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GROWING MORAL
 GUIDES TO THE GOOD LIFE

Stephen Grimm, series editor

Seeing Clearly: A Buddhist Guide to Life
Nicolas Bommarito

On Being and Becoming: An Existentialist Approach to Life

Jennifer Anna Gosetti-Ferencei

Choosing Freedom: A Kantian Guide to Life

Karen Stohr

Growing Moral: A Confucian Guide to Life

Stephen C. Angle
GROWING MORAL
A Confucian Guide to Life

Stephen C. Angle
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the
University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing
worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and
certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2022
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under
terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning
reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same
condition on any acquirer.
CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress
ISBN 978–0–19–006289–7
eISBN 978–0–19–006291–0
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190062897.001.0001
Dedicated in loving memory to
Charles Edwin Angle III
(1939–2015)
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Series Editor’s Foreword

Acknowledgments
A Note on Abbreviations

Part One: What Is Confucianism?

1. Introduction
2. The History of Confucianism

Part Two: How to Be a Confucian

3. Be Filial
4. Follow Rituals
5. Cultivate Your Sprouts
6. Read in the Right Way
7. Listen to the Right Music
8. Reflect Regularly
9. Pay Attention
10. Be Engaged

Part Three: Making Progress

11. Commitment
12. Fake It ’Till You Make It
13. Expanding the Self
14. Dealing with Conflict
15. Enlightenment and Sagehood
16. Death

Part Four: Challenges and the Future

17. Progressive Confucianism
18. Gender
19. Hierarchy
20. Confucianism Around the World

FURTHER READING
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
SERIES EDITOR’S FOREWORD

Several ancient philosophers held that the point of studying ethics

was not just to learn about ethics—as one might learn about
chemistry, astronomy, or history—but to become a better human
being. They also recognized that this was not easy to do. In order
for thinking about ethics to make a difference in our lives, they
argued that our habits and inclinations needed to be educated right
alongside our minds. They therefore claimed that what mattered to
living well was not just what we thought but how we thought, and
not just how we thought but how we emotionally responded to the
world and to other people.
The books in this series highlight some of the transformative
ideas that philosophers have had about these topics—about the
good life, and the practices and ways of life that help us to pursue it.
They tell us what various philosophers and traditions have taken to
be most important in life, and what they have taken to be less
important. They offer philosophical guidance about how to approach
broad questions, such as how to structure our days, how to train our
attention, and how to die with dignity. They also offer guidance
about how to deal with the sort of everyday questions that are often
neglected by scholars, but that make up the texture of our lives,
such as how to deal with relationships gone wrong, family
disruptions, unexpected success, persistent anxiety, and an
environment at risk.
Because the books are written by philosophers, they draw
attention to the reasons and arguments that underlie these various
claims—the particular visions of the world and of human nature that
are at the root of these stances. The claims made in these books can
therefore be contested, argued with, and found to be more or less
plausible. While some answers will clearly compete with one another,
other views will likely appear complementary. Thus a Confucian
might well find that a particular practice or insight of, say,
Nietzsche’s helps to shed light on his or her way of living in the
world, and vice versa. On the whole, the idea is that these great
philosophers and traditions all have something to teach us about
how to be more fully human, and more fully happy.
Above all, the series is dedicated to the idea that philosophy can
be more than just an academic discipline—that it can be, as it was
for hundreds of years in the ancient world, a way of life. The hope is
also that philosophy can enhance the ways of life we already feel
pulled toward, and help us to engage with them more authentically
and fully.
Stephen R. Grimm
Professor of Philosophy
Fordham University
September 2019
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

How and why to live one’s life as a Confucian have occupied me for
years, and I have many friends, colleagues, and family members to
thank for their guidance and support along the way. One theme of
this book is that Confucianism is relevant today in all corners of the
world, but it remains the case that I have learned a great deal from
the efforts of colleagues in China to think through and revitalize
Confucian practice; my thanks to Peng Guoxiang, Chen Ming, Tang
Wenming, Fang Zhaohui, and Gan Chunsong, in particular. Some of
my initial thinking about this book took place while I was on a
Berggruen Fellowship in Beijing in 2016–2017; I appreciate the great
support there from Song Bin and all her colleagues.
Over the last decade or so I have become increasingly invested in
the idea that philosophy is meant to be lived, not just thought
about; and that approaching philosophy as a way of life means that
we philosophers should teach differently (as well as live differently).
A conversation with Amy Olberding about her own teaching was a
breakthrough for me; Steven Horst, Tushar Irani, Lori Gruen, and
Elise Springer at Wesleyan have all helped me as well, and, in some
cases, this has led to shared experimentation with new forms of
teaching. I treasure my experience co-directing an NEH Summer
Institute in 2018 on “Reviving Philosophy as a Way of Life” with
Meghan Sullivan and Stephen Grimm; many thanks to them and to
all the wonderful participants, as well as to Elizabeth Moemeka and
Gaby Parke for making things flow so smoothly. More generally,
thanks to all who make Wesleyan such a healthy place for open-
minded scholarship and experimental pedagogy—with special
appreciation to my colleagues in the Fries Center for Global Studies
with whom it has been a pleasure to work over these last three
years.
 I have done my best to write a book that is not weighed down by
scholarly rigor, but nonetheless builds on the best scholarship on
Confucianism. I appreciate the feedback from colleagues and
students at presentations I gave at Boston University, Fordham
University, Yale-NUS College, Peking University, Duke Kunshan
University, and Skidmore College. I also want to acknowledge the
fine work of many previous translators of the classic texts I quote
here; I take responsibility for all translations but have consulted
others’ work and sometimes follow them quite closely.
I have bounced ideas and drafts off a number of friends and
colleagues, all of whom have my deepest gratitude for helping me to
think more deeply and write more clearly. Many thanks to Bin Song
and Justin Tiwald, in particular, as well as to Michael Roth and
Stephanie Weiner. Several members of the “GodTalk” group in
Middletown read a draft manuscript and offered terrific feedback;
thanks especially to Janet Brooks. My mother and stepfather both
read the entire manuscript and provided invaluable feedback. I have
also been thrilled at the support and care that Lucy Randall, Hannah
Doyle, and their colleagues at OUP, in addition to series editor
Stephen Grimm, have lavished on this project. I’ve never had an
editor contribute so much to making a book better.
As you’ll soon see, rituals are important parts of Confucian living.
Rituals are meant to be heartfelt, not just going through the
motions; indeed, one of the measures of one’s moral growth is the
degree to which this is true. One of the nicest academic rituals is
closing a book’s acknowledgments by thanking one’s family: they,
after all, are the ones without whom the book would have been
impossible. And at least in this case, I find it easy to live up to the
ritual. My father passed away before the book got going, but I hope
that his joy in life continues to animate these pages. The love and
wisdom of my mother and stepfather, stepmother, parents-in-law,
brothers, sisters-in-law, their families, aunts and uncles and cousins,
and the friends who might as well be family—all of them give my life
meaning and richness. My wife is my life partner and best friend,
and for both of us our greatest joy is our daughters. They are both
college graduates now, launching their own lives and careers, but
the COVID-19 pandemic has meant that they each have spent
months living back at home. One side benefit of this precious time
together has been learning from their perspectives on many of the
issues I address in the book. To Sam and Rachel and all my family,
my love and gratitude.
A NOTE ON ABBREVIATIONS

Passages from classical Confucian texts that are available in multiple

translations are cited by text and chapter or passage number, rather
than by specific edition. For recommendations about which editions
to consult, please see Further Reading. I use the following
abbreviations:

LY = Lunyu (or Analects); citations include book and passage

number
MC = Mengzi (or Mencius); citations include book and passage
number
XZ = Xunzi; citations include chapter and line number from
Hutton’s translation
Part One

What is Confucianism?
1 INTRODUCTION

“He drew his last breath” had never been more than an antiquated
figure of speech to me, but that changed on June 1, 2015. My
brother and I sat by our father’s side, his bony, fragile hands in ours,
as he drew his last breath. It was faint, a struggle. The broad
outlines of what happened in the next hours and days will be familiar
to many readers and easily imagined by the rest: hugs and tears,
moments for reflection, laughter mixed with more tears, a service in
a church, a graveside service. Some details are more particular, such
as the Congregationalist church or the sailor playing “Taps,” as befits
a retired member of the navy. And then there was the quiet voice in
my head—an occupational hazard of philosophers, perhaps—asking
“Why?” I wasn’t questioning what we were doing, all of which felt
right, but I could not help thinking about why these emotions and
rituals seemed both apt and important. Why is it significant that we
honor and mourn a parent who dies? Does it matter how we do so—
and again, why?
Confucianism tells us that going through mourning rituals is a
crucial part of living a good life. Kongzi (also known as Confucius,
after whom Confucianism is named; 551–479 BCE) is the most
famous of the 2500-year-long tradition’s philosophers; later we will
meet a few others. Even though Kongzi lived more than two
millennia ago and on the other side of the earth from some of this
book’s readers, Confucianism’s teachings about how to live continue
to resonate everywhere there are parents, children, and families;
everywhere people feel stirrings of compassion for others, but
sometimes selfishly ignore them; everywhere people wonder about
how to interact with their environment. In some cases, such as my
father’s funeral, Confucians can help us make sense of what we are
already doing; in others, they encourage us to live our lives
differently and better. The Confucian tradition has undergone many
changes as it has evolved over the centuries, and that process
continues down to the present. At the heart of the tradition, though,
are profound insights into the human condition that have much to
teach us today.

***
Or so I say . . . but I understand that for many, this may initially
sound like a hard sell. Few outside of East Asia are familiar with
Confucianism, and in fact there aren’t many self-identified
Confucians in the world today. South Korea probably has the most,
yet according to surveys, only a small percentage of Koreans chose
“Confucian” from among the list of religious affiliations.1 Can
Confucianism really have a role in our lives today?
The Korean government survey presented Confucianism as a
religion. This immediately leads to a problem, though, because many
people (including many contemporary Koreans) think of “religion” as
an all-or-nothing matter of identity and belief, whereas Confucianism
is not centered around belief in a deity. I happen to agree with
modern scholars of religion that “religion” should be understood in a
broader, more inclusive way, and that Confucianism is numbered
among the world’s religions. But to avoid confusion, in this book I’ll
talk of Confucianism as a kind of philosophy instead. Philosophy is
reasoned reflection on the biggest questions about our lives and our
world. From its earliest origins in various civilizations, philosophy has
been intimately connected with the question of how to live—and
thus with issues we confront every day. Historically and still today,
many philosophers have not just been thinkers but also teachers or
life coaches or advisors: people who can help us as we seek to
understand how we should live. And implicit in a philosopher’s
offering of reasons for how to live is a recognition that you may
consider other reasons, other philosophies. Philosophies are not all-
or-nothing and, partly for this reason, philosophical traditions change
over time as they adapt to new realities and adopt new ideas.
At its core, Confucianism describes a way for humans to live
together in our world: a way characterized at its best by joy, beauty,
and harmony. Confucian writings explain what it is about our
psychologies and our environment that makes the Confucian way of
life so natural and successful. Confucian teachers of course lived in
particular times, places, and cultural contexts; Kongzi himself lived
most of his life in the small state of Lu, which roughly corresponds
to the present-day province of Shandong in eastern China. But
Kongzi and his many later followers were not writing just for the
people of Lu, nor even just for the people of China (a concept that
did not exist in Kongzi’s day). They believed that following their way
of life enabled people to live the best possible lives—lives that were
cultured and fully human.
People today know that there are many different values and ways
of life embraced by others around the globe. We have
unprecedented access to information, many of us live in highly
pluralistic societies, and we are all too aware of the radical,
sometimes violent insistence of some people on their way of life
above all others. Amidst all this diversity, any claim that Confucians
offer the uniquely best insights into how we humans should live may
seem implausible. From a contemporary vantage point, though, each
of us can appreciate and learn from the Confucians’ inquiries into
how to live and adopt as much of a Confucian way of life as makes
sense to us. We can consider it alongside other traditions if we wish
or take it on as our guiding philosophy of life. Or we can also simply
seek to learn about it, in an attempt to understand more deeply a
historically important way of thinking about the good life, among
other ways of thinking that will be explored in this book series.
In short, this book is putting Confucianism forward as a
philosophy of life for your consideration. It is for everyone who has
questions—even just a vague sense of dissatisfaction—about how
their lives are going presently, especially concerning the wide range
of issues that the Confucians address explicitly. And it is worth taking
seriously because . . . well, one reason is that I say so! Other than
my mother (Hi Mom!), few readers will know me, but I have studied
Confucianism for more than three decades and taught it for almost
as long; both my students and I can speak to its helpful guidance on
many occasions, from mundane conflicts with roommates to larger
questions like how to balance commitments to family, work, and
community involvement. Another reason is that for more than two
millennia, many millions of people—mostly in East Asia—learned
from its insights about their lives and their societies.
As soon as I say this, though, alarm bells may start to sound. It is
common for modern people, even those who grew up in East Asia,
to share some negative stereotypes about the Confucian-influenced
values of pre-modern Asia. Am I proposing that people today should
model themselves on inflexible, authoritarian patriarchs? Submissive
women with bound feet? Or that we should put saving face above
telling the truth and sacrifice individuality for the collective? It
probably goes without saying that these stereotypes are uncharitable
caricatures, but I also must acknowledge that, as with many
stereotypes, they contain elements of truth. Traditional Confucians
emphasized the authority of elders—even though this authority could
be challenged—and in many contexts, they expected men to have
the dominant roles. Foot-binding was not an explicitly Confucian
practice, but Confucians did little to criticize it. Acting with propriety
was always emphasized, even if (as we will see) sincerity was also
prized. And there are some ways in which traditional Confucians did,
indeed, downplay personal uniqueness, at least when compared to
many modern cultures.
There are two critical things to keep in mind as we proceed. First,
there are differences between the ways that Confucians believe we
should act and the contemporary values of most modern societies.
This is a good thing: if there were no differences, then there would
be no possibility of learning anything! Of course, the mere existence
of a difference does not automatically mean that there is anything
much to learn; I doubt that we should send aspiring chefs to study
with cannibals. But many differences do open up possibilities for
learning, as this book’s chapters will demonstrate.
Second, like all living traditions, Confucianism has grown and
changed over the centuries as new ideas and new social realities
presented themselves. I’ll save the historical details for the next
chapter; suffice it to say for now that Confucian thinkers have been
able to recognize when changed conditions call for changed
viewpoints, even while stressing the importance of connection to the
past. This self-critical development has continued into the twentieth
and twenty-first centuries, a period of particular challenge for
Confucians. Dramatic social and political changes throughout the
Confucian heartlands in East Asia have led to the rethinking of some
key values. This book is itself part of an on-going conversation about
the meaning of Confucianism, because its goal is not to describe
how Confucians lived centuries ago, but rather to suggest how to
live as a Confucian today. For example, I am convinced that
Confucianism must jettison certain patriarchal assumptions that
would otherwise serve as obstacles to the full ethical development of
women. The reasons for this development lie within Confucianism
itself, as I will explain later on; rejecting patriarchy is a form of
Confucian self-criticism, not an imposition on the tradition from
outside. The Confucianism for which this book is a kind of
advertisement, in short, is both conservative and progressive. It
conserves the insights and values that have always formed the core
of the tradition, while simultaneously adapting some teachings to
incorporate new findings or to resolve old tensions.
***
We’ll soon get a chance to meet the five Confucian philosophers who
are the book’s main heroes; for each of them, personal moral growth
and broader social harmony are mutually supporting goals. The core
of the book comes in Part Two, “How To Be A Confucian.” Each of its
eight chapters is designed around a recommendation central to the
Confucian vision of living a good life: “Be Filial”, “Follow Rituals”,
“Read in the Right Way”, “Pay Attention”, and so on. The chapters
contain modern-day examples and advice, even though they are
grounded in the tradition’s values and reasoning. Part Three then
looks at the ways in which we can grow as moral beings. What is it
to make a commitment to living well? What is the role of forced,
conscious self-control, and why do Confucians think that spontaneity
is preferable to control? How do we overcome selfishness, and is it
realistic to aspire to be a “sage,” as the Confucians claim? Time and
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