, D. Chen, A state-of-the-art
review on shallow geothermal ventilation systems with thermal performance
enhancement: system classifications, advanced technologies and applications,
Energy Built Environ. 4 (2021) 148–168, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enbenv.2021.10.003.
[9] A.K. Azad, S. Parvin, Bibliometric analysis of photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) system:
from citation mapping to research agenda, Energy Rep. 8 (2022) 2699–2711,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.01.182.
[10] A.M. Nair, C. Wilson, M.J. Huang, P. Griffiths, N. Hewitt, Phase change materials in
building integrated space heating and domestic hot water applications: a review,
J. Energy Storage 54 (2022) 105227, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105227.
[11] A. Chibani, S. Merouani, F. Benmoussa, Computational analysis of the melting
process of phase change material-metal foam-based latent thermal energy storage
unit: the heat exchanger configuration, J. Energy Storage 42 (2021) 103071,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103071.
[12] S. Rostami, M. Afrand, A. Shahsavar, M. Sheikholeslami, R. Kalbasi, S. Aghakhani,
M.S. Shadloo, H.F. Oztop, A review of melting and freezing processes of PCM/
nano-PCM and their application in energy storage, Energy. 211 (2020) 118698,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118698.
[13] S. Zhang, D. Feng, L. Shi, L. Wang, Y. Jin, L. Tian, Z. Li, G. Wang, L. Zhao, Y. Yan,
A review of phase change heat transfer in shape-stabilized phase change materials
(ss-PCMs) based on porous supports for thermal energy storage, Renew. Sust.
Energ. Rev. 135 (2021) 110127, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110127.
[14] F.L. Rashid, A. Rahbari, R.K. Ibrahem, P. Talebizadehsardari, A. Basem, A. Kaood,
H.I. Mohammed, M.H. Abbas, M.A. Al-Obaidi, Review of solidification and melting
performance of phase change materials in the presence of magnetic field, rotation,
tilt angle, and vibration, J. Energy Storage 67 (2023) 107501, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.est.2023.107501.
[15] M. Tao, L. Zhenpeng, Z. Jiaxin, Photovoltaic panel integrated with phase change
materials (PV-PCM): technology overview and materials selection, Renew. Sust.
Energ. Rev. 116 (2019) 109406, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109406.
[16] M.M. Farid, A.M. Khudhair, S.A.K. Razack, S. Al-Hallaj, A review on phase change
energy storage: materials and applications, Energy Convers. Manag. 45 (2004)
1597–1615, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2003.09.015.
[17] A. Prieto, U. Knaack, T. Auer, T. Klein, COOLFACADE: state-of-the-art review and
evaluation of solar cooling technologies on their potential for façade integration,
Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 101 (2019) 395–414, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2018.11.015.
[18] P. Kohlhepp, H. Harb, H. Wolisz, S. Waczowicz, D. Müller, V. Hagenmeyer, Large-
scale grid integration of residential thermal energy storages as demand-side
flexibility resource: a review of international field studies, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev.
101 (2019) 527–547, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.09.045.
[19] A. Miglioli, N. Aste, C. Del Pero, F. Leonforte, Photovoltaic-thermal solar-assisted
heat pump systems for building applications: integration and design methods,
Energy Built Environ. 4 (2022) 39–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enbenv.2021.07.002.
[20] M.K. Sharma, Alternative designs and technological advancements of phase change
material integrated photovoltaics: a state-of-the-art review, J. Energy Storage 48
(2022) 104020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104020.
[21] Z. Xu, Q. Kong, H. Qu, C. Wang, Case studies in thermal engineering cooling
characteristics of solar photovoltaic panels based on phase change materials, Case
Stud. Therm. Eng. 41 (2023) 102667, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
csite.2022.102667.
[22] M. Lotfi, A.H. Shiravi, M. Firoozzadeh, Experimental study on simultaneous use of
phase change material and reflector to enhance the performance of photovoltaic
modules, J. Energy Storage 54 (2022) 105342, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
est.2022.105342.
[23] M. Jurčević, S. Nižetić, D. Čoko, M. Arıcı, A.T. Hoang, E. Giama, A. Papadopoulos,
Techno-economic and environmental evaluation of photovoltaic-thermal collector
design with pork fat as phase change material, Energy 254 (2022), https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.energy.2022.124284.
[24] M.A. Al-Nimr, A.I. Dawahdeh, J.A. Al-Omari, Dual power generation modes for
thermally regenerative electrochemical cycle integrated with concentrated thermal
photovoltaic and phase change material storage, J. Energy Storage 58 (2023)
106373, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106373.
[25] A. Yusuf, S. Ballikaya, Performance analysis of concentrated photovoltaic systems
using thermoelectric module with phase change material, J. Energy Storage 59
(2023) 106544, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106544.
[26] C. Zhang, N. Wang, H. Xu, Y. Fang, Q. Yang, F.K. Talkhoncheh, Thermal
management optimization of the photovoltaic cell by the phase change material
combined with metal fins, Energy. 263 (2023) 125669, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2022.125669.
[27] Z. Deng, X. Liu, C. Zhang, Y. Huang, Y. Chen, Melting behaviors of PCM in porous
metal foam characterized by fractal geometry, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 113 (2017)
1031–1042, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.05.126.
[28] A. Mourad, N.A.A. Qasem, A. Abderrahmane, R. Marzouki, K. Guedri, O. Younis, N.
A. Shah, T. Botmart, Numerical study on n-octadecane PCM melting process inside
a pear-shaped finned container, Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 38 (2022) 102328, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2022.102328.
A. Chibani et al.
[29] Y.M.F.E. Hasadi, J.M. Khodadadi, Numerical simulation of solidification of colloids
inside a differentially heated cavity, J. Heat Transf. 137 (2015) 1–10, https://doi.
org/10.1115/1.4029035.
[30] H. Senobar, M. Aramesh, B. Shabani, Nanoparticles and metal foams for heat
transfer enhancement of phase change materials: a comparative experimental
study, J. Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101911, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
est.2020.101911.
[31] C.J. Ho, J.Y. Gao, Preparation and thermophysical properties of nanoparticle-in-
paraffin emulsion as phase change material, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 36
(2009) 467–470, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2009.01.015.
[32] A. Chibani, S. Merouani, H. Laidoudi, A. Dehane, M.R. Morakchi, L. Bendada,
Analysis and optimization of concentrator photovoltaic system using a phase
change material (RT 35HC) combined with variable metal fins, J. Energy Storage
72 (2023) 108283, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108283.
[33] A. Chibani, S. Merouani, Acceleration of heat transfer and melting rate of a phase
change material by nanoparticles addition at low concentrations, Int. J.
Thermophys. 42 (2021) 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10765-021-02822-z.
[34] A. Chibani, S. Merouani, F. Benmoussa, M.H. Abdellattif, A. Erto, B.H. Jeon,
Y. Benguerba, A strategy for enhancing heat transfer in phase change material-
based latent thermal energy storage unit via nano-oxides addition: a study applied
to a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9 (2021) 106744,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.106744.
[35] T. Alqahtani, S. Mellouli, A. Bamasag, F. Askri, P.E. Phelan, Thermal performance
analysis of a metal hydride reactor encircled by a phase change material sandwich
bed, Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 45 (2020) 23076–23092, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijhydene.2020.06.126.
[36] J.M. Mahdi, E.C. Nsofor, Solidification enhancement of PCM in a triplex-tube
thermal energy storage system with nanoparticles and fins, Appl. Energy 211
(2018) 975–986, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.082.
[37] J.M. Mahdi, H.I. Mohammed, P. Talebizadehsardari, M. Ghalambaz, H.Sh. Majdi,
A. Khan, W. Yaïci, D. Giddings, Simultaneous and consecutive charging and
discharging of a PCM-based domestic air heater with metal foam, Appl. Therm.
Eng. 197 (2021), 117408, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2021.117408.
[38] A.A. Al-Abidi, S. Mat, K. Sopian, M.Y. Sulaiman, A.T. Mohammad, Numerical study
of PCM solidification in a triplex tube heat exchanger with internal and external
fins, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 61 (2013) 684–695, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijheatmasstransfer.2013.02.030.
[39] J.M. Mahdi, E.C. Nsofor, Solidification of a PCM with nanoparticles in triplex-tube
thermal energy storage system, Appl. Therm. Eng. 108 (2016) 596–604, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.07.130.
[40] Z. Khan, Z. Ahmad Khan, Experimental and numerical investigations of nano-
additives enhanced paraffin in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger: a comparative
study, Appl. Therm. Eng. 143 (2018) 777–790, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2018.07.141.
[41] Z. Khan, Z.A. Khan, P. Sewell, Heat transfer evaluation of metal oxides based nano-
PCMs for latent heat storage system application, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 144
(2019) 118619, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118619.
[42] M.A. Aichouni, N.F. Alshammari, N. Ben Khedher, M. Aichouni, Experimental
Evaluation of Nano-enhanced Phase Change Materials in a Finned Storage Unit 10,
2020, pp. 5814–5818.
[43] A. Kouravand, A. Kasaeian, F. Pourfayaz, M.A. Vaziri Rad, Evaluation of a
nanofluid-based concentrating photovoltaic thermal system integrated with finned
PCM heatsink: an experimental study, Renew. Energy 201 (2022) 1010–1025,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.11.025.
16
Journal of Energy Storage 73 (2023) 109247
[44] M. Gorzin, M.J. Hosseini, M. Rahimi, R. Bahrampoury, Nano-enhancement of
phase change material in a shell and multi-PCM-tube heat exchanger, J. Energy
Storage 22 (2019) 88–97, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2018.12.023.
[45] I. Sarani, S. Payan, S.A. Nada, A. Payan, Numerical investigation of an innovative
discontinuous distribution of fins for solidification rate enhancement in PCM with
and without nanoparticles, Appl. Therm. Eng. 176 (2020) 115017, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115017.
[46] C. Ji, Z. Qin, Z. Low, S. Dubey, F.H. Choo, F. Duan, Non-uniform heat transfer
suppression to enhance PCM melting by angled fins, Appl. Therm. Eng. 129 (2018)
269–279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.10.030.
[47] F. Zhu, C. Zhang, X. Gong, Numerical analysis and comparison of the thermal
performance enhancement methods for metal foam/phase change material
composite, Appl. Therm. Eng. 109 (2016) 373–383, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2016.08.088.
[48] Z. Liu, Y. Yao, H. Wu, Numerical modeling for solid-liquid phase change
phenomena in porous media: Shell-and-tube type latent heat thermal energy
storage, Appl. Energy 112 (2013) 1222–1232, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2013.02.022.
[49] A.A. Rabienataj Darzi, M. Jourabian, M. Farhadi, Melting and solidification of PCM
enhanced by radial conductive fins and nanoparticles in cylindrical annulus,
Energy Convers. Manag. 118 (2016) 253–263, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2016.04.016.
[50] M.S. Mahdi, H.B. Mahood, A.N. Campbell, A.A. Khadom, Natural convection
improvement of PCM melting in partition latent heat energy storage: numerical
study with experimental validation, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 126 (2021)
105463, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2021.105463.
[51] F.L. Tan, S.F. Hosseinizadeh, J.M. Khodadadi, L. Fan, Experimental and
computational study of constrained melting of phase change materials (PCM)
inside a spherical capsule, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 52 (2009) 3464–3472, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.02.043.
[52] R. Parthiban, P. Ponnambalam, An enhancement of the solar panel efficiency: a
comprehensive review, Front. Energy Res. 10 (2022) 1–15, https://doi.org/
10.3389/fenrg.2022.937155.
[53] C.Y. Zhao, W. Lu, Y. Tian, Heat transfer enhancement for thermal energy storage
using metal foams embedded within phase change materials (PCMs), Sol. Energy
84 (2010) 1402–1412, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.022.
[54] A.V. Arasu, A.S. Mujumdar, Numerical study on melting of paraffin wax with
Al2O3 in a square enclosure, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 39 (2012) 8–16,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2011.09.013.
[55] A.R. Abdulmunem, P.M. Samin, H.A. Rahman, H.A. Hussien, I.I. Mazali,
H. Ghazali, Experimental and numerical investigations on the effects of different
tilt angles on the phase change material melting process in a rectangular container,
J. Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101914, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101914.
[56] S. Lv, J. Yang, J. Ren, B. Zhang, Y. Lai, Z. Chang, Research and numerical analysis
on performance optimization of photovoltaic-thermoelectric system incorporated
with phase change materials, Energy. 263 (2023) 125850, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.energy.2022.125850.
[57] M. Emam, S. Ookawara, M. Ahmed, Thermal management of electronic devices
and concentrator photovoltaic systems using phase change material heat sinks:
experimental investigations, Renew. Energy 141 (2019) 322–339, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.renene.2019.03.151.
[58] M.R. Hajizadeh, A.N. Keshteli, Q.V. Bach, Solidification of PCM within a tank with
longitudinal-Y shape fins and CuO nanoparticle, J. Mol. Liq. 317 (2020) 114188,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.114188.