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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Asma Salman · Assem Tharwat Editors

Informatics for
Digital Education
Proceedings of the 3rd American University
in the Emirates International Research Conference,
AUEIRC’20—Dubai, UAE 2020
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable
Development

Editorial Board
Anna Laura Pisello, Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Italy
Dean Hawkes, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Hocine Bougdah, University for the Creative Arts, Farnham, UK
Federica Rosso, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Hassan Abdalla, University of East London, London, UK
Sofia-Natalia Boemi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Nabil Mohareb, Faculty of Architecture—Design and Built Environment,
Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon
Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport,
Cairo, Egypt
Emmanuel Bozonnet, University of La Rochelle, La Rochelle, France
Gloria Pignatta, University of Perugia, Italy
Yasser Mahgoub, Qatar University, Qatar
Luciano De Bonis, University of Molise, Italy
Stella Kostopoulou, Regional and Tourism Development, University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Biswajeet Pradhan, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney,
Sydney, Australia
Md. Abdul Mannan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Chaham Alalouch, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
Iman O. Gawad, Helwan University, Helwan, Egypt
Anand Nayyar , Graduate School, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam

Series Editor
Mourad Amer, International Experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange
(IEREK), Cairo, Egypt
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of peer-reviewed books
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Asma Salman · Assem Tharwat
Editors

Informatics for Digital

Education
Proceedings of the 3rd American University
in the Emirates International Research
Conference, AUEIRC’20—Dubai, UAE 2020
Editors
Asma Salman Assem Tharwat
College of Business Administration American University in the Emirates (AUE)
American University in the Emirates (AUE) Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Dubai, United Arab Emirates

ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic)

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
ISBN 978-3-031-49395-9 ISBN 978-3-031-49393-5 (eBook)
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Preface

The 3rd American University in the Emirates International Research Conference

(AUEIRC’20) under the theme “Transition to Knowledge Economy: Challenges, Smart
Opportunities and Innovation” brought together academics, researchers, and practi-
tioners under one platform with the aim of sharing ideas and expertise in the most press-
ing challenges that the world has witnessed. Under the Patronage of H.H. Sheikh Hamdan
Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Deputy Ruler of Dubai and Minister of Finance, United Arab
Emirates (UAE), the 3rd AUEIRC 2020 was held between August 8 and 11, 2020. The pro-
ceedings will be published in the Transition to Knowledge Economy: Challenges, Smart
Opportunities, and Innovation book series of Springer.
As the first research conference to be conducted virtually in the Middle East, covering
vital sectors of the economy and the impact of COVID-19, this conference was a testimony
that digital transformation indeed leads to the continuity of exchange of knowledge. It war-
ranted a vision, where the academics, practitioners, and policymakers from the region and
across the globe engaged in a dialogue to discuss some of the most pressing issues in knowl-
edge economy and the pandemic that has gripped the world, while focusing on the applica-
tion side of the research rather than just the theoretical ones.
The scope of the conference included eight main themes, namely; COVID-19 Challenges,
Entrepreneurship, Computer and Advanced Technology, Education Industry, Security and
Global Studies, Law, Integrated Media, and Design Industry. The 3rd AUEIRC 2020 wit-
nessed research paper presentations from 101 presenters in 18 different sessions under these
eight tracks. The conference boasted of imminent speakers from the industry and academia
covering pertinent issues and offering plausible solutions. It had 7 keynote sessions, 6 inter-
active workshops, talks from 20 experts from the industry, and participation from over 25
Countries during the 4-day conference. Each speaker brought with them a wealth of knowl-
edge and concluded with a range of questions and discussions from the audience and the pan-
els. Worthy speakers included; H.E. Mr. Mirza Al Sayegh, Director, Office of H.H. Sheikh
Hamden Bin Rashid Al Maktoum (United Arab Emirates), Major Gen. Dr. Ahmed Nasser Al
Raisi, General Inspector of the Ministry of Interior (United Arab Emirates), Prof. Suzanne
Trager Ortega, President of the Council of Graduate Schools (United States of America), H.E.
Dr. Dena Assaf, United Nations Resident Coordinator for UAE, and H.E. Jamal Al Jarwan,
Secretary General—UAE International Investors Council (United Arab Emirates).
The International Scientific Committee comprised of over 40 international experts in vari-
ous fields as per the themes of the conference. The panels were divided based on tracks and
all papers were presented in 18 thematic sessions. In an aim to bridge the gap between theory
and practice, each session was organized to have an academic and an industry representative
as a chair and/or co-chair. This enhanced the feedback and reflected discussions from a well-
rounded perspective. Sessions were designed to start with the paper presentations and then
the floor was opened for a healthy exchange of feedback. A double-blind peer review process
enabled 50 full papers to be accepted for publication (in five edited volumes) by Springer.
This volume supplies innovative, novel, and applied informatics in unique Higher
Education cases; presents evidence-driven digital solutions for innovative pedagogies;
and discusses the ways in which ICT addresses wider sociological challenges in Higher
Education.

v
vi Preface

On behalf of the AUEIRC’20 Steering Committee, we would like to thank all the ref-
erees, track chairs, and paper authors. Special thanks to Prof. Muthanna G. Abdul Razzaq,
President, and CEO American University in the Emirates (AUE) and AUEIRC’20 General
Chair who contributed all resources at his disposal to ensure the conference meets the stand-
ard of excellence. We would also like to thank Major Gen. Dr. Ahmed Nasser Al Raisi,
General Inspector of the Ministry of Interior—United Arab Emirates and Chairman Board
of Trustees (AUE) for his valuable support. Special gratitude to members of the conference
steering committee for their hard work, dedication, and continuous support throughout the
preparation and implementation of this virtual conference. Moreover, we are grateful to the
event management, information technology department, auxiliary services, media, protocol
teams as well as faculty and staff members from different committees for their support in
organizing the conference and ensuring its success.

Dubai, United Arab Emirates Prof. Asma Salman

asma.salman@aue.ae
Prof. Assem Tharwat
assem.tharwat@aue.ae
About This Book

With an ever-increasing evolution in the usage of digital systems and devices altering the
way we live, it is apparent that our world is no longer limited to physical substances, but
rather, various digital systems driven by scientific laws known as Informatics. Informatics
is a rigorous and scholarly discipline, now a need for every industry sector that has brought
about transformational change specifically across Health Care, Business, Sports, Education,
Transport, and more. Considered as a major contributor to economic development and all
professions and disciplines, the field of Informatics has become widely recognized, leading
to novel research. This development of the digital world and increasing demand across all
industries for skilled personnel have naturally made it essential that its concepts, theories,
principles, methods as well as digital literacy are introduced in educational systems.
In this volume, current challenges and efforts in Informatics for a Digital Education
are deliberated and addressed. Emphasizing on Informatics in Higher Education, the
book starts by not only dissecting current teaching practices, introducing inclusive learn-
ing approaches directed at higher education learners with disabilities (such as dyslexia,
dysgraphia, and dyscalculia), providing an overview of social-emotional learning in higher
education as well as distance and online learning, but it also highlights advances in tech-
nologies, such as Big Data Analytics (BDA), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the Internet
of Things (IoTs), in an exploration of their unfolding role in Education. Then it focuses on
Digitalization for Innovation Pedagogy by looking at teaching and learning techniques,
including tools for delivering context-based learning, assessing the shift to online educa-
tion in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, and finally, introducing innovative pedagogies
in entrepreneurship business education in a knowledge-driven economy. Finally it com-
plements the above by shedding light on IT-Driven Changes in Educational Settings.
Consequently, the introduction of technology in earlier stages of education is investigated,
and its integration into Sports and Health, Mathematics Learning, English Education, and
Language Learning is deliberated.
The book presents selected papers submitted to the 3rd American University in the
Emirates International Research Conference (AUEIRC’20), which brought together aca-
demics, researchers, and practitioners under one platform with the aim of sharing ideas and
expertise in the most pressing challenges that the world has witnessed. Under the Patronage
of H.H Sheikh Hamdan Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Deputy Ruler of Dubai and Minister of
Finance, United Arab Emirates (UAE), the 3rd AUEIRC 2020 was held between August 8
and 11, 2020.
As one of the earliest adopters of virtual research conferencing in the Arab world, cover-
ing vital sectors of the economy and the impact of COVID-19, this conference was a testi-
mony that digital transformation indeed leads to the continuity of exchange of knowledge.
It warranted a vision, where academics, practitioners, and policymakers from the region
and across the globe engaged in a dialogue to discuss some of the most pressing issues in
Informatics Education, both in light of and in spite of the pandemic that has gripped the
world, while focusing on the application side of the research rather than just the theoretical
ones.

vii
Contents

Needs Assessment Study for Social-Emotional Learning in Higher Education . . . . . 1

Sawsan Dagher, Ali Hilal-Alnaqbi and Boshra Akozaheya
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students with
Determination in Higher Education, Reforms for Learners with Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia in Higher Education System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Hala Abdullah Al-Bukhari
Distance Learning and Online Learning: A Preferred Approach to Higher
Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Hesham Magd and Benson Ruzive
Big Data Exploration Towards Analysing and Predicting Student’s Academic
Progress in Higher Education: A Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Ibtisam Yakub Mogul and Satya Shah
Innovative Pedagogy: A Case Study of Incidental and Context-Based Learning. . . . 29
Maisa El Gamal and Vasila Alkhaldi
Assessment of Student Readiness, Willingness and Acceptance for Effective
Transitioning Toward Online Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Nessrin Shaya
Smart Food and Sports Policies in the Digital Age: Re-defining Nutrition
Economic, Education Designs, and Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Sima Hamadeh
Perception of Violence at Schools Among Children and Teenagers in Dubai. . . . . . . 63
Jihene Mrabet, Nahla Moussa, Esther Ebbi Chacko and Aya Issa

ix
 Needs Assessment Study
for Social-Emotional Learning
in Higher Education
Sawsan Dagher, Ali Hilal-Alnaqbi and Boshra Akozaheya
Abstract
It is recognized that negative emotions such as anxiety,
stress, and pressure have a negative impact on cogni-
tive performance, the working memory capacity of the
brain, and consequently on the academic attainment.
Thus incorporating social-emotional learning (SEL) pro-
grams in the higher education is essential. The first step
to implement these programs is to understand students’
social-emotional skills and evaluate the strengths to be
endorsed and directed positively and the weaknesses and
limitations to be improved and enhanced. To obtain this
type of knowledge, Panorama’s SEL surveys are used
to measure students’ social-emotional competencies for
higher education students in UAE from both genders. The
measured skills are social awareness, self-efficacy skills,
growth mindset, grit, and self-management. The stu-
dents’ self-assessments indicated that implementing SEL
competencies within the higher education programs is a
necessity in order to lead higher academic performance,
long-life learning, and fruitful work accomplishments.
S. Dagher (*)
Department of Electromechanical Engineering, Abu Dhabi
Polytechnic, Abu Dhabi, UAE
e-mail: sawsan.dagher@adpoly.ac.ae
S. Dagher
Mechanical Engineering Program, Abu Dhabi Polytechnic,
Abu Dhabi, UAE
A. Hilal-Alnaqbi
College of Marine Sciences and Biology,
University of Khorfakkan, Sharjah, UAE
e-mail: ali.hilal@ukf.ac.ae
B. Akozaheya
Department of Architectural, Texas A & M University, TX, USA
e-mail: boshra@tamu.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_1
Keywords
Social-emotional learning · Higher education · Academic
achievement
1 Introduction
Researches have proved that the subject and text taught in
schools and universities aren’t essentially sufficient and
indicative of an effective educational process, but is also
highly dependent on the social and emotional environ-
ments under which students are learning. Providing social
and emotional supportive settings brings about enhanced
academic attainment and overall mental well-being. Under
several experiments, it was noted that students adapted to
an appropriate atmosphere, showed academic achievement,
amended health and well-being, improved communication
and teamwork skills, and more positive attitudes (Durlak
et al., 2011; Zins & Elias, 2006). The negative effects of
stress, anxiety, and negativity have been studied widely by
researchers in the past few decades. The undesirable impact
of negative emotions resides in the reduction of task/aca-
demic performance and psychological well-being (Seipp,
1991). The main reason why higher rates of stress and anxi-
ety and possibly other negative emotions are connected with
the decrease of cognitive performance is due to either direct
or indirect decrease in working memory capacity (Gable
& Harmon-Jones, 2010; Moran, 2016). Working memory
capacity is the skill to grasp raw information in instant
responsiveness so that it can be manipulated and changed
into a more useful form. Working memory permits us to
retain appropriate verbal content, visual-spatial content,
or executive functioning (decision-making, goal setting, or
assessment of progress) information. Drops in our work-
ing memory capacity lead to a loss of focus on tasks, more
distractions, inability to recall essential information, or ina-
bility to resolve basic arithmetic successfully (Engle et al.,
1999). Additionally, a student’s anxiety (either situational
1
2 Needs Assessment Study for Social-Emotional Learning …
or dispositional) has the potential to diminish their work-
ing memory capacity, weakening their ability to complete
complex cognitive tasks including attention, comprehension,
learning, and reasoning, all compulsory for a fruitful educa-
tional experience. Consequently, the need to realize effective
negative emotions’ measures and interferences to enhance
the instructive atmosphere for students is prioritized by sev-
eral researchers including (Martin & Marsh, 2009).
Throughout the past two decades, scholars and experts
in social-emotional learning (SEL) have put forward the
goal to find the top practices accessible for intrapersonal
and interpersonal skills improvement, problem inhibi-
tion, health advancement, and constructive development
by Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning (CASEL) (2012; Elias et al., 1997). SEL is not
fundamentally tied to any specific educational setting or
developmental period. Nevertheless, until now, the theo-
retical and experiential literature on SEL has been fixated
largely on preschool through secondary school students,
with guidelines and practices for SEL applied only on
undergraduate pupils (Collaborative for Academic, Social,
and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 2003; Greenberg et al.,
2003; Zins et al., 2004). In the contrary, the SEL ground-
work structure has not yet been correlated with higher edu-
cation populations and backgrounds. Definitely, children
can be given the primacy when it comes to SEL education,
as it can trigger a positive progressive trajectory during an
early, developmental stage of life. Although the focus is on
school children, the need for SEL extends to higher educa-
tion students. The case can simply be motivated by the fact
that the task of higher education institutes, parallel to those
of primary and secondary schools, “is to educate students
to be knowledgeable, responsible, socially skilled, healthy,
caring, and contributing citizens” (Greenberg et al., 2003).
Similarly, to the case of the benefits of SEL on the younger
populations (Zins et al., 2004), research in higher educa-
tion populations validates that social and emotional modi-
fication accompanies positive academic outcomes (Gloria
& Ho, 2003). Moreover, social and emotional intelligence
is connected with benefits spreading outside academic
contexts, such as vast advances in work, confident interac-
tive relationships, and restored mental strength and over-
all well-being (Bar-On et al., 2006; Jordan & Ashkanasy,
2006; Lopes et al., 2005; Mayer et al., 2004). Consequently,
SEL plays a critical role in higher education institutions
(Darling-Hammond, 2019; Murphy, 2019).
The world is becoming increasingly demanding, and
children and adults should be mentally and emotionally
equipped to cope with new and widespread emotional reali-
ties. Research specifies that when instructors put an effort
to communicate how to lessen and manage stress, students
develop the ability to acquire knowledge deeply, avoid neg-
ative behaviors, and achieve fruitful outcomes with lasting
effects (Forber-Pratt et al., 2022; Soto et al., 2024; Levin
et al., 2023). SEL practices are the emphasis of abundant
research studies, and this comes to show the importance of
adopting SEL methodologies to be inclusive of higher edu-
cation populations. So just what is social-emotional learn-
ing? And more importantly, why do we need it? How to
assess the needs for SEL programs?
2 Methodology
Social-emotional learning (SEL) is the process in which
information and mindsets can be developed, as well indi-
viduals can establish skills that allow them to recognize and
manage their emotions, improve their awareness and com-
passion for others, and create and work to achieve their per-
sonal goals. In this study, we used a modified Panorama’s
SEL paper surveys as it is generalized to work effectively
with higher education, while it is consistent and in line with
the framework established by the CASEL (Collaborative
for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL),
2003, 2012). University students in United Arab Emirates in
the age group of 18–22, males and females, filled the survey
by answering questions related to their think and feel.
The Panorama surveys offered questions to measure the
five key components of SEL, adapted from the CASEL
model as shown in Fig. 1. The SEL components are (i) Self-
Awareness: the skill to correctly diagnose one’s personal
feelings, thoughts, values, and strengths and weaknesses,
substantiated with a sense of self-assurance, optimism,
and a growth mindset. (ii) Self-Management: the skill to
effectually control individual’s emotions, judgments, and
Self Management Relationship Skills
Social
Emotional
Social Learning
Self Awareness
Awareness
Responsible
Decision Making
Fig. 1  Components of social-emotional learning based on CASEL
model
S. Dagher et al.
actions in different circumstances, which enhances one’s
ability of setting and working toward personal goals. Self-
management can be attained through efficiently handling
tension, governing desires, and reassuring oneself. (iii)
Responsible Decision-Making: the skill to make construc-
tive choices about one’s behaviors and social connections
grounded on morals and values, safety concerns, and com-
munal customs. Responsible decision-making involves a
truthful assessment of consequences of various actions,
and a deliberation of the comfort of oneself and others.
(iv) Social Awareness: the skill to understand the perspec-
tive of and sympathize with others, even those from diverse
backgrounds and beliefs. Social awareness encompasses
the ability to comprehend societal and ethical standards
for conduct and to distinguish domestic, school, and civic
resources and supports. (v) Relationship Skills: the skill to
establish and preserve strong and fulfilling relationships
with various entities and groups. Relationship skills allow
the individual to communicate seemingly and positively,
listen consciously, collaborate with others, fight improper
social burden wisely, negotiate complications construc-
tively, and seek and offer assistance when required.
The self-reported data by students are collected and ana-
lyzed to come up with recommendations to implement SEL
within higher education programs by focusing on students’
strengths and assets to indorse constructive personal and
academic growth and avoid complications from developing.
3 Results and Discussions
Table 1 shows the student self-perception about their rec-
ognition of SEL skills; these data were collected as a
pre-implementation step for SEL programs, in which the
students answered several questions related to each skill
(i.e., each question has a numerical value out of five); then
the average of their answers is taken. The highest values are
shown for grit (i.e., the students ability to persist through
obstructions to accomplish significant long-term goals) and
Table 1  Panorama for social-
emotional learning report
3
self-management (i.e., how well students manage their emo-
tions, thoughts, and behaviors in different situations) skills,
while the lowest values were obtained for the social aware-
ness (i.e., the students ability to understand the perspective of
and sympathize with others) and self-efficacy (i.e., how much
students believe they can succeed in achieving academic out-
comes) skills. Whereas the average value for growth mind-
set is 3.5 out of 5 which shows the student’s perceptions
of whether they are likely to change those aspects that are
fundamental to their performance in study, such as; being
talented, like the subjects he is studying, his level of intelli-
gence, put forth a lot of effort and how easily he give up.
SEL is different from other approaches used in the men-
tal health field, in the principle of dealing with the stu-
dents’ problems. Mental health approach is a diagnostic
methodology, in which it screens for shortages in behav-
ior or emotional problems. Whereas SEL is focusing on
strength-points and working on promoting them positively
and prevent the negative points from emerging, that leads
to develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes of all students,
a strength-based method adopts proficiencies which train
scholars to attain confident relationships and effective cop-
ing mechanisms that assure strong growth and achieve-
ment. Moreover, SEL approaches protect against difficulties
evolving from pressure and anxiety and can assist students
thriving for their future pursuits. Therefore, consultants
looking to detect students requiring further support built on
emotional or behavioral problems are highly recommended
to use tools established explicitly for this purpose.
Figure 2 shows the percentage of each competency
based on the students’ self-evaluation, each student shows
different levels of ability in each of these components, and
moreover, the assessment shows little discrepancy in the
results based on gender. The females show excel in social
awareness and self-efficacy skills. And insignificant varia-
tion between the two genders in growth mindset, grit, and
self-management is shown. This was also needed to evi-
dence the fact that different students would be at different
stages of skill in SEL dimensions.
4 Needs Assessment Study for Social-Emotional Learning …
Fig. 2  Measure of social-
emotional learning competencies
percent using Panorama surveys
based on students self-perception
Such findings have prompted the development and
implementation of SEL programs, which are a type of edu-
cation-based preventive intervention explicitly designed to
foster student’s academic skills by supporting their social-
emotional and behavioral development, provide educators
with actionable strategies to build students’ SEL skills. In
order to construct an inclusive approach which ensures an
increase in skills and knowledge, a familiarity in advance
with the strengths and weaknesses of each student is
required and helps in building a program that more analyti-
cally approaches a specific aptitude or two.
Furthermore, the observed gender-based variations in
social awareness and self-efficacy skills prompt a deeper
exploration into the factors influencing these differences.
Understanding the roots of such disparities can inform
educators and policymakers in designing more targeted
interventions to bridge any existing gaps. Additionally, the
insignificance in variations related to growth mindset, grit,
and self-management raises questions about the universal-
ity of these aspects and warrants a closer examination of
the specific contexts in which these competencies mani-
fest. This nuanced analysis can guide educators in refining
SEL programs to better align with the diverse needs and
realities of students, ultimately contributing to more effec-
tive and equitable educational outcomes. The correlation
between self-perception and self-evaluation data highlights
the importance of aligning SEL initiatives with students’
perceived strengths and weaknesses. This dual perspective
allows for a more targeted and effective implementation
of interventions that can further enhance the diverse skills
and competencies showcased by students. As educators and
policymakers continue to refine SEL programs, a holistic
understanding of individual and gender-specific variations
in SEL dimensions will undoubtedly contribute to the suc-
cess of these educational initiatives, fostering an inclusive
and supportive learning environment for all.
4 Conclusions
SEL competencies are measured using a modified
Panorama international surveys for higher education stu-
dents of both genders, the students’ self-assessments indi-
cated that implementing SEL skills within the college and
education programs is a necessity, in order to lead higher
academic performance, long-life learning, and enhanced
work achievements. The field of SEL competency assess-
ment is an emerging area and is growing rapidly, which
advocated for a lot of promising researches and develop-
ments. However, there is less consistency across frame-
works and less clarity about terminology and developing
progresses than in more established disciplines. Thus, more
researches are recommended to produce more effective and
accurate needs-assessment for SEL programs for higher
education students. Correct understanding of the weak-
nesses and strengths of the students’ SEL competencies will
help in coming up with more beneficial and resilient SEL
educational programs, which further enhance and develop
these skills in the academic field.
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 Differentiated Curriculum
and Teaching Practices
for Students with Determination
in Higher Education, Reforms
for Learners with Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia
in Higher Education System
Hala Abdullah Al-Bukhari
Abstract
The current paper explores and investigates the best pos-
sible practices that can ensure and effective, comprehen-
sive and successful inclusive learning and educational
experience for students of determination within the
higher education in the United Arab Emirates, focused
in the Emirate of Dubai thru one university representing
the higher education system. The inclusion of students of
determination with specific learning disabilities chiefly
with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia in higher
education stage is the focus of this study. A qualitative
expressive case study method was adopted to represent
the experience of students of determination, consequently
the perspectives of Faculty Members, Deans, leaders in
addition to, administrators of higher education institutes
and parent is also investigated in alignment with the pur-
pose of the study. This paper is a proposed insight of an
array of possible assistive accommodations primarily
consisting of differentiated curriculum implementation,
its possibility, challenges, solutions, and perception by
all key individuals represented in the participants’ sam-
ples of the study, to provide students of determination
with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia with the best
learning and educational experience on academic, social,
and personal directions.
Keywords
Inclusion · Inclusive education · People of
determination · DI · Differentiated curriculum ·
United Arab Emirates · Dubai · Higher education ·
Learning disabilities · Dyslexia
H. A. Al-Bukhari (*)
College of Education, American University in the Emirates,
Dubai, UAE
e-mail: hala.albukhari@aue.ae
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. Salman and A. Tharwat (eds.), Informatics for Digital Education,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49393-5_2
1 Introduction
The inclusion of students of determination in higher educa-
tion institutes and especially in the United Arab Emirates is
a notably new perception; therefore, this study examines the
situation in which the inclusion of student of determination
in higher education stands. The insights of instructors, fac-
ulty members, leaders of higher education institutes in addi-
tion to both students with typical development and student
of determination and their parents are highly needed. This
paper proposes the necessity and implementation possibil-
ity of differentiated curriculum and differentiated practices
to assure an effective learning experience to all students in
higher education classrooms.
The vision of the leaders of the United Arab Emirates
has led to a vigorous journey within inclusive educa-
tion, inclusion policies and practices. It has been show-
cased within the rapid progress illustrated since the early
1980s; inclusive learning and inclusion in main stream
schools have thrived great development to promise high
advocacy for all categories of learners with learning dif-
ferences. However, the main focus habituated and still
target SEN learners in early education stages, elementary
and high school, in which creates a critical need to force
investigative in addition to, action-oriented efforts toward
higher education stages in cohesion with the government’s
vision of creating equal social and educational opportuni-
ties to all types of learners ensuring full prospects given
to students of determination. The previous in the direction
of socially, academically, and culturally build a genera-
tion of multi-capable leading persons in the community of
the UAE. In context of the gradual progress of inclusion
from institutions, special classrooms to full inclusion have
nursed a large scope of research but not within higher
education and transitional stage that prepares learners for
the real world, rather, just in early childhood and school
settings.
7
8 H. A. Al-Bukhari
As I believe, curriculum is the foundation of the educa-
tional experience in both contexts of teaching and learning,
curriculum and learning are highly intersected in means of
contextualizing goals, instructions, and assessment as they
build on their interactive framework. Therefore, it is vital
for the curriculum to differentiate in order to efficiently
state and exhibit the validity, practicality, and inclusiveness
of the design, framework, content, and process of the edu-
cational experience. Relating to the previously expressed
aspect, differentiated curriculum is the examined and sug-
gested improvement to the inclusive educational experience
in higher education.
The perspective and reediness of instructors, leaders, and
students in higher education institutes are a highly impor-
tant point to study the prospect of introducing and imple-
menting differentiated curriculum to include students of
determination, especially students challenged by Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia into an effective and proficient
experience that enables full inclusion of those students.
In connection to being a faculty member, special edu-
cation specialist, and an anthropologist, this study serves
a prodigious target on a humanistic, academic, and social
level; to add on the experience and to utilize previous pro-
fessional and academic experiences, in addition to, personal
high interest in the ever continuous development and pro-
gress within inclusion and inclusive education.
1.1 The Objectives and Main Research
Questions of This Study
The core purpose of the presented study is to explore the
best practices that embrace effective and inclusive learn-
ing system and experiences for students of determination
diagnosed with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and/or Dyscalculia
in higher education institutes, pertaining university students
and differentiated curriculum.
The above-stated objective can be expressed through
the attempt to investigate within the following research
questions:
1. What are the perceptions of instructors and students of
differentiated curriculum?
2. What are the accommodations needed to ensure effec-
tiveness of inclusive education in higher education?
3. Why is the implementation of differentiated curriculum
and instructions needed within higher education for stu-
dents of determination?
4. What are the possibilities of implementing differentiated
curriculum within the higher education context?
5. What are the challenges that can be encountered within
the process of both planning and implementation of dif-
ferentiated curriculum?
6. Finally, what are the students, instructors, and lead-
ers’ view on overcoming the challenges of planning and
implementing differentiated curriculum within higher
education context?
1.2 The Rationale and Justification of This
Study
Several factors have had the leading trigger to conduct this
study, first of all, the personal background of the researcher
on all professional, academic, and personal interests levels,
as a special education specialist, with an academic back-
ground of learning disabilities and childhood and youth
development within special educational needs, in addition
to having the passion to heighten the quality of learning
and living for the youth of determination this study incor-
porate a great intensity of interest. Secondly exploring the
literature examining inclusive education in the United Arab
Emirates, it shows a huge gap and scarce within the area
of students inclusion in the higher education system in the
UAE and following the lack of literature in differentiated
curriculum and practices for inclusive education in higher
education in the UAE; this in particular is a momentum
that the vision of the AUE leaders is targeting within the
next years. The local efforts to develop the educational and
learning experience of people of determination are strik-
ing a momentum that should be considered and utilized, in
a vision to graduate elites and leaders in the community of
the United Arab Emirates with no one left behind nature.
2 Literature Review
2.1 The Conceptual Analysis
Special Education in the UAE and Inclusion in Higher
Education in the UAE
As mentioned earlier the United Arab Emirates has dis-
played a clearly rapid development within inclusive educa-
tion in relation to its newly established educational system,
especially in a regional outlook. Going over the collected
works of inclusion in the UAE reveals that inclusive edu-
cation has started with segregated special education class-
rooms setting in governmental school originating in 1980
where they were separated from general classrooms in the
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students …
same school in context of all curricular and non-curricular
activities and led by special teachers. Students of deter-
mination, termed as students with disabilities through
the 1990s experience an initiated policy of less restrictive
learning environment as a following progress, this policy
provided resource rooms that students had their supporting
class pulled in and out from original classroom of schools
with interaction and inclusion within non-curricular activi-
ties and partial inclusion in academic activities (subject
classes) based on the nature of the student’s need and abili-
ties in addition to the school’s accommodations.
In response to the country’s progress, the UAE has for-
tified all the possible privileges presented to SEN students
by means of authorizing and commending the Federal Law
No. (29) 2006, “the law, protects the rights of people with
special needs and guarantees them the right to live with dig-
nity.” Law No. (2) of 2014 “to protect the rights of persons
with disabilities in the emirate of Dubai” was issued by HH
Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice-President
and Prime Minister of the UAE. In March 2014, the men-
tioned issued law assures and reinforces the Federal Law
No. (29) for 2006 in relation to the constitutional rights of
persons with disabilities, and strengthens the responsiveness
set by the emirate of Dubai to persons with special educa-
tional needs and disabilities emphasizing their fundamen-
tal function as a part of the society to develop and build the
future of the country. In alignment of this paper’s purpose in
is important to mention the Law No. (2) of 2014 that targets
to deliver high-quality social services, boost public aware-
ness, and contribute to integrating persons with disabilities
into society and reaffirm their participation in social devel-
opment. In aiming to secure the goals of aforementioned
federal laws and the vision of Dubai 2020 to become an
accessible and disabled-friendly city, the accessibility to
higher education institutes (universities, colleges, and acade-
mies) should be studied, planned, and facilitated as I believe.
Differentiated Curriculum and Students with Determi­nation
Differentiated curriculum in inclusion is a relatively
newly adopted trend that calls for a flexible construction
of a curriculum. Stated by Koh et al. (2014) research-
ers have stressed the pivotal role of school leaders and
teachers that allow for experimentation in curriculum and
teaching. Therefore, this paper examines the foresight of
faculty members (teachers) and leaders of a higher edu-
cation institute. Differentiated curriculum can be pointed
out as an innovation as pointed out that curriculum inno-
vation has also been viewed as process-based interven-
tion (Mourshed et al., 2010) scaffolding the notion of that
differentiated curriculum is an intervention process to up
level the learning and teaching experience of students of
determination. Simpkins et al. (2009) stated that, tutoring
9
with materials differing in level of difficulty resulted in
higher production, Mittler (2000) highlighted the need for
a further broad examination of inclusion as he called for
a reform in curriculum and organization, rather than just
providing accessibility for students with special educa-
tional needs.
The identification of differentiated curriculum in
reviewed literature showcased that it is primarily and sig-
nificantly steered toward gifted students (Kaplan & Cornell,
2005). Differentiated curriculum is defined as modifications
to the core curriculum in content, process, and products that
are designed to meet the defined goals of gifted learners.
However, this study investigates the possibility of imple-
menting the concepts of differentiated curriculum within
inclusive settings for students of determination with spe-
cific learning disabilities. It is clear that adopting flexible
and interactive content followed by flexible and differenti-
ated instructions is highly beneficial for the achievement
and learning effectiveness of students with determination,
highlighted by Steinmeyer (2011). Using differentiated
instruction, these students are taught at their ability level.
Rather than having to participate in a general classroom that
may continue to teach with the one size fits all. Carrying
on Steinmeyer (2011) expressed that differentiated cur-
riculum and practice in general classrooms may enhance
the educational, academic, and socio-cultural experiences
and performance of students with SEN in addition to, typi-
cally developed students and would allow elevated nature of
awareness and acceptance. Ramos and Fletcher (1999) have
clearly highlighted the notion that “meeting the challenge
of the educational integration of students with disabilities
begins with the development of a broad-based and flexible
curriculum that is sensitive to the special educational needs
of all students” which I highly agree with as it is the core
concept of differentiated curriculum.
Specific Learning Disabilities (LD)
Ahearn (2009) has stated “Reauthorization of the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in
2004 and the IDEA regulations issued in 2006 revised the
requirements for identifying students under the category
of specific learning disabilities (SLD).” As identified and
listed by IDEA, there are 13 types of learning disabilities
eligible for intervention and inclusive education by state
regulations adopted by the IDEA regulations that are stated
and revisited on regular basis by IDEA, those types include
Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia that this paper is
going to shed light on for this study research purpose as
learning disabilities.
Adlof and Hogan (2018) stated the common perspec-
tive of Dyslexia as commonly defined by “difficulties with
word reading, decoding, and spelling as evidenced by low
10
accuracy and/or fluency on standardized assessments”; they
also marked that, “Children with dyslexia often have lan-
guage deficits outside the phonological domain.” The main
problem with students with dyslexia is not comprehension,
it is a decoding problem (Shaywitz, 1998). Learners with
Dyslexia are experience difficulties in reading and decod-
ing words, organizing words and also linking meaning and
interpreting meaningful contexts of written texts; “dyslexia
is defined as a difficulty with word level reading and spell-
ing skills, which are in turn caused by phonological defi-
cits. However, being a good reader involves more than only
reading the words on a page” (Adlof & Hogan, 2018), as
I believe therefore, instructors (FM) need to accommodate
students with Dyslexia with strategic in addition to logistic
support, including some but not fully listing, such as, pro-
viding students with extra time, giving visually aided texts
containing mind maps, pictures and different font size and
properties used.
Chung and Patel (2015) have defined Dysgraphia as “a
learning disorder in which the individual’s writing skills are
below the level expected for his or her age and cognitive
level” writing is another skill needed for students for their
academic achievement and the efficiency of their learning
process, however, students with learning disabilities marked
by Dysgraphia lack the required ability of writing skills
showcased in their abilities to organize thoughts, writing
texts and making of meaningful full sentences and textual
production. Therefore, further accommodations using dif-
ferentiated curriculum, differentiated instructions, and the
utilization of assistive technology by instructors (FM) are
also required to meet the needs of students of determina-
tion with this type of LD. Wojcik et al. (2004) have stated
that “technology development and related societal changes,
the standard-based reform movement, and legal mandates
are propelling changes in the way we view the knowledge
and practices teachers must have about technology on exist-
ing higher education.” Utilizing technology lies within the
use of different receptive channels, as stated by Azimi and
Mousavipour (2014), “rationale of the effectiveness of mul-
timedia software lies in the fact that utmost use of infor-
mation can be made when it enters the memory through
auditory or visual channels.”
Consequently, in overviewing a concentration of specific
learning disabilities for the purpose of this paper, accord-
ing to DSM-V (2013 cited in Trott, 2014), Dyscalculia is
defined as a display of difficulties experienced by students
in means of geometric and number-related information pro-
cessing difficulties, understanding measures and amounts,
arithmetical codes, and/or simple mathematical maneuvers
in which they are not connected to students cognitive abil-
ities, social, cultural status, and age. In order to help stu-
dents of determination with Dyscalculia, Trott (2018) has
stated that “Good quality one-on-one support should place
H. A. Al-Bukhari
the student at the heart of the process and adopt a system-
atic approach. The focus should be on the mathematical or
statistical elements needed for the chosen course of study
and the sessions should look to increase confidence and
reduce mathematics anxiety.”
2.2 The Theoretical Framework
The Constructivist Theory—Constructivism
“College classrooms teaching practices grounded in the
constructivist educational theory and border pedagogy
may not only meet the challenges presented by diversity
in the classroom, but may actually contribute to diversity
as a resource for learning in college classrooms” (Fiume,
2005). Understanding inclusion, we ascertain a humanistic
aspect that allow everyone including students of determina-
tion to have access to, not just equal academic and educa-
tional opportunities, but also, social, cultural, and personal
privileges; it supports students of determination to reach
the height of self-worthiness in addition to, making the col-
legiate environment a more comprehensive and interactive
setting with exalted level of awareness, collaboration and
social in addition to educational experiences. “It allows not
to have them and us but we become all us” as elaborated by
the Dean of College of Education in a Dubai university.
Vygotsky (1978), the forefather of the contemporary
educational constructivist theory, relies on that students
construct better learning and acquaintance by interacting
with their social and cultural environments including all
collaborating individuals in their academic, and cultural
society; this highly associates with students of determina-
tion as per the researcher’s professional and academic expe-
rience in addition to reviewed past studies.
Relating to learners of determination with specific
learning disabilities, such as Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and
Dyscalculia in constructivism and socially functioned learn-
ing practices stated by Fiume (2005) “constructivist educa-
tional theory posits the ability to know and learn as inherent
human qualities” adding to that, he highlights that it is a
progressive development of knowledge formatting, crea-
tion and recreation of the student’s educational practice and
understanding (Fiume, 2005).
Differentiated Curriculum
As mentioned earlier, differentiated curriculum is a method
of creating a suite all educational experience, that consist of
the design of a flexible curricular content, instructions tools
of delivery, practices and assessment. As a subdivision of
an experimental research conducted, Marshak and Lesley
University (1994) clearly stated as a part of the results of
Differentiated Curriculum and Teaching Practices for Students …
their study, that students with specific learning disabilities
experiencing learning through differentiated curriculum
methods and instructions outstood the performance of the
group of students with specific learning disabilities that did
not experience instructions through differentiated curricu-
lum rather, in a customary method.
As per Tomlinson (2010 cited in Thornton, 2012) “the
teacher modifies the content as a response to address the
student individual learning styles and creates a classroom
where everyone can be successful despite a variance in
reading levels.”
Equally, the constructivism and differentiated curricu-
lum ideologies and concepts should be put into practice
to assure inclusive educational experience for students of
determination in higher education institutes; therefore, the
development of this paper selected them as the cornerstones
for its investigating course and theoretical understanding.
2.3 Review of Related Literature to This Study
In the direction of the inclusion of students of determina-
tion in higher education institutes, looking at students with
specific learning disabilities, various studies examining
the potentials, needs to be met, and methods were steered
across the preceding decade internationally. Rai and Tiwari
(2017) have highlighted the need of examining inclusion
in higher education systems stating that “After provision of
secondary level education the next step would be to ensure
inclusive education at higher level in which university has
an important role to play. But no significant initiatives have
been taken to include student with special needs at univer-
sity level.” Moreover, it has been indicated within different
reviews that the amount of learners of determination enroll-
ing in higher education institutes is growing (Kendall, 2016).
It is visible that, there is still a visible gap of researches
and investigations in regard to the inclusion of students of
determination especially those with specific learning dis-
abilities in higher education institutes, in addition to dif-
ferentiated curriculum and instructions provided to ensure
effective and successful inclusive higher education learning
experiences and practices in the United Arab Emirates and
the Region of the GCC in general.
3 The Methodology of This Study
The paper of this study followed the method of qualitative
study, in addition to the take on of the constructivist model
to accumulate, evaluate, and analyze data. The choice of
qualitative research method was targeted due to that it is the
most popular and most efficient method within the field of
educational research, in which it ethnologically examines
11
the actuality of the situation and profoundly interprets and
compares findings. Adding to that, thru the understanding
of the nature of inclusion and special educational needs, it
is visible that it is a highly humanistic, social, and cultural
aspect that takes account of all key angles and individuals
involved, as well as, highly interacting with the regulations
and practices of SEN in a society. The previous notion lays
the importance of adopting the constructivist model aimed
at a socio-cultural individual and realistic view to the theo-
retical setting and approach to this paper of study.
3.1 The Research Approach to the Study
To investigate in the best provided practices for students
of determination in higher education institutes in the
United Arab Emirates especially those practices provided
to students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia, a
qualitative case study method was carried on to in-depth
scrutinize the experience, needs and opportunities given to
students of determination in a higher education institutes.
Yazan (2015) has described the methodology of case study
as the foremost utilized scheme in education field qualita-
tive studies. Moreover, Yazan (2015) attempts to define the
case study methodology stating that it is “case study is an
empirical inquiry that investigates the case or cases con-
forming to the abovementioned definition by addressing
the ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions concerning the phenomenon
of interest. He finds it particularly instrumental for program
evaluation.”
An approach of focused one-to-one interviews was
adopted and carried on to fully perceive, the perspectives,
experiences, notions, and requirements of all involved indi-
viduals arrayed by students of SEN, typically developed
students, parents, faculty members, admins, and leaders.
The researcher conducted the study in her workplace,
where the researcher work as a faculty member in the col-
lege of education and an academic administrator, to best
evaluate in depth and in connection to personal experience
with the case, the participants, and the environment in addi-
tion to, the practicality of the access process and time con-
sumption required. A consent for the case class observation
was not needed as it was carried on within the classes of
the researcher as the faculty member teaching; however,
a verbal consent was provided by the administration rep-
resentative for the validity of the research. Additionally,
informed written consents were collected by the researcher
for the observation and data gathering of the case in study
for research purposes from the student participating and
her mother. As for the focused one-to-one interviews, fur-
ther informed written consents were collected from all par-
ticipating interviewed members in the focused one-to-one
interviews conducted in purpose of the study including 18
12
participants consisting of faculty members directly involved
in classrooms having students of determination especially
students with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia; stu-
dents, the mother of the student involved in the case study,
parents of students, admins, a registrar, the University’s
Director of Counseling and Disability Department, and one
of the leaders of the institute.
Considering the sensitive nature and time frame of
the study, and the examiner’s attempt to eliminate bias as
much as possible for the validity of the study, an empiri-
cal research was applied rather than a participatory action
research. It is believed by the researcher that this approach
was best to grasp a practical, informative no action required
study to investigate the proposed issue of differentiated cur-
riculum and practices, to in-depth inspect the individuals’
perceptions and possibility of implementation.
3.2 Data Collection
In view of the inclusion of students of determination with
specific learning disabilities in higher education, as a com-
paratively raw area of study in the UAE with a vision of
empowerment however, no formal regulations and practices
are yet to take place; the researcher is collecting data utiliz-
ing the methodology of a single case study of a student of
determination in a regular university classroom of general
education course. In addition to exploring the perceptions
and readiness of key individuals in the involved institute
(University) of the best practices to develop the experi-
ence and outcomes of the inclusion of students with specific
learning disabilities in universities classrooms.
The site is a learning class for university students within
a general education course including a female students
enrolled in the bachelor program of Arts in Media and Mass
Communication—Integrated Marketing Communication
with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia in her first year
of higher education. The study participants and samples are
firstly, the student with learning disabilities, in addition to
key individuals consisting of: the mother of the student of
determination participating in the case study, instructors
(FM), college deans (college of education and college of
media mass communication), registrars, one member of the
team of student affairs, and the Director of Counseling and
Disability in the university.
Following a methodical, and a unified procedures, the
researcher assured the enclosure of the participants through
written informed consents, reinforcing a comprehensive
description of the study objectives, details, intents and
instruments, and verbal consents from the administration of
the university.
Accordingly, the study conducted semi-structured inter-
views with the study participants, permitting the effortless
H. A. Al-Bukhari
and genuine communication of concepts and viewpoints,
doubts, desires, and personal experiences that are both
ongoing and past ones, in addition to in class three weeks
observations of class activities, interactions, presentations,
command of delivered information, in addition to, assess-
ment in regards to the case study; the above-illustrated
notions served as comprehensive tools of interpreting and
analyzing explanations and responses by participants.
Sample of case study: a female of 20 years old attended
an international inclusive high school adopting a regular
percentage system in the UAE. After being diagnosed by
a specialist in a medical center in the UAE with Dyslexia,
Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia, she had joined the SEND
Department in the same school. She is very determined,
enjoying high self-esteem, and aware of her challenges, she
does have challenges in relation to some social and cultural
difficulties. The student is attending her first year in higher
education institute (university) enrolled in college of Media
and Mass Communication with a CGPA of 2.57 and a GPA
of 3.17.
3.3 Data Analysis and Breakdown
The collected data by in-classroom and outside classroom
observation utilizing a continuous notes based checklist,
focused on discerning class activities, and social interac-
tions. By means of constructivism and differentiated cur-
riculum concepts, connecting to the student involved in
the case study; the data gathered via the student’s observa-
tion, commentaries revision of both her medical report and
a given assessment, as well as interviews with the student,
her mother, one classmate and instructor’s (FM) along-
side to administrative individuals showcased the following
themes: (A) the crucial requirement of implementing assis-
tive curricular and social changes; (B) student’s challenges
that have to be met in classroom appearing in perceiving
and reproducing received information and knowledge; (C)
social and cultural encounters of the student with both her
instructors, that was expressed by both the instructors and
the students herself, relating to the level of awareness of
interaction, communication, and accommodation, however,
not relating to welcoming the student; (D) flouts related to
obligatory classwork and assessments; (E) the delivery of
the content of courses and its quantity in addition to the
lack of properly administrated assessment procedures; (F)
administrative disregards that are linked to the acknowledg-
ment of the student’s case and lack of proper communica-
tion with key individuals expressing the students’ different
abilities and needs; (G) the student’s willingness to both
achieve in all higher education rudiments and awareness of
her capabilities and shortfalls; and (H) finally, the student’s
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for him, and what had become of them, and why did they not bring
them as the King of Portugal had sent them, and those things which
the captain-major of India had sent him, they had already given
them? The ambassador replied that if his highness would hear him,
he would give him an explanation of everything, and he began at
once to say that what the captain-major had sent he had already
given, and besides he had given him what he brought for his
expenditure. And with respect to what the King of Portugal had sent,
on account of the death of Duarte Galvam, the ambassador who
died at Camaran, and those who were killed at Dalaka, for one of
them was the factor, interpreter, and presenter of the articles which
were sent; and on account of the winds having been contrary, and
that they could not fetch the port of Masua, and returned to India,
and the captain-major who was then in India when he left Portugal,
the King thinking that his ambassadors, Duarte Galvam and
Matheus, were already at this court of his highness, had only sent
him to the Red Sea straits to conquer Moors, and to learn about his
ambassador whom he had sent: and, therefore, they had made
ready to go to Jiddah, not being certain of being able to make the
port of Masua, as on a former occasion they had not made it, so they
had not brought the stuffs and things which the King of Portugal had
sent him, which things were in India together and preserved; and
they only brought Matheus, in order if they should be able to make
any port of Abyssinia to land him there, and afterwards send the
goods which the King had sent with his first embassage. And
because rod was pleased that they should make the port of Masua
which is in his hands, although it was in the power of the Moors, the
captain-major determined to send to him Don Rodrigo with these
articles which he had already presented to him, and he had come in
company with Matheus, only for a visit, and to learn the road for the
time when an ambassador should come from the King of Portugal,
and that Matheus had died at the monastery of Bisan. In reply to this
answer, there came another question, that three had been killed in
Dalaka, and how had Matheus escaped? To this it was answered
that Matheus had escaped because he had not gone on shore from
the caravel. The ambassador still requested him as a great favour to
hear him, and he would know the truth, and that he would also give
him in writing that which the captain-major had ordered him to say
verbally, besides what was in the letter, and that from both sides he
would learn the truth respecting the King’s ambassador, and of the
visit sent to him by the captain-major. Messages went and came
without any conclusion, and so they dismissed us on the following
day, and he sent us much bread and wine and meat, and two men,
who said they had to take charge of us, and give us every day bread,
wine, and meat, and all that we required. This was forgotten, and
some days we were very ill provided.

Cap. lxxv.—How the ambassador was summoned another time, and

he took the letters he had brought, and how we asked leave to
say mass.
At night on Saturday, the 3rd day of November, the Prester John
sent to call us, and we went at night. On reaching the first door or
entrance and waiting a little; there came a message to say that we
should fire with the muskets, and that they should not carry balls, so
as not to do any mischief. A little after that they ordered us to enter,
and we advanced with pauses as on the former occasion; and on
arriving between the doors and curtains where we were before, the
dais in front of it was richly decked out, both the sides and front, with
brocades, and there were smarter people on both sides, all in a
semicircle with drawn swords in their hands, and placed as though
they were about to slash one another. There were two hundred
candles lighted on each side in a row, like those of the other day;
and when we arrived messages began at once to go and come
through the Cabeata and a page who is called’ by the name of
Abdenago, who is the chief and captain of all the pages. This man
brought his messages with a drawn sword in his hand. The first
message which came was, How many we were, and how many
firelocks we had brought? And upon this came another: Who had
taught the Moors to make firelocks and bombards, and whether they
fired with them at the Portuguese, and the Portuguese at them, and
who was most afraid, the Moors or the Portuguese? Each of these
questions came by itself, and each had its answer; and as to the fear
of the bombards, since the Portuguese were strengthened in the
faith of Jesus Christ, they had no fear of the Moors; and if they had
had fear they would not have come from such a distance, and
without necessity, to seek them. With respect to making firelocks and
bombards, that the Moors were men who had knowledge and skill
like any other men. They asked if the Turks had got good bombards,
the ambassador replied; that they were as good as ours, but that we
were not afraid of them, because we were fighting for the faith of
Jesus Christ, and they against it. He asked who had taught the Turks
to make bombards. The answer was given as for the Moors, that is
to say, that the Turks were men, and had the wit and knowledge of
men, perfect in all respects excepting in the faith. After this he sent
to say that they should play with sword and shield, and the
ambassador ordered two men of his suite to come out. They did it
reasonably well, and yet not as well as the ambassador desired that
the affairs of the Portuguese should be conducted: and as the
Prester sent to ask for others to come out, the ambassador proposed
to Jorge d’Abreu that they should both go out; and they went, out
with their own swords and targes,[153] and they did it very well, as
was to be expected from such men who had been brought up and
trained in war and arms. At the end of it all the ambassador sent to
tell the Prester John that he had done that to do him service, and
that otherwise he would not have done it, even though they gave him
fifty thousand crowns,[154] for any other prince, unless he were
commanded to do it by the King of Portugal his sovereign, under
whose obligation he was. And he begged His Highness to hear him,
and learn what the captain-major of the King of Portugal had ordered
him to say, and to dismiss him, that he might be able to join the fleet
at the time of its arrival, so as not to cause expense without profit. An
answer came that we had now just arrived, and had not seen even a
third part of his dominions, that we should rest, and that the captain-
major would come to Masua, and he would send him a message,
and that then we should go away; and that they should make a
fortress in Masua and in Suaquem, and in Zeila, and he would send
all the provisions necessary for them, because the Turks were many
and we were few, and besides this, by having a fortress in the Red
Sea, it would be easy to make a journey to go to Jerusalem. The
ambassador answered that these were the desires of the King of
Portugal, and that he still begged of him to give him a hearing, and if
he determined not to hear him, that he would send him the captain-
major’s letter, and likewise he would send him in writing that which
the captain-major had bade him say. He ordered that all should be
turned into his own writing and language, and that they should send
it all to him: and the ambassador did so, and sent to ask him to look
at it all and give him his dismissal. After this, Prester John sent to
ask that they should sing to a musical-instrument,[155] and dance,
and they did so. When the dance was over we spoke to him and said
that as we were Christians, that they should give us leave to say
mass according to our custom, according to the Church of Rome. He
immediately sent us a message that he well knew that we were
Christians, and that since the Moors who were bad and vile said their
prayers after their fashion, why should not we follow ours, and that
he would order what was necessary to be given to us, and so he
directed us to return to our lodging. When we arrived there they
followed us with three hundred large loaves and twenty-four jars of
wine; the person who had it brought said that they had given him
thirty jars, and that on the road those who carried them had
diminished them by six.

Cap. lxxvi.—Of the questions which were put to the ambassador by

order of Prester John, and of the dress which he gave to a page,
and also whether we brought with us the means of making
wafers.
On the following Sunday there came to our tent many messages
from Prester John to the ambassador, and all were about the arms
which the King of Portugal sent him, and whether he had sent them
to India. The ambassador told him that the arms, and all the other
things which the King had sent would arrive this year which was
coming, and that the captain-major would bring them or have them
sent, and that so he had sent word and written in his letters. On this
day he sent to ask if we had brought the means of making corbam,
that is to say, the host. We answered that we had: and he desired
that they should be shown to him. I at once took to him the
instruments, which were very good, and in which was an image of
the crucifix very apparent and well made. I did not remain long, for
he at once ordered them to be returned. On this day he sent for us to
go and show him how the white armour was fitted which the captain-
major had sent him; they went to fit them where he could see it. He
also sent to ask for the swords and cuirasses which the ambassador
had in his company; all was sent to him, and he then sent to ask
whether the King of Portugal would send him some of those arms;
he was told that he would send him as many as were necessary.
This day in the afternoon he sent as much bread and wine as on the
former occasion, and when it was quite night a page came to our
tent with a message, and the ambassador dressed him up entirely as
a Portuguese, with a shirt with a collar embroidered with gold, a
jacket,[156] ... a cap with gold points, silk drawers,[157] light shoes,
[158] gaiters, and shoes, and so he went away very joyfully and those
who came with him. On the following day in the morning the said
page returned with the jacket and nothing else, saying that the
Prester had scolded him for taking the said clothes, and besides that
he begged for a jacket of Portuguese cloth, upon which to put the
armour: the ambassador gave this also, and as to the jacket which
the page brought and left, the ambassador told him that the
Portuguese were not accustomed to give and take back. So he
carried away the jacket, and did not bring it back again.

Cap. lxxvii.—How the Prester John sent to call me, the priest
Francisco Alvarez, and to take to him wafers and vestments, and
of the questions which he asked me.
Then on Monday, at the hour of vespers, the Prester sent to
summon me, Francisco Alvarez, to bring to him wafers, as he wished
to see them. I carried eleven wafers very well made (and I did not
carry them in a box, because I already knew the reverence with
which they respect them, that is to say their own which are only a
roll, and these had a very neat crucifix). I carried them in a very good
porcelain, covered over with tafeta. He saw them, and (according to
what they told me) he rejoiced greatly at seeing them, and again
ordered that they should bring the instruments in order to compare
their opening with the figure on the wafers: and also that I should
show him all the other things with which we say mass. I brought to
him the full vestments, the chalice, corporals, altar stone, and cruets.
He saw all, piece by piece, and ordered me to take it and unsew the
altar stone, which was sewn up in a clean cloth, and I unsewed half
of it, and had it again covered up. This altar stone was very smooth
and square and well made on the upper part, the lower part was little
squared, and of the nature and fashion of the stone. They returned it
to me, saying that since there were such good workmen in Portugal
how had they made this thus rough? I answered that the upper part
was very well made and smooth and square and well wrought, and
that below it had a good foundation: they still said that it was not
well, that the things of God ought to be perfect, and not imperfect.
When it was night they told me to go to the tent and to enter it. I
entered, and they placed me in the middle of the tent, which was
spread with carpets for a space of two fathoms from where the
Prester John was. He then bade me dress myself as if to say mass;
and I dressed myself in his presence, first putting on my surplice
which I had brought with the vestments. When I was dressed he
asked me who had given us that habit, whether it was the apostles
or any other saints. I answered him that the church had taken it from
the passion of Jesus Christ. He told me to tell him what each of the
pieces signified. I at once commenced with the surplice, saying that
it was the habit of the clergy, and putting on the amice, I said that it
denoted the linen or cloth with which they covered the eyes of Jesus
Christ; and putting on the alb, I said that it signified the shirt which
our Lady had made for her Son, for which the knights of Pilate had
cast lots: and that the girdle signified the chastity and purity of the
priests; and that the maniple denoted a small cord with which they
tied the hands of Jesus Christ. Here the Prester spoke with his
mouth, and the interpreters told me that he said that we were good
Christians since we thus esteemed the Passion of Christ. Coming to
the stole, I told him that it signified the great cord which they
fastened to Christ’s neck when they led Him hither and thither; and
the mantle signified the vesture which they put upon Him in derision.
Here he again spoke, and the interpreters told me that he said that
we were true Christians since we had got the entire Passion. He
again spoke to the interpreters, and they said that he bade me take
off the vestments, and tell him over again what each piece denoted.
On divesting myself I commenced with the mantle and concluded
with the amice, and there remained only the surplice upon me. He
told me to dress another time, and to explain as before, and so I
again explained to him, beginning with the amice and ending with the
mantle. Here he affirmed with a very loud voice that we were
Christians who possessed all the Passion entirely; and he said to us
that since I said that the Church had taken this from the Passion of
Jesus Christ, which then was this Church, because two were at the
head of Christendom, the first, Constantinople in Greece, and then
Borne in Frankland. I replied to him that here there was only one
Church, and although at the beginning Constantinople had been the
head, it had ceased to be so, because the head of the church was
where St. Peter was, by reason of what Jesus Christ had said: Tu es
Petrus, super hanc petram edificabo ecclesiam meam. And when St.
Peter was at Antioch there was the church, because there was the
head, and as he came to Borne it remained and always will be the
head. And this Church, ruled by the Holy Spirit, ordained what was
necessary for saying mass; and besides I affirmed more of this
Church, telling him that in the articles of our faith, which the apostles
had composed or declared, the apostle St. Simon said: I believe in
the Holy Catholic Church. And in the great Creed which was
composed at the Council of Vierapollos,[159] three hundred and
eighteen bishops who agreed against the heresy of Arius say: “Et
unam sanctam catolicam et apostolicam ecclesiam.” They do not say
I believe in the churches, but only in the Catholic and Apostolic
Church: this is the holy Roman Church in which is St. Peter, upon
whom God founded his Church, as he says, and St. Paul a chosen
vessel, and teacher of the nations. So it is called Catholic and
Apostolic, for in it are all the apostolic powers which God gave to St.
Peter, and to all the apostles to bind and to loose. They answered
me that I gave good reason for the Church of Rome, but they said
that the Church of Constantinople was of Mark, and that of Greece
was of Joannes, Patriarch of Alexandria.[160] To this I replied that his
reasoning assisted mine, because St. Peter was the godfather and
master of St. Mark, and he had sent him to those parts: and thus,
neither Mark nor Joannes could make houses except in the name of
him who sent them, and thus their houses were members of the
head which sent them, to which all the powers were given. And after
that, not so long ago, that St. Jerome, and many other saints,
separated themselves, and ordained separation from the world with
hard lives to serve God, and that these separations they did not nor
could not carry out without authority of the apostolic Church, which is
that of Rome. How could they make churches to the prejudice of the
great head, unless they were built and made for Jesus our Lord.
They agreed fully to this, and the interpreters said that the Prester
was much pleased. Then they asked me whether the priests were
married in Portugal, I told them they were not. They also asked me
whether we held to the council of Pope Leon, which took place at
Viera;[161] I answered, Yes, that I had already spoken of it, and that
there the great creed was composed. They asked me how many
bishops were with the Pope there; I said I had already told them
there were three hundred and eighteen. Then they said that at this
Council it was ordained that the clergy should marry, and that the
Council was sworn, how then did we not marry. I replied that of this
Council I knew nothing, except that in it the Creed had been made,
and it had been ordained that Our Lady should be called Mother of
God. Then they told me that many things were there ordained and
sworn, which Pope Leon had broken, and that I should tell them
what these were. I answered that I did not know of them, but it
seemed to me that if he had broken any of them, they would be such
as touched the heresy which was extensive at that time, and that he
would approve those which were necessary and profitable to the
faith, and that otherwise he would not have been approved and
canonized as a saint, as he was. Again they returned to the marriage
of priests, saying that the apostles were married. I replied to them
that I had never read in a book, nor had heard say that the apostles,
after going in the company of Jesus, had had wives, or had been
married; and that although St. Peter had a daughter, he had her of
his wife before he was an apostle of Jesus Christ; and St. John the
Evangelist was at the marriage of Cana in Galilee, where was Our
Lady and Jesus Christ her son; and afterwards St. John the
Evangelist left this marriage and followed Christ our Lord, and was a
virgin: and also that I had read and heard tell that after the death of
Christ the apostles and disciples zealously preached the faith of
Jesus Christ until their deaths, and did not weary in it, and preached
chastity; and thus the Roman Church in truth established and
ordained that no priest should have a wife, so as to be more pure in
their consciences, and not take up their time with wives and children,
flocks, tillage, and property. They replied to this that their books
ordered that they should marry, and that so St. Paul had spoken.
They put a great many other questions to me whilst I was still in my
vestments, and last of all they asked me if we had the song of the
angels when Christ was born. I answered, Yes; and they asked if we
said it in the mass. I said, Yes we did. They then asked me to say the
beginning of it. I then began, “Gloria in excelsis Deo”. They told me
to say it chaunting it; I then sung two verses of it. Then they asked if
we had the Credo: I replied that I had already quoted it. Then they
asked me to say something in chaunt, and I sung two other verses.
Then they asked me to say some recited, and I said the Gloria and
the Credo. There was there an interpreter, and also the friar who
guided us on the road. This friar had been in Italy, and knew some
little Latin. The Prester asked him if he understood, and he replied
that he did, and that I had said the Gloria and Credo like them, and
that the only difference was in the language. The interpreter who
was there also told me that at each question and answer which I
gave, chiefly with regard to the portions of the vestments, the Prester
said that we had got all the matters of the Passion, and that we were
Christians, as though as yet he had doubted it. Here the Prester
asked me why we did not say mass according to our use; I told him
that we did not say it because we had not got a tent for a church.
The Prester said that next morning he would send for a tent, and
would order it to be given to us, and that we might say mass every
day. Then he bade me divest myself of my vestments, which I had
worn up to this time, and to tell him again what each piece signified. I
told it him like the first time, and he gave us our dismissal; and it was
past midnight when we went away; and all the evening was
employed in what has been related, without an idle moment.

Cap. lxxviii.—Of the robbery which took place at the ambassador’s,

and of the complaint made respecting it to Prester John, and how
we were robbed, and how Prester John sent a tent for a church.
This night which I thus passed with the Prester, towards morning
of the following day a great robbery of the ambassador took place in
the tent where we lodged: from it they carried off two cloaks and two
rich jerkins, seven shirts, and a cap, all good pieces, and other less
valuable pieces; and they took them all from a leather bag as large
as a trunk, in which he kept his clothes. They carried off from Manuel
de Moraes another leather bag with all that he had; and from one of
the Franks whom we found here they took seven pieces of cloth,
which he had brought the day before to be kept. They estimated the
robbery done that night at two hundred cruzados. On the morning
that this happened, the ambassador requested me and the factor
and the clerk to go to the tent of the Prester to make a complaint,
and ask justice of him for the great robbery committed against him.
That night, whilst we were close to the tent with the pages, taking
this message of the complaint we came to make, and to ask justice,
since the ambassador had made prisoner one of the thieves who
committed the robbery, a woman came crying out and demanding
justice, saying that the night before the ambassador of Portugal and
his company, by means of an Arab, who knew the language of the
country, had by force robbed her of her daughter, and taken her to
the tent where they lodged, and had done what they pleased with
her, and because her son had complained of their stealing his sister
and forcing her they kept him a prisoner with the Arab who had
deceived and carried off the said girl, and they accused him of
having committed a great robbery. Thus we found ourselves waylaid
and robbed and we and the woman having been heard, one answer
was given to all, that is, that justice should be done, and that we
might go in peace.
On this day, during the night that we were making this complaint,
the friar who was with me the night before in the presence of Prester
John, came with a rich tent, already half worn, saying that the
Prester sent it for us to say mass, and that it should be pitched at
once, because the next day was the great feast of the archangel
Raphael, and that we should say mass on this feast, and likewise
every day, and pray to God for him. This tent was of brocade and
Mekkah velvet, lined inside with fine stuffs of Chaul; so that the tent
would have been a splendid one if it had been new, and it was still
good. They said that four years ago the Prester had taken it in the
camp of the King of Adel, who is the Moorish King, lord of Zeila and
Barbara; and so the Prester sent to say that we should bless the tent
before saying mass in it, lest there should have been any sin of
Moors in it. It was at once pitched that night, and in the morning we
said mass in it; there came to it as many Franks as had been at the
court these forty years, and also some men of the country.

Cap. lxxix.—How the Prester sent to call the ambassador, and of the
questions he put to him, and how he sent to beg for the swords
which he had, and some pantaloons, and how they were sent.
On Thursday, the 8th day of November, Prester John sent to call
us, and we went at once. The ambassador decided on ordering the
chests and loads of pepper to be sent which he had already
promised him. When we arrived at the entrance of the first
enclosure, they detained us with cold inquiries, and all about the
negroes who were prisoners on account of the robbery done to the
ambassador: and such was the discussion and inquiry that they
bade us let go the negroes without any conclusion or remedy for the
theft: and finally he ordered three hundred loaves, and thirty jars of
wine, and certain dishes of meat from his table to be given us, and
so we returned to our tent. They sent another time to call us, and
after we had gone, we were a long time engaged with questions,
among which was whether the ambassador came by order of the
King of Portugal, or of his captain-major, and whether, when the
captain-major had come to Masuwa, he had killed all the Moors, or
whether any of them had already returned there: and why we did not
travel from the sea to Damute, which was nearer; and, why, if we
were servants of the King, we did not wear crosses on our shoulder,
that is on the skin, for it is the custom of all the servants of the
Prester to have a cross on the right shoulder, both the great lords
and small people: and after that, that we should give him the pepper
which we had for our provisions for the road. The ambassador
replied that we should eat much gold and silver and stuffs, all of
which we had brought from the King of Portugal; and so he replied to
each of the questions as was fitting; and, moreover, he requested
him to give him leave and dismissal for our journey. Upon this there
came a reply, that we were not to fear, that we should soon have
leave to depart. The ambassador answered: What fear could we
have, being in the presence of his highness and in his court,
kingdoms and lordships, and all of us Christians. With this we were
sent to our lodging.
On the Friday next following Prester John sent the swords which
he had got. The ambassador sent to tell him that if they seemed
good to him he should take them, and the ambassador would take it
as a favour that he should make use of them. An answer was sent
that if he took them, the King of Portugal would say that he took from
his people the swords which they stood in need of. Again the
ambassador sent to tell him to be pleased to take them, and that
they had many in the fortresses in India belonging to the King, and in
his factories, and that the King would be glad that His Highness
should use the arms of his vassals. While this message was going,
they came on the part of Prester John to beg for some pantaloons,
and the ambassador sent him some of his own and others of Lopo
da Gama, and sent him word that the pantaloons and clothes and
swords, and other pieces which he had seen, and knew were in the
possession of the ambassador and his companions, were all at his
service, and he would do him a favour in sending for all that seemed
good to him, because if he made use of his things the captain-major
and King of Portugal would give the ambassador and his
companions recompenses for this. This day he made many inquiries
which were replied to, which are not written to avoid prolixity.

Cap. lxxx.—How Prester John sent certain horses to the ambassador

for them to skirmish, and how they did it, and of a chalice which
the Prester sent him, and of questions which were put, and of the
robbery in the tent.

On Tuesday, the 12th[162] of November, Prester John sent five

very big and beautiful horses to our tent, desiring the ambassador to
ride with four others on those horses, and come and skirmish before
his tent. It was already nightfall, and the ambassador, as it seemed,
was not much pleased, because it was not after his fashion; and our
people clung together, because at one time they said do this, and at
another do that: and having finished we went to our tent, and the
Prester sent us three jars of wine. On the next day the Prester sent
to the ambassador a chalice of silver gilt, strong and well made after
our fashion, both the foot and the vase. On the foot it had the twelve
Apostles, and round the vase an inscription in well-made Latin letters
which said: Hic est calix novi testamenti: and a message to say he
sent it for us to drink to him. This chalice had not got a patena, nor
did they understand the inscription; and the fashion of the chalice
was not like theirs, because their chalices are of very wide cups, little
less than a porringer, of considerable depth, and they take the
sacrament from it with a spoon. This day the Prester sent to ask
many questions, and to say many things, among which was, How
long was it since we had taken Zeila; that he wished to go there by
land, and that his people would meet with and see the people of the
King of Portugal, but that we should know that for two days’ journey
there was no water, and what remedy was there for this. To this we
answered that we had come from Portugal five or six months without
taking water, because there was nowhere to get it, and that
notwithstanding this it came in abundance, and so it could be carried
for these two days on camels, as there were many in the country. On
the following day, which was the 14th of the said month, the Prester
sent two pieces of little value, namely, a small reading-desk of gilt
wood for the altar of our church, and a pitcher made of wood for
washing our hands or pouring water on them. This day he sent to tell
us to send him the names of all of us in writing, and they were taken
at once. He again sent to ask what was the meaning of Rodrigo, and
what Lima meant, and so on of all the other names and surnames;
we explained it all to him in writing. When it was near dawn of the
next day another robbery was committed in the tent of the
ambassador like the former one. While he was lying in the tent, six or
seven men took from Jorge d’Abreu’s pillow a cloak which had cost
him forty cruzados, and besides two bales of cotton stuffs of our
property: and no measures were taken as to this. They say that it is
true that there is here a captain of thieves, and that this man has the
charge of pitching the tents of Prester John, and that he and his men
do not receive anything for their labour, except what they steal. This
day Prester John sent a saddle all worked with blood-stones.[163]
This, besides, being very heavy, was very badly made, and already
used: he said he gave it for riding upon: then there came a question
asking what thing of this country the King of Portugal would be most
pleased with, if he would be pleased with eunuchs, or with
something else. The ambassador sent to say that Kings and great
lords esteemed more the things which other Kings sent them, than
the value of them.

Cap. lxxxi.—How the Prester sent to show a horse to the

ambassador, and how he ordered the great men of his Court to
come and hear our mass, and how the Prester sent to call me,
and what he asked me.
In the morning of the following day, which was the 15th of the
said month, Prester John sent a caparisoned horse to show the
ambassador: the caparison was of plates, and he asked whether
there were such arms in Portugal. An answer was sent him that the
King of Portugal had sent to him by Duarte Galvan, an infinite
number of arms, amongst which were caparisons for horses all of
steel, and these were in India, and that the King would send him as
many as he pleased.
The next Saturday following Prester John ordered the lords and
grandees of his Court to come and hear our mass, and likewise on
the following Sunday, when there were many more than on the
Saturday, who were present at the mass and baptism which we
performed: and according to what appeared to us from their
demeanour, and what was told us by the Franks that we found in the
country, and also the interpreters who attended us, they were
astonished and very much praised our services, saying that they
found fault with one thing only, that was that we did not give the
Communion to all that were at mass, and also to those that we
baptised. They had their answer, which was that we did not give the
Communion except on certain festivals in the year, and to those who
had confessed their sins; and those who had been baptized,
although at that moment they were pure, were ignorant,[164] and did
not understand with what reverence and veneration they ought to
receive the body of the Lord; and those who received this Sacrament
had to be of full age, and that their ignorance did not suffice. They
replied that this was a good reason, but that their usage was that as
many priests and deacons, and also other lay people as were in the
church, all were communicants, also every child that they baptize,
whether big or small, at once receives the Communion. And since
those who said this were great lords, and church people, I answered
them that their custom did not seem to me good, because among the
many who were at church at mass there might be mortal sins in one
or in some of them, and that our Lord Jesus Christ[165] said that
whoever received His body unworthily received the condemnation of
his soul: and as to the newly baptized, our Lord Himself said that he
who believed and was baptized shall be saved, and he who does not
believe shall be condemned; so the ignorant, and those who were
not brought up or indoctrinated in the faith, would have little belief,
and those of tender age, their ignorance would suffice for them. On
that account it seemed to me bad to give the Communion to such, so
long as they were not brought up in, nor indoctrinated in the faith, nor
had the age and capacity for holding and believing so deep a
mystery. All those who were there present praised this, and said that
the Prester would rejoice to hear it.
On Monday, the 18th of the said month, the Prester sent to call
me to ask many questions, and I answered him as God assisted me,
to some of them, I do not know, and to some of them, it is thus. The
first was, How many prophets prophesied the coming of Christ? I
answered him that in my judgment all spoke of it, that is of His
coming, and some of the Incarnation, others of the Life, others of the
Passion and Death, and others of the Resurrection, so that all
redounds of Christ. He bade them ask me how many prophets there
were? I replied that I did not know. Upon this came the question:
How many books each prophet had made? I replied that it seemed
to me each prophet had made one book in chapters, because we did
not read book the first, second, or third, of Jeremiah nor of Daniel,
nor of the other prophets, but so many hundred verses of each book.
They asked me how many books St. Paul wrote? I said that he wrote
after the manner of the prophets, and it appeared to me to be one
book only, and that he made it in chapters, because he wrote to
many parts, as to the Romans, and to those of Corinth, those of
Ephesus, to the Hebrews, and to other nations, and that he would
capitulate it all in one book. They asked me how many books the
Evangelists made? I answered them likewise, and that I had never
read more than one beginning to the book of each Evangelist, and
that it did not say book the first or second, and that there could not
be more than one book in chapters, except St. John who wrote the
Apocalipsis; this would make two books. Then there came another
question asking me to say all the books of the Prophets, Apostles,
and Evangelists of the Old and New Testaments, how many books
were there in all? I had already heard that among all there would be
eighty-one books, and for what I had heard, I answered that there
were eighty-one, but that with regard to this answer and the other
answers, I did not affirm anything positively, because for six years I
had been navigating, and I had not books with me, and the memory
would break down. The answer came that I had a good memory, and
that my replies were the truth, although I had given them as
opinions.
 Cap. lxxxii.—How the Ambassador was summoned, and how he
presented the letters which he had brought to Prester John, and
of his age and state.
On Tuesday we were all summoned, that is to say, the
ambassador and those who were with him; we went and remained
before the first gate or entrance a good three hours, it was very cold
and quite night. We entered through the enclosures as before on two
occasions that we entered them. There were many more people
assembled than on any of the other times, and many with arms, and
more lighted candles before the doors; and they did not detain us
there long, but soon bade us enter with the ambassador, nine
Portuguese, beyond the curtains. Beyond these curtains we found
others of still richer texture, and they bade us pass these also.
Having passed these last we found a large and rich dais of very
splendid carpets. In front of this dais were other curtains of much
greater splendour, and whilst we were stopping before them they
opened them in two parts, for they were drawn together, and there
we saw Prester John sitting on a platform of six steps very richly
adorned. He had on his head a high crown of gold and silver, that is
to say, one piece of gold and another of silver placed vertically, and a
silver cross in his hand; there was a piece of blue tafetan before his
face which covered his mouth and beard, and from time to time they
lowered it and the whole of his face appeared, and again they raised
it. At his right hand he had a page with a flat silver cross in his hand,
with figures pierced in it with a graving tool: from where we stood it
was not possible to make out these figures on the cross, but I saw it
later, and saw the figures. The Prester was dressed in a rich robe of
brocade, and silk shirt of wide sleeves which looked like a pelisse.
From his knees downwards he had a rich cloth well spread out like a
bishop’s apron, and he was sitting as they paint God the Father on
the wall. Besides the page with the cross, there stood on each side
of him another, each with a drawn sword in his hand. In age,
complexion, and stature, he is a young man, not very dark. His
complexion might be chestnut or bay,[166] not very dark in colour, he
is an elegant man of middling stature, they said that he was twenty-
three years of age, and he looks like that, his face is round, the eyes
large, the nose high in the middle, and his beard is beginning to
grow. In his presence and state he fully looks like the great lord that
he is. We were about the space of two lances distant from him.
Messages came and went all through the Cabeata. On each side of
the platform were four pages richly dressed, each with lighted
candles in their hands. When the questions and answers were
ended, the ambassador gave to the Cabeata the letters and
instructions of the captain-major put into their language and
characters; and he gave them to the Prester, who read them very
speedily, and said as he read them: If these letters are from the
captain-major, how do they speak for the King of Portugal? The
ambassador gave him for answer: How could the captain-major write
without speaking for the King his sovereign, whose captain-major he
was in the Indies. Here the questions ceased, and he again said,
that, besides giving many thanks to God for this favour which had
been granted to him in seeing those whom his predecessors had not
seen, neither he had imagined that he should see, his wishes were
that he should rejoice if the King of Portugal would order forts to be
built in Masua and Suaquem, because he was afraid that the Turks
our adversaries would make themselves strong in the said places;
for if such should be the case they would rout him, and us
Portuguese, and that for those said places he would give all the
stores and men and provisions that might be necessary: but it
appeared to him that it would be better to take Zeila, because it was
better supplied with provisions, and by taking that city everything
would be secure, because supplies went thence to Aden, and to
Jiddah and Mekkah and all Arabia, as far as Tor and Cairo. There
was a reply to this, saying that there was no obstacle[167] to taking
Zeila nor all the other towns, because where the power of the King of
Portugal reached, the towns became unpeopled, and they did not
wait even for the shadow of the ships; and also that Zeila was
outside of the strait, and Masua and Suaquem were within the strait;
and when a fortress was constructed in each of these towns, from
thence they might conquer Jiddah and Mekkah, and all the other
places as far as Cairo, and the navigation would be defended from
the Rumys and Turks who are in Zebid. This seemed good to the
Prester, and he again said that he would give the provisions and all
that was necessary for this expenditure and fleet. The ambassador
said that His Highness should name where and through whom they
should have these provisions. The Prester replied that he would give
orders to those who were to provide them, and should afterwards
remain as captain in the fortress wherever it was built. The
ambassador said that a fortress could not remain without a captain,
and that if His Highness thought it would be for his service, that he
would ask the captain-major to leave him here to be captain. And so
we took leave with good words, and we went away contented, and
chiefly with the sight of him.

Cap. lxxxiii.—How I was summoned, and of the questions which they

put to me respecting the lives of St. Jerome, St. Dominick, and St.
Francis.
On the following day, the 20th of November, I was summoned by
the Prester, and he asked me many questions, among which was
that I should tell him what were the lives led by St. Jerome, St.
Dominick, and St. Francis, and what sort of men they were, and what
country they were natives of; because, in the letter of the captain-
major, it was mentioned that the King of Portugal had established
houses of these Saints in the places which he had taken; that is to
say, in Manicongo, in Benim, and in the Indies. I replied to him, but
not consecutively, that St. Jerome had been Patriarch of Jerusalem
and a native of Greece or Slavonia; that St. Dominic was a native of
Spain, of the bishopric of Osma; and St. Francis a native of Italy; and
I gave a long account of their orders, as I knew of them, and also
referring to the book in which I had their lives; and I spoke much to
him of the great houses of these blessed Saints which there are in
Frankland; and that from them had proceeded many other saints on
account of the holy lives they led. He then told me through the
interpreter to show him the lives of these saints, since I said that I
had them. Then they put forward another question, which they had
already asked me before, namely, since we were Christians and they
also, how was it that there was difference between them and us who
doubted of the Churches of Antioch and Constantinople and that of
Rome; and that each followed its business like Rome and Antioch,
and that Antioch had anciently been the head until the Council of
Pope Leon, at which were three hundred and eighteen bishops? I
replied that I had already before told His Highness that there was no
doubt that Antioch in Greece had been the head, and that St. Peter
had been for five years bishop in it, and that later for twenty-five
years he had been bishop in Rome, and this would prove to be the
truth by the saying of Christ which said: “Upon thee, Peter, will I
found my Church”; and that St. Peter and St. Paul had suffered in
Rome, and their bodies lie there, where the true Church is. To this,
there was no further reply. Then they came to another matter,
namely, whether we did all that the Pope commanded. I told them we
did, and that so we were obliged to do by the article of our own holy
faith in which we confess that we believe in the Holy Mother the
Church, which is the Catholic Faith: and the Pope is the Church, and
he whom he binds shall be bound, and he whom he looses shall be
loosed, and not only the living, but also the dead, from the pains of
Purgatory. Upon this, they answered me: That if the Pope ordered
anything which the Apostles had not written, that they would break it;
and if their abima were to order it, that they would burn it, that is, the
order. I answered them, that we observed whatever the Pope
ordered, because he is the head of the Church, and as his title is
Holy Father, so he orders nothing except holy things taken from the
Books of the Prophets, from which the Apostles took the same, and
from the text of the gospels which the four evangelists wrote; and
also from those books of the Holy Mother Church, from which the
holy doctors take the things which are necessary, and which lie
dispersed in them, and which for simple persons are difficult to
understand, if the Holy Father, with his learned men, were not to
declare and teach them, because he and his learned men are
illuminated by the Holy Spirit. As also the Holy Father, Cardinals,
Archbishops, Bishops, Patriarchs, and other rectors of the Church
are preachers and proclaimers of their holy faith, of whom the
country of the Prester was greatly wanting, for if there were any
learned men in his country, they are so for themselves only, and not