A Primer of Ecological Aquaculture

Dietmar Kültz
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A Primer of Ecological Aquaculture
 Endorsements

“This important new volume on aquaculture presents a remarkable synthesis of all the key issues involved in the com-
mercial culturing of freshwater and marine species. It provides a comprehensive overview of the basic biological elements
of aquaculture, including new information on the use of genomic and genetic tools, and incorporates these analyses into
a broader ecological, environmental, and sociological context. The emphasis on strategies for protecting water quality—
a vital part of the aquaculture enterprise—is especially well-presented. The volume deserves wide readership among
students and scientists who not only have interests in aquaculture, but also in sustaining robust aquatic ecosystems in
freshwater and marine environments.”
George N. Somero, David and Lucile Packard Emeritus
Professor of Marine Science, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, USA
“Dietmar Kültz has distilled many years of teaching an undergraduate course in aquaculture into an engaging and acces-
sible text. The book is a huge endeavour and presents an honest and rigorous assessment of aquaculture practices with
clear, detailed descriptions of invertebrate and vertebrate aquatic culture, diseases, and water management. The ‘Key
Conclusions’ at the end of every chapter are particularly useful for students.”
Patricia A. Wright, Professor, Department of Integrative Biology,
University of Guelph, Canada
“A must-read primer for anyone considering aquaculture either as undergraduate and postgraduate students or aquacul-
ture farmers. Dietmar Kültz takes readers on a fascinating journey into the world of ecological aquaculture to stimulate
awareness of the need to reach a more sustainable future.”
Silvia Gomez-Jimenez, Director of Accredited Aquaculture Diagnosis Laboratory,
Research Centre for Food and Development, Mexico
“A Primer of Ecological Aquaculture by Dietmar Kültz is the latest addition to the growing list of entry-level books on the
topic of aquaculture. It differs from other books, however, on its emphasis on ecological aspects of aquaculture. As such,
it is like a new tool that seems impossible to have lived without before it was acquired. The book succeeds by providing
a holistic assessment of various aquaculture production systems including inputs, outputs and how they contrast and
compare among various species groups. Most importantly, the book presents both problems and opportunities associ-
ated with aquaculture in a concise and balanced manner. Aquaculture production must increase to meet future seafood
demand and this book provides solid information and guidance on how society can meet seafood demand by employing
sustainable aquaculture practices.”
Ronald Hardy, Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal,
Veterinary, and Food Sciences, University of Idaho, USA
“As the demand for wild caught seafood is continuing to increase while stock volumes are rapidly decreasing, our future
food security will rely more heavily on ecologically sustainable aquaculture practices. Kültz presents a detailed exploration
of its limitations and novel paths to diminish its ecological footprint, enriched with comprehensive analysis and clear
graphics. This accessible primer systematically dissects the rationales behind current practices, from monocultures and
polycultures to microcosms and mesocosms. It also provides clear signposts to sustainable practices aimed at minimizing
the exploitation of natural ecosystems, while maximizing production efficiency and food security.”
Gillian Renshaw, Professor, School of Allied Health Sciences,
Griffith University, Australia
A Primer of Ecological
Aquaculture

Dietmar Kültz
Professor of Physiological Genomics, College of Agricultural and Environmental
Sciences, University of California Davis, USA
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© 2022 Dietmar Kültz
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022930150
ISBN 978–0–19–885022–9 (hbk)
ISBN 978–0–19–885023–6 (pbk)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198850229.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Cover image: High-density aquaculture of Bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus)
is supported by their natural schooling behaviour. Photo by author.
Links to third-party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 About the Author
Dietmar Kültz is a Professor of Physiological
Genomics at the College of Agricultural and Envi-
ronmental Sciences, University of California Davis,
USA. His laboratory focuses on investigating the
mechanisms of stress-induced evolution in fish and
marine invertebrates. His research spans molecu-
lar to organism levels of biological complexity and
utilizes reductionist synthetic biology, biochemi-
cal, and holistic systems level approaches to dis-
sect causality between environmental effects on
cells and organisms, physiological responses, and
complex adaptive phenotypes. He teaches a molec-
ular genetics laboratory course, an introductory
aquaculture course, and a stress physiology course
at UC Davis. Professor Kültz received his BSc/MS
and doctoral degrees from the University of Ros-
tock in Germany. He was a DAAD postdoctoral
fellow at Oregon State University, a Fogarty Vis-
iting Fellow at the National Institutes of Health
(Bethesda), and Assistant Professor at the Univer-
sity of Florida before joining the faculty at UC
Davis.
 Preface
Aquaculture exemplifies the ongoing global strug-
gle to strike a sustainable balance between the
conflicting needs of a large human world popula-
tion, human health, ecosystem health, the welfare
of wild and domesticated animals, and the eco-
nomic principles of globalized economies. On the
one hand, aquaculture has great potential for pro-
viding us with a healthy and nutritious food sup-
ply while alleviating pressure on capture fisheries
and reducing fisheries-induced habitat destruction,
overfishing, genetic modification of wild popula-
tions, and wholesale waste of bycatch. On the other
hand, aquaculture relies heavily on clean water, an
increasingly precious (and dwindling) resource that
is subject to intense pressure through being used
for many competing purposes. The multifaceted
nature of aquaculture is most evident in the divi-
sion of approaches between those that emphasize
minimal reliance on ecosystem services (e.g. recir-
culating aquaculture systems, aquaponics) versus
those aimed at maximizing profitability (e.g. open
pond, cage, and raceway systems). Ecological con-
siderations have received increasing attention in
aquaculture since the turn of the millennium and
their proper implementation promises to greatly
accelerate the rate at which the field moves forward.
This book aims to introduce students to the basic
concepts, opportunities, and challenges of aquacul-
ture with an emphasis on ecological considerations.
I contrast the many values and promises of aquacul-
ture (including specific approaches and commodi-
ties) with their pitfalls, drawbacks, and challenges.
My goal is to provide students with a broad under-
standing of the general state of aquaculture to equip
them with the knowledge they need to contribute
to future advances in the field. To achieve this
goal, a critical assessment of current aquaculture
practices from a broad, interdisciplinary perspective
is necessary. The book carries out such an assess-
ment from the standpoint of how best to align the
two major (and often conflicting) goals of future
aquaculture development: minimizing reliance on
ecosystem services while maximizing productivity.
This book represents a broad snapshot assess-
ment of the current state, past developments, and
prospects of applying knowledge in aquatic animal
biology and engineering to the captive culture of
aquatic animals. My intent was to transcend tra-
ditional disciplinary boundaries whenever possi-
ble and present contrasting perspectives whenever
applicable to stimulate critical assessment of aqua-
culture practices by students. There are many differ-
ent opinions about the best way to further develop
aquaculture. The perspective presented here should
not be taken dogmatically, but rather should stimu-
late critical thinking in readers. To make the book
more accessible, e.g. to students taking a semester-
or quarter-long course on this subject, it presents
the material concisely and provides select exam-
ples to illustrate pertinent points and key concepts,
and it explains scientific and aquaculture-specific
terminology when first used. It is not my intent
to comprehensively review specific commodities or
go into undue detail regarding specific aspects of
aquaculture if such detail is unnecessary to support
salient facts and arguments.
The motivation for writing this book arose from
feedback provided by my students and colleagues.
I have been teaching a general education (GE) class
on aquaculture (ANS 18) at the University of Cali-
fornia, Davis for more than a decade but a suitable
text accompanying the class material was missing.
Most students I have taught prefer single-author
texts that require little prior knowledge of a subject
and are written in a consistent style, rather than
more specialized volumes comprised of chapters by

different authors. Although there are many excel-
lent books focusing on aquaculture, some of which
are referenced in this volume, an integrated discus-
sion of the ecological cornerstones of aquaculture in
the form of a concise ‘primer’ was needed to help
students learn pertinent concepts and principles.
This book thus attempts to serve as such a ‘primer’
in a format that is accessible to readers from a broad
range of academic backgrounds and experience. It
is meant to consolidate and expand on my lecture
notes to provide a study guide for students inter-
ested in both the natural biology and the culture of
aquatic organisms, both marine and freshwater.
Although I majored in marine ecology when at
university, my own research now focuses heavi-
ly on biochemical mechanisms of environmental
tolerance and stress-induced evolution in fish and
marine invertebrates using molecular, cellular, and
systems biology approaches. It seems natural to
investigate molecular phenomena at an increasing
level of depth to explain how organisms function
within their environment and how life works. How-
ever, at the same time it is important to integrate
reductionist approaches with holistic approaches
that explain the function of systems, e.g. ecosystems
or aquaculture systems, that are more than just the
sum of their parts. This book emphasizes the holistic
view throughout.
This book could not have been completed without
the support and encouragement from my family,
friends, and colleagues. Many thanks go to my fam-
ily, especially my wife, son, and parents for always
supporting my pursuit of scientific research and
enduring my spending long hours in the laborato-
ry and at the desk pondering scientific questions.
Their patience, encouragement, and feedback were
invaluable for completing this book project, which
took more effort and time than I had originally
anticipated.
I am also particularly grateful to Professor
George Somero (Stanford University), my post-
doc mentor and long-term friend, who has read
and commented on early drafts of all chapters.
His knowledgeable feedback and constructive com-
ments helped greatly in shaping the final draft of
the book and pushing it over the finish line on
time. I am also very grateful to other colleagues
and friends who have read and made valuable
P R E FA C E vii
suggestions for improving individual chapters of
this book, including Professors Steve McCormick
(University of Massachusetts), Ron Hardy (Univer-
sity of Idaho), Colin Brauner (University of British
Columbia), Patricia Wright (University of Guelph),
Brian Sardella (California State University Stanis-
laus), Wes Dowd (Washington State University),
Jonathon Stillman (San Francisco State Universi-
ty), Silvia Gomez-Jimenez (CIAD and University of
Sonora), Alison Gardell (University of Washington),
Peter Allen (Mississippi State University), Frederick
Silvestre (University of Namur), Jason Podrabsky
(Portland State University), Katie Gilmour (Uni-
versity of Ottawa), Tyler Evans (California State
University East Bay), Xiaodan Wang (East China
Normal University Shanghai), and Esteban Soto
and Jackson Gross (both University of California
Davis). Many thanks also go to my graduate stu-
dents Elizabeth Mojica, Meranda Corona, Larken
Root, and Jens Hamar, who read chapter drafts
and provided photos and valuable feedback that
helped improve the book. I also thank my col-
leagues including Professors Avner Cnaani (Agri-
cultural Research Organization, Beth Dagan), Delin
Duan (Institute of Oceanology Chinese Academy
of Sciences), Steve McCormick (University of Mas-
sachusetts), Olivier DeClerck (Ghent University)
and Esteban Soto (University of California, Davis),
and Miguel Sepulveda (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil),
Christian Veterlaus (marinecultures.org), and Mark
Zivojnovich (Hydromentia Technologies) who have
kindly shared illustrations for the book. Their con-
tributions are acknowledged in the corresponding
figure legends.
Finally, I thank my editorial contacts at Oxford
University Press, Ian Sherman, Charlie Bath and
Sharmila Radha, who kept my writing on track with
the planned schedule for publication and compat-
ible with the projected size of this book. Ian and
Charlie helped with all aspects of the book produc-
tion process and in keeping the page number from
increasing beyond a limit that we felt would dimin-
ish accessibility. The collective feedback and great
advice I have received from many people helped
substantially improve this book although, of course,
I am solely responsible for any omission or errors
that may remain.
Dietmar Kültz,
Davis, CA, November 10, 2021
Contents

Part 1: General Principles of Ecological Aquaculture 1

1 Aquaculture terminology and basic concepts 3

1.1 What is aquaculture? 4
1.2 Sustainable aquaculture development 5
1.3 Cell-based seafood 7
1.4 Aquaculture concepts and terminology 9
Key conclusions 11
References 12

2 The historical origins of aquaculture 13

2.1 The earliest records of aquaculture practices 13
2.2 Religious drivers of aquaculture development in Africa and
Assyria 15
2.3 Origins of freshwater aquaculture and fish domestication in Asia 16
2.4 Freshwater aquaculture origins in Europe 17
2.5 Carp domestication in Central Europe 19
2.6 The development of mariculture 20
2.7 Origins of ecologically sustainable mariculture in Hawai’i 21
2.8 Diversification of aquaculture following the industrial revolution 22
2.9 Aquaculture intensification and the emergence of invasive species 24
2.10 Blue Revolution: an upsurge of aquaculture research and
development 26
2.11 The rising ecological impact of aquaculture and sustainability
concerns 28
Key conclusions 30
References 30

3 Seafood and beyond: key aquaculture objectives 33

3.1 Economic benefits as drivers of aquaculture 33
3.2 Aquaculture relieves pressure on capture fisheries 35
3.3 Production of seafood for human consumption 36
3.4 Aquaculture for restocking lakes, rivers, and the ocean 38
3.5 Culture of ornamental animals and plants 40
 CONTENTS ix

3.6 Production of jewellery and souvenirs 41

3.7 Aquaculture production of secondary metabolites and proteins 41
3.8 Culture of aquatic organisms to aid ecosystem restoration 42
3.9 Bait production 43
Key conclusions 43
References 44

4 Aquaculture systems as mesocosms 45

4.1 The diminishing boundary between capture fisheries and
aquaculture 45
4.2 Minimizing reliance of aquaculture on ecosystem services 46
4.3 Extensive versus intensive aquaculture: which is more
sustainable? 47
4.4 Microcosms for ornamental aquaculture 49
4.5 Mesocosms for economically and ecologically sustainable
aquaculture 50
4.6 Balancing trophic levels in mesocosms 51
Key conclusions 54
References 54

5 Integrated multitrophic polycultures 55

5.1 Polycultures are more ecologically sustainable than monocultures 55
5.2 Multitrophic polycultures of animals with plants 57
5.3 Pros and cons of polycultures 58
5.4 Decomposers: a critical link in multitrophic polycultures 60
5.5 Bioflocs technology 63
5.6 Integration of aquaculture with agriculture 63
Key conclusions 64
References 64

6 Domestication of aquaculture species 66

6.1 Trait selection during domestication 66
6.2 Domestication by breeding-based artificial selection of traits 67
6.2.1 Phenotype selection and crossbreeding 67
6.2.2 Genotype selection using genetic markers 69
6.2.3 Induction and selection of altered karyotypes 70
6.3 Domestication by genetic engineering 71
6.3.1 Genetic engineering by non-specific DNA insertion 72
6.3.2 Genetic engineering by gene targeting/editing 73
6.4 GMOs in aquaculture 75
6.5 Domestication effects during stock enhancement and sea ranching 78
Key conclusions 81
References 82
x CONTENTS

Part 2: Biology and Culture of Aquatic Species 83

7 Overview of aquaculture species diversity 85

7.1 Introduction 85
7.2 Basic concepts of taxonomy and phylogenetics 85
7.3 Aquaculture species within the network of life 87
7.4 Predominant aquaculture species 89
Key conclusions 91
References 91

8 Environmentally sustainable plant aquaculture 92

8.1 Marine macroalgae (seaweed) 92
8.1.1 Seaweed farming methods 93
8.1.2 Seaweed diseases 97
8.2 Aquatic and semi-aquatic freshwater macrophytes 97
8.2.1 Non-food uses of aquatic freshwater plants 98
8.2.2 Utilization of semiaquatic floating plants for aquaponics 98
8.3 Aquaculture of microalgae 100
8.3.1 Aquaculture systems for production of microalgae 101
8.4 Ecological sustainability prospects 102
Key conclusions 104
References 105

9 Aquaculture of sponges and cnidarians 106

9.1 Sponges 106
9.1.1 Body plan and cell types 106
9.1.2 Symbioses 109
9.1.3 Reproduction 109
9.1.4 Growth 110
9.1.5 Bath sponge farming 111
9.1.6 Bioactive metabolites 112
9.1.7 Ecological sustainability prospects 114
9.2 Cnidarians (jellyfish and corals) 115
9.2.1 Jellyfish aquaculture 115
9.2.2 Aquaculture of ornamental corals 116
9.2.3 Coral aquaculture for ecological conservation 118
Key conclusions 119
References 120

10 Mollusc aquaculture 121

10.1 Oysters 121
10.1.1 Oyster development and hatchery production of larvae 122
10.1.2 Extensive oyster grow-out 125
10.2 Mussels 126
 CONTENTS xi

10.3 Clams 127

10.4 Scallops 127
10.5 Marine pearl oysters and FW pearl mussels 128
10.5.1 Composition of bivalve shells and pearls 128
10.5.2 FW pearls 129
10.5.3 Marine pearls 130
10.5.4 Pearl harvest 131
10.6 Abalone 131
10.6.1 Hatchery production of abalone larvae 132
10.6.2 Abalone grow-out 133
10.7 Ecological sustainability of mollusc aquaculture 133
10.7.1 Improving the ecological sustainability of mollusc
aquaculture 133
10.7.2 Invasiveness of aquaculture molluscs 134
10.7.3 Food safety considerations 135
10.7.4 The role of mollusc aquaculture for species conservation 135
Key conclusions 136
References 137

11 Crustacean aquaculture 138

11.1 Overview of crustacean aquaculture 138
11.2 Whiteleg shrimp and other marine shrimps 139
11.2.1 Shrimp hatcheries and nurseries 141
11.2.2 Shrimp grow-out 142
11.3 Euryhaline crabs 143
11.3.1 Mitten crab hatcheries and nurseries 143
11.3.2 Mitten crab grow-out 144
11.3.3 Mud crab aquaculture 144
11.4 Freshwater prawns 145
11.4.1 Prawn hatcheries 145
11.4.2 Prawn grow-out 145
11.5 Freshwater crayfish 146
11.6 Brine shrimp as live food for aquaculture 147
11.7 Ecological impact and sustainability prospects 148
11.7.1 Wastewater containment and treatment 148
11.7.2 Recycling of non-seafood by-products and feed waste 149
11.7.3 Containing invasiveness and the spread of pathogens 150
Key conclusions 150
References 151

12 Ornamental fishes 152

12.1 Economic value of ornamental fishes 152
12.2 Aquaria as microcosms 153
12.3 FW ornamental fishes 155
12.4 Marine ornamental fishes 157
12.4.1 Anemonefish aquaculture 158
12.5 Advantages of ornamental fishes produced by aquaculture 159
xii CONTENTS

12.6 The impact of public media and perception on ornamental fishes 161
12.7 Invasiveness of ornamental fishes 162
Key conclusions 164
References 165

13 Freshwater fishes 166

13.1 Carps 167
13.1.1 Diverse feeding strategies of different carp species 168
13.1.2 Captive reproduction and culture of common carp 170
13.1.3 Carp polyculture systems 172
13.2 Tilapia 172
13.2.1 Extreme environmental tolerance of tilapia species 173
13.2.2 Tilapia aquaculture systems 175
13.2.3 Minimizing unwanted reproduction of tilapia 177
13.2.4 Tilapia hybrids and transgenics 178
13.3 Catfishes 179
13.3.1 Channel catfishes 179
13.3.2 Torpedo catfishes 181
13.3.3 Shark catfishes 182
Key conclusions 182
References 183

14 Anadromous fishes 184

14.1 Salmon 185
14.1.1 Hatchery phase in FW 187
14.1.2 Smoltification 189
14.1.3 Grow-out phase in mariculture 190
14.1.4 Salmonid feeds 192
14.1.5 Sea ranching of salmon 192
14.2 Trout 193
14.2.1 Rainbow trout hatcheries 193
14.2.2 Rainbow trout grow-out 194
Key conclusions 196
References 196

15 Catadromous and marine fishes 198

15.1 River eels 200
15.1.1 Eel life cycle 200
15.1.2. Aquaculture grow-out of eels 202
15.1.3 Eel aquaculture challenges 203
15.2 Milkfish 204
15.3.1 Milkfish life cycle 205
15.3.2 Milkfish nursery ponds and hatcheries 206
15.3.3 Milkfish grow-out 207
15.2.3 Sustainable development of milkfish aquaculture 207
Key conclusions 209
References 209
 CONTENTS xiii

Part 3: Water Quality Parameters 211

16 Abiotic parameters 213

16.1 Temperature 213
16.1.1 Temperature range experienced by aquatic organisms 214
16.1.2 Temperature tolerance of aquaculture organisms 214
16.1.3 Temperature monitoring and adjustment in aquaculture 215
16.2 Photoperiod 215
16.3 Turbidity 217
16.4 Salinity 218
16.4.1 Salinity scale of environmental waters 218
16.4.2 Salinity tolerance of aquaculture organisms 219
16.4.3 Salinity monitoring 220
16.5 Dissolved oxygen 221
16.5.1 Hypoxia 222
16.5.2 Aeration devices 222
16.5.3 Measurement of DO concentration 223
16.6 The aquatic carbonate system (CO2 , hardness, pH) 223
16.6.1 Water acidification due to climate change 224
16.6.2 Water alkalinization by liming 224
16.6.3 Water hardness 225
Key conclusions 226
References 226

17 Feeds, waste, and stress 227

17.1 Classification of aquaculture systems based on their inputs and
outputs 227
17.1.1 Management of aquaculture inputs and outputs 229
17.2 Aquaculture feeds 230
17.2.1 Live food 231
17.2.2 Formulated feeds 233
17.2.3 Nutritional diseases 236
17.3 Aquaculture waste 237
17.3.1 Fertilizer-induced eutrophication and hypoxia 237
17.3.2 Pharmaceuticals and toxins 237
17.3.3 Waste handling by different aquaculture systems 238
17.3.4 Mechanical removal of particulate, undissolved waste 240
17.3.5 Biological recycling and removal of dissolved waste 241
17.3.6 Wastewater reconditioning by gas exchange and
sterilization 244
17.4 Minimizing stress and maximizing welfare of fish and
invertebrates 245
17.4.1 Common stresses and their symptoms encountered in
aquaculture 245
17.4.2 Indicators of stress 246
xiv CONTENTS

17.4.3 Welfare of aquatic animals 248

Key conclusions 249
References 250

18 Infectious diseases 252

18.1 Biosecurity 252
18.1.1 Infectious disease susceptibility and transmission 254
18.2 Animal defence mechanisms against infectious diseases 254
18.2.1 Physical defences of aquaculture animals 255
18.2.2 Innate immunity of fish and invertebrates 255
18.2.3 Adaptive immunity of vertebrates 255
18.3 Viral diseases (viroses) 256
18.3.1 Viroses of aquaculture animals 257
18.3.2 Diagnosis and treatment of viroses 257
18.4 Bacterial diseases (bacterioses) 260
18.4.1 Bacterioses of aquaculture animals 260
18.4.2 Diagnosis and treatment of bacterioses 262
18.5 Fungal diseases (mycoses) 264
18.5.1 Mycoses of aquaculture animals 264
18.5.2 Diagnosis and treatment of mycoses 265
18.6 Diseases caused by protozoans and macroparasites (parasitoses) 267
18.6.1 Microparasites of aquaculture animals 267
18.6.2 Macroparasites of aquaculture animals 269
18.6.3 Diagnosis and treatment of parasitoses 271
18.7 Disease prophylaxis 272
18.7.1 Treatment of contamination sources 272
18.7.2 Regular health monitoring 273
18.7.3 Behavioural and morphological symptoms of disease 273
18.7.4 Preventative measures 274
18.7.5 Generation of disease-resistant strains 274
18.7.6 Sanitation and hygiene 275
Key conclusions 275
References 275

Index 277
PART 1

General Principles of Ecological

Aquaculture
 CHAPTER 1
Aquaculture terminology and basic
concepts
‘Science and engineering is meant to be questioned, tested and re-tested, but the road of true
progress can be long, convoluted and tiresome.’
Adey and Loveland, Dynamic aquaria: building living ecosystems (2007)
This book introduces the basic concepts,
opportunities, and challenges of aquaculture
with an emphasis on ecological considerations.
The road to progress in aquaculture has been
followed for several millennia leading to a dramatic
increase in its global productivity. We have arrived
at a major, challenging junction on this road and
future advancement of aquaculture depends on a
thorough understanding of the ecological value of
clean water as its main resource.
Therefore, this book outlines links between aqua-
culture, trophic cascades, nutrient cycles, and
ecosystem services that determine water quality
and ecosystem stability. A basic understanding of
such links reveals opportunities for increasing the
ecological sustainability of aquaculture and makes
the diverse but interwoven facets of ecological aqua-
culture accessible to students entering this field.
I assess the prospects of various aquaculture prac-
tices for key species groups based on the premise
of aligning two major (and often conflicting) devel-
opment goals: minimizing reliance on ecosystem
services while maximizing productivity.
The first part of the book builds a general under-
standing of terminology, the history, objectives,
approaches, and ecological implications of aqua-
culture. It also emphasizes prospects for further
development of ecologically sustainable aquacul-
ture approaches. The discussion of aquaculture
A Primer of Ecological Aquaculture. Dietmar Kültz, Oxford University Press. © Dietmar Kültz (2022). DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198850229.003.0001
approaches focuses on their potential for meet-
ing future demand in an economically feasible
manner while minimizing the exploitation of com-
mon property resources and reliance on ecosystem
services.
Although socio-economic aspects are critical for
practical implementation of aquaculture solutions,
they are not considered here in the interest of brevi-
ty and to maintain focus. They have been discussed
extensively elsewhere and the reader is referred
to recent works that highlight this important topic
(Bunting, 2013; FAO, 2020).
Specific aquaculture practices are illustrated for a
selection of economically important aquatic species
in Part 2 of this book. These examples illustrate key
concepts and contrast the values and promises of
aquaculture with their pitfalls, drawbacks, and chal-
lenges to instil a broad understanding of the current
state of aquaculture and prospects for increasing its
ecological sustainability.
It was not my intent to comprehensively review
specific aquaculture commodities or practices and
omissions in this regard are unavoidable in this
introductory overview. The reader is referred to
excellent recent volumes that focus on particular
aspects of aquaculture more comprehensively (e.g.
Pillay and Kutty 2005; Bert, 2007; Davenport et al.,
2008; Costa-Pierce, 2014; Boyd and McNevin, 2015;
Stickney, 2017; Lucas, Southgate, and Tucker, 2019).
4 A P R I M E R O F E C O L O G I C A L A Q UA C U LT U R E
In addition, there are many volumes that cover
aquaculture practices for a particular species or
species group in great detail, e.g. oysters (Hanes,
2019), shrimp (Leung and Engle, 2010), and tilapia
(El-Sayed, 2019).
Part 3 provides an overview of abiotic parameters
and biotic factors that are critical for water qual-
ity management in aquaculture. Clean water is a
common property resource that affects all. Aqua-
culture competes for this resource with other uses,
including as drinking water, for sanitary purposes,
for ecosystem health and species conservation, for
agricultural irrigation, and for human recreational
and cultural activities.
Most importantly, clean freshwater is limited and
its value as a resource is increasing in parallel to
the rising world population. Nevertheless, freshwa-
ter (FW, also referred to as land-based) aquaculture
has greater prospects for future sustainable devel-
opment than mariculture. Throughout this book
I provide examples supporting this argument.
Clean water, whether fresh or marine, can no longer
be considered a free natural resource but must be
valued by properly incentivizing its conservation.
1.1 What is aquaculture?
According to the Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), ‘Aquacul-
ture is the farming of aquatic organisms in both
coastal and inland areas involving interventions in
the rearing process to enhance production.’ (FAO,
2019). Farming is the rearing of organisms under
(semi-)controlled conditions and implies owner-
ship (by an individual or corporation) over the
organisms that are being reared. In contrast to
aquaculture, capture fisheries collect seafood from
wild populations, i.e. from natural, unmanaged
resources.
The organisms that are subject to capture fish-
eries are considered common property resources
that can be exploited and are not owned by any-
one, although fishing rights often apply. Cap-
ture fisheries yield has plateaued at approximately
90 million metric tons annually since the turn of
the millennium while aquaculture yield continues
to increase steadily (Figure 1.1). In fact, 52% of world
marine fish stocks are already fully exploited, 17%
are overexploited, and 8% are depleted (with 1%
recovering), while 20% are moderately exploited
and only 3% are underexploited by capture fisheries
(FAO, 2011).
Aquaculture and capture fisheries play an essen-
tial role in ensuring food supply and security in the
context of climate change, in particular in develop-
ing countries. These tasks are recognized in the 2030
UN Agenda for Sustainable Development that com-
prises seventeen sustainable development goals
(SDGs) (United Nations, 2015). One of these goals
(SDG 14) emphasizes the conservation and respon-
sible use of the oceans and marine resources for
sustainable development, which includes aquacul-
ture development governed by proper ecological
stewardship.
Aquaculture exemplifies the ongoing global
struggle to strike a sustainable balance between
the many (often conflicting) needs of a rapidly
increasing world population. Such needs pertain
to human health and nutrition, ecosystem health,
the welfare of wild and domesticated animals,
the cultural history of peoples, and the economic
principles of globalized economies.
On the one hand, aquaculture has great poten-
tial for securing a healthy and nutritious food sup-
ply while alleviating pressure on capture fisheries
and reducing fisheries-induced habitat destruction,
overfishing, genetic modification of wild popula-
tions by fisheries-induced evolution, and wholesale
waste of bycatch.
On the other hand, aquaculture relies heavi-
ly on clean water, an increasingly precious (and
dwindling) resource that is subject to intense pres-
sure of being used for many competing purposes.
Although transitions between solid and liquid state
water occur more rapidly because of climate change,
the total amount of water on earth has not changed
much.
The amount of available clean water is decreas-
ing because water pollution has increased great-
ly over the past few centuries, which affects the
utility of available water for many human needs.
The rate of pollution of the world’s inland water
bodies mirrors the exponential growth of the
human population, although environmental pro-
tection efforts have improved this trend in recent
decades. Even the seemingly vast reservoir of ocean
 A Q UA C U LT U R E T E R M I N O L O G Y A N D B A S I C C O N C E P T S 5

Marine capture fisheries - All other countries
Freshwater capture fisheries - All other countries
Aquaculture - All other countries
180
Millions
Marine capture fisheries - China
Freshwater capture fisheries - China
Aquaculture - China

160

140
Production yield (tons)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year

Figure 1.1 Yields of seafood production by aquaculture and capture fisheries from 2005 to 2018. Global yields excluding China and yields
produced in China are shown separately. Data source: OECD.stat.

water is increasingly impacted by anthropogenic
pollution.
A rising world population requires more FW for
drinking, sanitary, agricultural, and other purposes.
FW is also essential for maintaining the balance of
inland ecosystems. Clean seawater (SW) is required
to maintain ecosystem health and species diversi-
ty in the oceans, which is particularly critical in
near-shore areas exploited by aquaculture, includ-
ing coral reefs, kelp forests, and mangrove lagoons.
1.2 Sustainable aquaculture
development
Ecological considerations have received increas-
ing attention in aquaculture during the past few
decades and their proper implementation promis-
es to greatly accelerate the rate at which the field
moves forward. As a result of the industrial revo-
lution, clean water, in particular FW, became pro-
gressively precious as a resource and competition
over water rights and access have resulted in fiercer
rivalries as this resource became scarcer and its
usage more prolific.
Although crucial for assessment of the ecological
impact of aquaculture practices, ‘comparatively lit-
tle effort has been expended on documenting and
analysing the range of methods used in exploita-
tion of aquatic environments’ (Beveridge and Little,
2014). Nonetheless, consumer awareness and inter-
est in the sources of seafood is increasing.
Educational programmes, such as the SeaFood
Watch programme of the Monterey Bay Aquari-
um, offer relevant knowledge and many markets
now provide detailed information about seafood
sources and methods of harvest such that this
knowledge can be factored into consumer choices
(Figure 1.2).
There is a growing public resentment against
semi-intensive farming systems that rely heavily
on common property resources and ecosystem ser-
vice capacity (open systems). Another main concern
with semi-intensive farming is animal welfare. To
meet high seafood demand and address such con-
cerns, aquaculture development goals should pri-
oritize practices that maximize yields while also
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Jests of Scogin, The, 263, (extracts), 265
Jobsiad, The (extract), Carl Arnold Kortum, 599
Johannes Secundus,
On Charinus, the Husband of an Ugly Wife, 193
Johnson, Richard,
The Pleasant Conceits of Old Hobson (extract), 267
Johnson, Samuel,
“As with my hat upon my head,” 431
On Lying News-Writers (from The Idler), 430
Jokes,
popular idea of, 4
what makes, 5
practical, 6
and bards, 26
Jolly Good Ale and Old (from Gammer Gurton’s Needle), John
Still, 308
Jongleurs of Middle Ages, 233
Jonson, Ben,
Epigrams, 295
Every Man in His Humor (extract), 293
Giles and Joan, 296
To the Ghost of Martial, 295
Vintner, A, 295
Volpone (extract), 294
Jotham, story of, 31
Judas, the Arch-Rogue (extract), Abraham á Sancta Clara, 412
Jugglers, 233
Julian,
Beer, 76
Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, The (extract), Samuel
Langhorne Clemens, 681
Juvenal,
Cosmetic Disguise (from Satires), 110
On Domineering Wives (from Satires), 111

Kalidasa,
Hunting with a King (from Sakuntala), 121
Kant,
definition of laughter, 13
Karlchen, the Crocodile (extract), Fedor Dostoevsky, 635
Kathá Manjari (extract), 75
Kathá Sarit Ságara, Somadeva, 214
Kerr, Orpheus C. See Newell, Robert Henry
Khoja Nasru’d Dín. See Cogia Nasr Eddin Effendi
Kind-Hearted She-Elephant, The, George Thomas Lanigan, 706
King, Ben,
If I Should Die To-Night, 728
Pessimist, The, 727
Kingsley, Charles,
Professor’s Malady, The (from Water Babies), 498
Kiss, The, Thomas L. Masson, 732
Kiss, The—A Dialogue, Robert Herrick, 367
Kock, Charles Paul de,
Theophile’s Mother-in-Law (from A Much Worried
Gentleman), 572
Kortum, Carl Arnold,
The Jobsiad (extract), 599
Krishna,
caricatures of, 36
Kryloff (v), Ivan, 631
Musicians, The, 634
Swan, the Pike and the Crab, The, 633

Lady from the Provinces, The, W. S. Gilbert, 210

“La Gallisse, now I wish to touch,” Gilles Ménage, 407
L’Allegro, Milton, 371
Lamb, Charles (extracts), 449
Landon, Melville D., 698
Lang, Andrew,
Ballad of the Primitive Jest, 526
Ballade of Literary Fame, 527
Lanigan, George Thomas (G. Washington Æsop), 705
Kind-Hearted She-Elephant, The, 706
Ostrich and the Hen, The, 706
 Threnody, A, 704
Lanty Leary, Samuel Lover, 482
Lap Dog, The, Théophile Gautier, 577
La Rochefoucauld, François de,
Maxims, 399
Laughable, the, ideas on, 4, 7
Laughing Song, John Fletcher, 300
Laughter,
what makes us laugh, 5
Hobbes’s definition, 11, 12, 366
Kant’s definition, 13
Lay of the Lovelorn, The, William Edmonstoune Aytoun, 495
Lear, Edward,
Limericks, 519
Two Old Bachelors, The, 520
Learned Women, The (extract), Molière, 394
Leland, Charles Godfrey,
Ballad (from Hans Breitmann Ballads), 680
Leopardi, Giacomo,
Academy of Syllographs, The, 616
Lerneans, The, Unknown, 79
Le Sage, Alan René, 406
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim,
Decorated Bow, The (from Fables), 588
Epigrams, 588
Fables (extracts), 588
Raven, The (from Fables), 588
Let the Toast Pass (from The School for Scandal), Richard
Brinsley Sheridan, 437
Letters to His Son (extracts), Lord Chesterfield, 429
Lever, Charles, 481
Widow Malone, 483
Lie, The, Sir Walter Raleigh, 305
Like to the Thundering Tone, Bishop Corbet, 302
Limericks, Edward Lear, 519
Lines by a Person of Quality, Alexander Pope, 419
Lines on Milton, Cowper, 382
Lion, the Bear, the Monkey and the Fox, The (from Æsop’s
Fables), 44
Lions Council of State, The, Ivan Chemnitzer, 632
Little Billee, William Makepeace Thackeray, 487
Little Breeches (from Pike County Ballads), John Hay, 690
Little Peach, The, Eugene Field, 712
Living in Bed (from Roland Enamored), Francesco Berni, 352
Locke, David Ross (Petroleum V. Nasby), 684
Locker-Lampson, Frederick, 484, 503
My Mistress’s Boots, 503
On a Sense of Humor, 505
Some Ladies, 505
Terrible Infant, A, 505
Long and Short, Unknown, 78
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 666
Mr. Finney’s Turnip, 667
There Was a Little Girl, 667
Loomis, Charles Battell,
Jack and Jill (a symposium), 735
Lord Erskine’s Simile, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, 438
Lost Hatchet, The (from Gargantua and Pantagruel), François
Rabelais, 329
Love in a Cottage, Nathaniel Parker Willis, 661
Love Lesson, A, Clement Marot, 321
Lovelace, Richard, 368
Song, 369
Lover, Samuel,
Lanty Leary, 482
Rory O’More, 481
Lovers and a Reflection, Charles Stuart Calverly, 511
Love’s Labour’s Lost (extract), Shakespeare, 15
Lowell, James Russell,
What Mr. Robinson Thinks (from Biglow Papers), 674
Lucian,
Darkness, 76
Odysseus’s Trick on Polyphemus (from Dialogues of the Sea
Gods), 80
 Question of Precedence, A (from Dialogues of the Gods), 79
Lucilius,
Board or Lodging, 78
Envy, 77
False Charms, 78
Professor with a Small Class, A, 77
Schoolmaster with a Gay Wife, A, 78
Lucillius,
A Miser’s Dream, 190
Lying, Thomas Moore, 479

Madame d’Albret’s Laugh, Clement Marot, 321

Maginn, William,
Irishman, The, 471
Maid, the Monkey, and the Mendicant, The, Unknown, 170
Making of Master Messerin, The, Rustico di Filippo, 350
Man and Superman, Martial, 109
Mark Twain: A Pipe Dream, Oliver Herford, 746
Marot, Clement,
Love Lesson, A, 321
Madame d’Albret’s Laugh, 321
Married Life, Stephanus Paschasius, 194
Married State, The, Sir John Davies, 310
Marryat, Frederick (Captain Marryat),
Nautical Terms (from Peter Simple), 474
Marston, John,
Scholar and His Dog, The, 310
Martial, Father of Epigrams, 106, 333
Between the Lines, 107
Crede Experto, 109
Man and Superman, 109
Mere Suggestion, A, 108
Millions in It, 109
Mute Miltons, 108
Numbers Sweet, 109
Play’s the Thing, 107
Rounded with a Sleep, 108
 To Aulus, 107
To Catullus, 107
To Linus, 109
To Mamercus, 110
To Postumus, 107
To Sabidins, 107
Total Abstainer, A, 108
Vendetta, 108
What Might Have Been, 108
Martin, Theodore, 493
Marvel, Ik. See Mitchell, Donald G.
Masks, 87
Masson, Thomas L.,
Desolation, 733
Kiss, The, 732
Matthews Brander, on sense of humor, 13
Mavrone, Arthur Guiterman, 742
Maxims of François de La Rochefoucauld, 399
Meeting, The, “Singing Mouse,” 53
Melchior de Santa Cruz,
Spanish Apothegms, 184–189
Ménage, Gilles,
“La Galisse, now I wish to touch,” 407
Menander, fragments, 82
Mendoza, Hurtado de, 359
Merchant and His Friend, The, Pilpay, 169
Merchant of Venice, The (extract), Shakespeare, 286
Merchaunte of London That Dyd Put Nobles in His Mouthe in
Hys Dethe Bedde (from C. Mery Talys), 270
Mere Suggestion, A, Martial, 108
Meredith, George, on modification of Derision Theory, 12
Merie Tayles of Skelton (extracts), 263
Mery Tales of the Mad Men of Gotham (extracts), 266
Metamorphoses, or The Golden Ass (extracts), Apuleius, 112
Microbe, The, Hilaire Belloc, 556
Mighty Must, The, William Schwenck Gilbert, 528
Military Swagger (from The Braggart Captain), Plautus, 88
Milkmaid and the Banker, The, Horace Smith, 468
Millennium, The, James Kenneth Stephen, 549
Miller, Joaquin, 690
That Gentle Man from Boston Town, 692
Millions in It, Martial, 109
Milton,
Epitaph for an Old University Carrier, 373
L’Allegro (extract), 371
Milton Compared with Homer and Virgil, William Cowper, 382
Milton Compared with Homer and Virgil, John Dryden, 382
Milton Compared with Homer and Virgil, Selvaggi, 382
Mimi Pinson (extract), Louis Charles Alfred de Musset, 569
Mimicry, 23, 28
Miniver Cheevy, Edwin Arlington Robinson, 740
Minstrels, 233, 234
Miser and the Mouse, The, Plato, 190
Misers Dream, A, Lucillius, 190
Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, Douglas Jerrold, 476
Mrs. Gamp’s Apartment (from Martin Chuzzlewit), Charles
Dickens, 491
Mrs. Partington (extract), Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber, 664
Mrs. Partington (from Speech), Sydney Smith, 448
Mr. Finney’s Turnip, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 667
Mitchell, Donald G. (Ik Marvel), 678
Molière, 277
Gentleman Cit, The (extract), 396
Learned Women, The (extract), 394
Mona Lisa, John Kendrick Bangs, 731
Money, Jehan du Pontalais, 322
Montaudon, Monk of, 238
“I am a saint of good repute,” 239
Montfaucon’s alphabet of men and animals, 227
Moore, Clement C.,
Visit from St. Nicholas, A, 652
Moore, Thomas,
Lying, 479
Nonsense, 479
 Of All the Men, 480
On Taking a Wife, 481
Upon Being Obliged to Leave a Pleasant Party, 481
What’s My Thought Like? 480
Moral Man, A, Nikolai Nekrasov, 637
More, Thomas, 277
Morell, José, 411
Advice to an Innkeeper, 412
To a Poet, 412
Mother Bunches Merriments (extract), 267
Mountain and the Squirrel, The, Ralph Waldo Emerson, 660
Much Ado About Nothing (extract), Shakespeare, 283
Much Married Gentleman, A (extract), Charles Paul de Kock,
572
Müller, Wilhelm,
The Drunkard’s Fancy, 606
Munkittrick, Richard Kendall,
What’s in a Name?, 715
Murder as One of the Fine Arts, Thomas De Quincey, 458
Murger, Henri,
An Evening Reception (from Bohemian Life Sketches), 579
Musicians, The, Ivan Kryloff, 634
Musset, Louis Charles Alfred de,
The Supper Party of the Three Cavaliers (from Mimi Pinson),
569
Mute Miltons, Martial, 108
“My boy, if you’d wish to make constant your Venus,” Rambaud
d’Orange, 237
My Familiar, John Godfrey Saxe, 669
My First Visit to Portland, Seba Smith, 662
My Mistress’s Boots, Frederick Locker-Lampson, 503
My Opinions and Betsy Bobbet’s (extracts), Marietta Holley, 702
Mystery, The, Carolyn Wells, 751

Nasby, Petroleum V. See Locke, David Ross

Nathan, story of, 31
Nautical Terms (from Peter Simple), Frederick Marryat, 474
Nearchus,
Singer, A, 77
Nekrasov, Nikolai,
Moral Man, A, 637
Nephelidia, Swinburne, 523
Newell, Peter, 760
Newell, Robert Henry (Orpheus C. Kerr)
Rejected “National Hymns,” 695
Newspaper humor, 663, 678, 698
Nicarchus,
Great Contention, The, 190
No!, Thomas Hood, 465
Nocturne at Danieli’s, A, Sir Owen Seaman, 537
Nonsense, Bishop Corbet, 302
Nonsense, Thomas Moore, 479
Noodle stories,
origin, 72
selections, 199–225, 341
principle of humor in, 210
Novellino, Massuchio di Salerno, 350
Numbers Sweet, Martial, 109
Nye, Edgar Wilson (Bill Nye),
Garden Hose, The, 714

Obedient Husbands (from The Bachelor’s Banquet), Thomas

Dekker, 298
Obstinate Family, The, tale of, 208
Obtrusive Company on the Sacred Way (from Satires), Horace,
98
Ode to Fortune, Fitz-Greene Halleck and Joseph Rodman
Drake, 657
Ode to Tobacco, Charles Stuart Calverly, 513
Odysseus’s Trick on Polyphemus (from Dialogues of the Sea-
Gods), Lucian, 80
Of a Certain Man, Sir John Harington, 293
Of a Precise Tailor, Sir John Harington, 292
Of a Queer Relationship, Unknown, 174
Of All the Men, Thomas Moore, 480
Of Hym That Sought His Wyfe Agaynst the Streme (from C.
Mery Talys), 272
Of Loquacity (from The Characters), Theophrastus, 71
Of Sloth (from Gesta Romanorum), 243
Of Slovenliness (from The Characters), Theophrastus, 70
Of the Courtear That Ete the Hot Custarde (from C. Mery Talys),
272
Of the Deceits of the Devil (from Gesta Romanorum), 246
Of the Diseases This Year, François Rabelais, 324
Of the Eclipses This Year, François Rabelais, 323
Of the Foole That Thought Hym Selfe Deed (from C. Mery
Talys), 273
Of the Fruits of the Earth This Year, François Rabelais, 325
Of the Good, Who Alone Will Enter the Kingdom of Heaven
(from Gesta Romanorum), 244
Of the Incarnation of Our Lord (from Gesta Romanorum), 245
Of the Merchaunte of London That Dyd Put Nobles in His
Mouthe in Hys Dethe Bedde (from C. Mery Talys), 270
Of the Scoler of Oxforde That Proved by Sovestry II Chickens III
(from C. Mery Talys), 271
Of the Valorous Don Quixote’s ... Adventure of the Windmills
(from Don Quixote), Cervantes, 363
Of the Woman that Followed her Fourth Husband’s Bere and
Wept (from Wit and Mirth), 270
Of Three Girls and Their Talk: A Sonnet, Giovanni Boccaccio,
344
Of Vigilance in Our Calling (from Gesta Romanorum), 247
Old Age—Dialogue, Jalal uddin Rumi, 153
Old Grimes, Albert Gorton Greene, 658
Omar Khayyam,
Rubaiyat (extract), 138
On a Fan, Henry Austin Dobson, 524
On a Sense of Humor, Frederick Locker-Lampson, 505
On a Wet Day, Francho Sacchetti, 355
On Aufidius, Actius Sannazarius, 192
On Aurispa, Janus Pannonius, 192
On Celsus, Paulus Thomas, 194
On Charinus, the Husband of an Ugly Wife, Johannes
Secundus, 193
On Clothes and Comforts (from The Land of Dreams), Kiokutei
Bakin, 161
On Cotin, Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux, 405
On Domineering Wives (from Satires), Juvenal, 111
On Expert Testimony, Finley Peter Dunne, 720
On “Forts,” Charles Farrar Browne, 685
On His Own Deafness, Jonathan Swift, 418
On His Own Love, Catullus, 191
On Late-Acquired Wealth, Unknown, 190
On Leonora, Georgius Buchananus, 193
On Lying News-Writers (from The Idler), Samuel Johnson, 430
On Mental Reservations (from Les Provinciales), Blaise Pascal,
400
On Musical Instruments, Antonio Ghislanzoni, 619
On Shadwell, John Dryden, 380
On Sultan Mahmoud, Firdausi, 142
On Taking a Wife, Thomas Moore, 481
On the Duke of Buckingham, John Dryden, 381
On the Inconstancy of Woman’s Love, Unknown, 191
Orange, Rambaud d’,
Song: “My boy, if you’d wish to make constant your Venus,”
237
Ostrich and the Hen, The, George Thomas Lanigan, 706

Pain, Barry,
Poets at Tea, The, 551
Palabras Grandiosas (from Echo Club), James Bayard Taylor,
683
Palæolithic humor, 24, 25
Pannonius, Janus,
On Aurispa, 192
Paper, Benjamin Franklin, 645
Parasites and Gnathonites (from Eunuchus), Terence, 96
Paris, Paul Scarron, 398
Parodies
Select Passages from a Coming Poet, T. A. Guthrie, 554
After T. B. Aldrich
Palabras Grandiosas, James Bayard Taylor, 683
Rejected “National Hymns,” Robert Henry Newell, 697
After Browning
Cock and the Bull, The, Charles Stuart Calverley, 507
Nocturne at Danieli’s, A, Owen Seaman, 537
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 552
After Mrs. Browning
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 754
After Bryant
Rejected “National Hymns,” Robert Henry Newell, 697
After Burns
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 554
After Cowper
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 552
After Dinah Craik
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 750
After Austin Dobson
Jack and Jill, Charles Battell Loomis, 735
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 755
After Emerson
Rejected “National Hymns,” Robert Henry Newell, 696
After Hafiz, Abu Ishak, 154
After Bret Harte
De Tea Fabula, Arthur Thomas Quiller-Couch, 546
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 758
After Herrick
Song, O. Herford, 747
To Julia under Lock and Key, Owen Seaman, 540
After Lady Arthur Hill
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 759
After Hogg
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 756
After Oliver Wendell Holmes
Rejected “National Hymns,” Robert Henry Newell, 696
After Hood
I Remember, Phœbe Cary, 676
After Jean Ingelow
Lovers and a Reflection, Charles Stuart Calverley, 511
After Kipling
Here Is the Tale, Anthony C. Deane, 543
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn, Wells, 757
After Longfellow
Rejected “National Hymns,” Robert Henry Newell, 695
After Macaulay
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 551
After George Meredith
At the Sign of the Cock, Owen Seaman, 541
After Milton
The Splendid Shilling, John Philips, 423
After Thomas Moore
“There’s a bower of bean vines,” Phœbe Cary, 677
After E. A. Poe
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 553
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 753
After Rossetti
Ballad, Charles Stuart Calverley, 506
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 553
After Southey
The Friend of Humanity and the Knife-Grinder, George
Canning, 439
After Swinburne
Jack and Jill, Charles Battell Loomis, 736
Nephilidia, Algernon Charles Swinburne, 523
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 551
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 757
After Tennyson
Higher Pantheism in a Nutshell, The, Algernon Charles
Swinburne, 522
The Lay of the Lovelorn, William Edmonstoune Aytoun, 495
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 551
After Walt Whitman
 Jack and Jill, Charles Battell Loomis, 7
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 554
After Whittier
Rejected “National Hymns,” Robert Henry Newell, 696
After Oscar Wilde
Symposium of Poets, A, Carolyn Wells, 759
After Nathaniel P. Willis
Rejected “National Hymns,” Robert Henry Newell, 697
After Charles Wolfe
“True and Original” Version, A, Richard Harris Barham, 455
After Wordsworth
Baby’s Début, The, James Smith, 466
Jacob, Phœbe Cary, 677
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 552
After a Popular Song
If I Should Die To-night, Ben King, 728
Parody, 30
Parson Gray, Oliver Goldsmith, 434
Partial Judge, The (from Æsop’s Fables), 45
Pascal, Blaise,
On Mental Reservations (from Les Provinciates), 400
Paschasius, Stephanus,
Married Life, 194
Patient Cured, The, Christian F. Gellert, 586
Paying with the Sound of a Penny (from Eulenspiegel’s Pranks),
Tyll Eulenspiegel, 340
Peasant of Larcarà, The, Pitrá, 218
Pegasus in the Yoke, Friedrich von Schiller, 593
Pepys, Samuel,
Diary (extracts), 378
Perplexity, Unknown, 79
Persian humor, 73, 138–156, 196–199
Persian Jest-Book, 73
Persius,
Poetic Fame (from Satires), 104
Pessimist, The, Ben King, 727
Peter Simple (extracts), Frederick Marryat, 474
Petronius, 101
Ingenious Cook, An (from Trimalchio’s Banquet), 102
Philippides, Epigrams, 84
Philips, John,
Splendid Shilling, The, 423
Phillis’ Age, Matthew Prior, 389
Philosopher, A, Sam Walter Foss, 718
Philosopher, The (from The Fables), Ivan Chemnitzer, 631
Phoenix, John. See Derby, George Horatio
Phoenixiana (extract), George Horatio Derby, 678
Phyllis Lee, Oliver Herford, 744
Pictorial humor, 27, 46, 47, 48
Pigtail, The, Adelbert von Chamisso, 605
Pike County Ballads (extract), John Hay, 690
Pilpay (or Bidpai), Fables, 120;
(Selections), 164–170
Pitrá,
The Peasant of Larcarà, 218
Plato,
idea of humor, 4
Miser and the Mouse, The, 190
Thief and the Suicide, The, 189
Plato Comicus, fragments, 66
Plautus, 87
Military Swagger (from The Braggart Captain), 88
Suspicious Miser, The (from The Pot of Gold), 91
Playfulness of animals, 18
Play’s the Thing, Martial, 107
Pleasant Conceits of Old Hobson, The (extract), Richard
Johnson, 265, 267
Pleasantries of Cogia Nasr Eddin Effendi, The (extracts), 199
Pleasure of Fishes, The (from Autumn Floods), Chwang Tze,
157
Poems in Prose, Ivan Turgenieff, 638
Poetic Fame (from Satires), Persius, 104
Poets, Samuel Butler, 377
Poets at Tea, The, Barry Pain, 551
Poggio, Italian stories, 182
Polish humor, 639–641
Pontalais, Jehan du,
Money, 322
Pope, Alexander, 17
Epigram on Mrs. Tofts, 421
Lines by a Person of Quality, 419
Worms, 420
Pope and Sultan (German Student Song), 613
Pope and the Net, The, Robert Browning, 502
Popularity, Sung Yu, 158
Praed, Winthrop Mackworth,
Song of Impossibilities, A, 484
Praise of Folly, The (extracts), Desiderius Erasmus, 337
Prayer, Ivan Turgenieff, 638
Prior, Matthew, 386
Epitaph, An, 387
Phillis’ Age, 389
Reasonable Affliction, A, 389
Simile, A, 388
Prodigal Egg, The, Oliver Herford, 747
Professional entertainers of the Middle Ages, 231–236
Professor with a Small Class, A, Lucilius, 77
Professor’s Malady, The (from Water Babies), Charles Kingsley,
498
Proverbial Wisdom, Anton Chekov, 639
Provinciales, Les (extract), Blaise Pascal, 400
Psycholophon, Frank Gelett Burgess, 749
Puffing, Samuel Butler, 377
“Punning” (from Speeches), Sydney Smith, 446
Purple Cow, The, Frank Gelett Burgess, 748
Python, The, Hilaire Belloc, 555

Question of Precedence, A (from Dialogues of the Gods),

Lucian, 79
Quiller-Couch, Arthur Thomas. See Couch, Arthur Thomas
Quiller-
Rabelais, François,
Of the Diseases This Year, 324
Of the Eclipses This Year, 323
Of the Fruits of the Earth This Year, 325
Lost Hatchet, The (from Gargantua and Pantagruel), 329
“Rabelais Imitates Diogenes” (from Gargantua and
Pantagruel), 325
Radhi Billah, the Kaliph,
To a Lady upon Seeing Her Blush, 191
Raising the Devil, Richard Harris Barham, 456
Raleigh, Sir Walter,
Lie, The, 305
Raspe, Rudolph Erich,
Horse Tied to a Steeple, A (from Adventures of Baron
Münchausen), 589
Rather Large Whale, A (from Adventures of Baron
Münchausen), 590
Raven, The (from Fables), Lessing, 588
Raven, a Fox and a Serpent, A, Pilpay, 166
Reasonable Affliction, A, Matthew Prior, 389
Redi, Francesca,
Diatribe Against Water, 410
Rejected Addresses (extract), James and Horace Smith, 465
Rejected “National Hymns” (burlesque), Robert Henry Newell,
695
Religion of Hudibras, The (from Hudibras), Samuel Butler, 374
Remonstrance, The, Sir John Suckling, 370
Reuben, Phœbe Cary, 678
Reynard the Fox,
forms and origin, 226
Goethe’s version (extracts), 596
Riddles,
Arabian, 35
Homer’s, 35
Samson’s, 35
Sphinx’s, 35
Rig Vedas (extract), 34
Robinson, Edwin Arlington,
Miniver Cheevy, 740
Two Men, 741
Roche, James Jeffrey,
Boston Lullaby, A, 708
V-a-s-e, The, 706
Roland Enamored (extract), Francesco Berni, 352
Roman Cockney, The, Catullus, 97
Roman humor, 86–119, 181–182
Rondeau, The, Henry Austin Dobson, 525
Rory O’More, Samuel Lover, 481
Rose Garden, The (Gulistan) (extracts), Sadi, 142
Rounded with a Sleep, Martial, 108
Rubaiyat (extract), Omar Khayyam, 138
Rückert, Friedrich,
Artist and Public, 609
Russian humor, 217, 631–639
Rutebœuf, the Trouvère,
Ass’s Testament, The, 312

Sacchetti, Francho, 354

On a Wet Day, 355
Sad End of Brer Wolf, The (from Uncle Remus, His Songs and
His Sayings), Joel Chandler Harris, 708
Sadi,
Discomfort Better Than Drowning, (from The Rose Garden
[Gulistan]), 142
Hatefulness of Old Husbands (from The Rose Garden), 144
Strict Schoolmaster and the Mild, The (from The Rose
Garden), 143
Wise Sayings, 145
Saintship versus Conscience (from Hudibras), Samuel Butler,
375
Sakuntala (extract), Kaildasa, 121
Salad, Sydney Smith, 448
Salerno, Massuchio di,
Inheritance of a Library, The (from Novellino), 350
Samson’s Riddle, 35
San Shroe Bu,
Enforced Greatness, 219
Sannazarius, Actius,
On Aufidius, 192
Satires (extract), Horace, 98
Satires (extract), Juvenal, 110
Satires (extract), Persius, 104
Satires on dress, 230
Saxe, John Godfrey,
My Familiar, 669
Scarron, Paul,
Farewell to Chloris, 398
Paris, 398
Schildburgers, the, tales of, 341–344
Schiller, Friedrich von,
Pegasus in the Yoke, 593
Scholar and His Dog, The, John Marston, 310
School, James Kenneth Stephen, 550
School for Scandal, The (extract), Richard Brinsley Sheridan,
437
Schoolmaster with a Gay Wife, A, Lucilius, 78
Scogin,
Jests, 263, 265
Seaman, Sir Owen,
At the Sign of the Cock, 541
Nocturne at Danieli’s, A, 537
To Julia under Lock and Key, 540
Select Passages from a Coming Poet, T. A. Guthrie, 554
Sense of humor, 13, 14
Shakespeare,
on sense of humor, 15
as humorist, 277, 278, 280
As You Like It (extract), 288
Hamlet (extract), 286
Henry IV, Part I (extract), 281
Henry IV, Part II (extract), 279
 Love’s Labour’s Lost (extract), 15
Merchant of Venice, The (extract), 286
Shaw, Henry Wheeler (Josh Billings), 671
Hen, A (extract), 673
Tight Boots (extract), 671
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley,
Calendar, 438
Let the Toast Pass (from The School for Scandal), 437
Lord Erskine’s Simile, 438
Sheridan’s Calendar, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, 438
Shillaber, Benjamin Penhallow,
After a Wedding (from Mrs. Partington), 664
Sick Schoolmaster, The (from Stories in Rime [Masnavi]),
Jalal uddin Rumi, 149
Sill, Edward Rowland, 690
Eves Daughter, 698
Simile, A, Matthew Prior, 388
Simonides,
Fine Lady, The, 65
Simpleton and the Sharper, The (from The Arabian Nights’
Entertainment), 127
Singer, A, Nearchus, 77
“Singing Mouse, The,” 52
Meeting, The, 53
Skelton, John,
How Skelton Came Late Home to Oxford from Abington (from
Certayne Merye Tales), 264
How the Welshman Dyd Desyre Skelton to Hyde Him in Hys
Sute to the Kynge for a Patent to Sell Drynke, 263
To Maistres Margaret Hussey, 261
Sleep, Baltazar del Alcazar, 359
Slight Misunderstanding, A (from Contés Drolatiques), Honoré
de Balzac, 567
Smith, Horace,
Jester Condemned to Death, The, 469
Milkmaid and the Banker, The, 468
Smith, James,