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CHAPTER 7 COGNITION AND MENTAL ABILITIES
CHAPTER 7
COGNITION AND MENTAL ABILITIES
▲ TABLE OF CONTENTS
To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click
To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
To return to a section of the Lecture Guide, click on ► Return to Lecture Guide
► LECTURE GUIDE
➢ Building Blocks of Thought
➢ Language, Thought, and Culture
➢ Nonhuman Language and Thought
➢ Problem Solving
➢ Decision Making
➢ Multitasking
➢ Intelligence and Mental Abilities
➢ Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
➢ Creativity
➢ Chapter Review
▼ FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

➢ Learning Objectives
➢ Rapid Review
➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics
➢ Activities and Exercises
➢ Handout Masters
➢ APS Current Directions Reader
➢ Forty Studies that Changed Psychology
➢ Web Resources
➢ MyPsychLab Video Resources
➢ MyPsychLab Multimedia Resources
➢ PowerPoint Slides
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376
►LECTURE GUIDE
BUILDING BLOCKS OF THOUGHT (TEXT PAGE 217)
Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:

➢ The Influence of Language on Thought
➢ Eye-Tongue Coordination
➢ Nonverbal Gestures
Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises:
➢ Learning a Concept
➢ Mental Imagery
➢ Context and Speech Perception
➢ Channels of Communication
➢ Exploring Bilingualism
➢ Is Reading Automatic? A Survey
Web Resources:
➢ Language
MyPsychLab Video Clips:
➢ List of Video Resources
MyPsychLab Multimedia Resources:
➢ List of Multimedia Resources
PowerPoint Slides:
➢ Link to PowerPoint slides
Describe the three basic building blocks of thought and give an example of each. Explain how
phonemes, morphemes, and grammar (syntax and semantics) work together to form a
language (text pp. 217-220).
Cognition – the processes whereby we acquire and use knowledge.
Language
• Language – a flexible system of communication that uses sounds, rules, gestures, or symbols
to convey information.
o Phonemes – the basic sounds that make up any language.
o Morphemes – the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words,
prefixes, and suffixes.
o Grammar – the language rules that determine how sounds and words can be
combined and used to communicate within a language.
▪ Syntax – the system of rules that governs how we combine words to form
meaningful phrases and sentences.
▪ Semantics – how we assign meaning to morphemes, words, phrases, and
sentences; semantics are the content of language.
❖ Surface structure – the particular words and phrases used to create a
sentence.
❖ Deep structure – the underlying meaning of a sentence.
▪ Transformations – According to Noam Chomsky, to produce or understand
language, one must engage in transformations between surface and deep
structures. When producing language, one begins with the thought or meaning
one wants to convey (the deep structure), and then assembles the appropriate

377
words and phrases (the surface structure). The reverse transformation occurs
when hearing a message. (See Figure 7-1 on text page 219.)
Images
• Image – a mental representation of a sensory experience; images can be visual (e.g., recall
what the Statue of Liberty looks like), olfactory (e.g., recall the smell of bacon), or auditory
(e.g., recall the song “Auld Lang Syne”).
Concepts
• Concepts – mental categories for classifying objects, people, or experiences; concepts help
us think about things and how they relate to one another.
o Fuzzy concepts – concepts typically overlap one another and are often poorly
defined.
o Prototype (or model) – a mental model containing the most typical features of a
concept. When we encounter new objects, we compare them with prototypes to
determine what they are.
▲ Return to Chapter 7: Table of Contents
LANGUAGE, THOUGHT, AND CULTURE (TEXT PAGE 220)

➢ Who Talk More: Men or Women?
➢ Personal Experiences with Sexist Language
➢ Non-sexist Language
PowerPoint Slides:
Summarize the evidence for the idea that people in different cultures perceive and think about
the world in different ways. Explain what is meant by "linguistic determinism" and summarize
the evidence for and against it (text pp. 220-222).
• Linguistic relativity hypothesis – proposed by Benjamin Whorf, this hypothesis asserts that
patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks.
o Linguistic determinism – the belief that thought and experience are determined by
language. According to Whorf, if a language lacks a particular expression, the
corresponding thought will probably not occur to speakers of that language.
o Research indicates that the proposed link between thought and language is not as strong
as Whorf suggested. For example, even though the Dani of New Guinea have only two
words for color, they can perceive and think about colors much as English-speaking
people do.

378
o There is also ample evidence that language does not limit thought provided by the growth
of personal computers and the Internet; these technological advances have generated a
new vocabulary.
• Psychologists has now softened Whorf’s hypothesis, recognizing that language, thought and
culture are intertwined; experience shapes language and language, in turn, affect experience.
Is Language Male Dominated?

• Since evidence suggests that language influences thought, research has been conducted on how
the use of masculine and feminine pronouns impact thinking. Use of the pronouns “he” and
“she” significantly influenced children’s ratings of female workers (Hyde, 1984).
• More recent research on gender-stereotyped pronouns also revealed an impact on thinking; male
and female adults responded more quickly when they were presented with gender-stereotypic
stimuli (e.g., nurse/she) and non-gender-stereotypic stimuli (e.g., nurse/he), even if the adult
participants held attitudes that opposed gender-stereotyping.
NONHUMAN LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT (TEXT PAGE 222)

➢ Do Animals Have Language? A Survey
Multimedia Resources on MyPsychLab:
➢ Learn More: Animal Studies and Language
➢ Video: Birds and Language
PowerPoint Slides:
Summarize research evidence that supports the statement that "nonhuman animals have
some humanlike cognitive capacities." Explain the following statement: "All animals
communicate, but only humans use language to communicate" (text pp. 222-224)
The Question of Language

Honeybees dance to communicate to hive mates the location and quality of pollen; humpback whales
perform solos. Do these signs constitute “language?”
• Signs – general or global statements about an animal’s current state.
• Distinguishing features of language:
o Meaningfulness – semantics
o Displacement – talking about the past or future
o Productivity – the ability to produce and understand new and unique words and
expressions (e.g., slang)
• Applying these criteria, it appears that no other species has its own language. Several researchers
have been able to teach primates sign language or other means of communicating through

379
symbols or keyboards, but their efforts have, at best, resulted in “language” capabilities similar to
that of a 2- to 2½ year-old child.
Animal Cognition
Numerous studies have indicated that other animals have some humanlike cognitive capacities:
• An African gray parrots was able to identify more than 50 objects and count to 6;
• Dolphins have demonstrated mastery of the concepts same and different, more and less;
• Rhesus and capuchin monkeys have learned numeration (the capacity to use numbers) and
seriation (the ability to place objects in a specific order);
• Chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, and some gorillas have demonstrated that they possess
aspects of a sense of self (self-recognition) or self-awareness;
• Chimpanzees have also revealed a sense of other-awareness, as expressed through deception.
PROBLEM SOLVING (TEXT PAGE 225)

➢ Types of Problems
➢ Functional Fixedness
➢ Problem Representation
➢ Breaking Sets in Problem-Solving
➢ Mental Sets in Everyday Life
Web Resources:
➢ Problem-Solving
PowerPoint Slides:
Explain why problem representation is an important first step in solving problems. In your
explanation include divergent and convergent thinking, verbal, mathematical and visual
representation, and problem categorization (text pp. 225-227).
Interpreting Problems
• Problem representation – the first step in problem-solving; it involves interpreting or defining
the problem. (See Figures 7-2 and 7-3 on text page 225.)
• Divergent thinking – thinking that generates many different possible answers; certain problems
demand this kind of thinking – it results in originality, inventiveness, and flexibility. (See Figure
7-4 on text page 226.)
• Convergent thinking – thinking that is directed toward one correct solution to a problem.
• Successful problem solving often hinges on selecting the most effective way to represent the
problem (e.g., verbally, mathematically, or visually), since the representation of the problem
influences the types of strategies that people will pursue to solve the problem. Problem
380
representation also influences problem categorization, which helps problem solvers make
connections between the current problems they are facing and similar problems that they faced in
the past.
Distinguish between trial and error, information retrieval, algorithms, and heuristics as ways
of solving problems. Give an example of hill-climbing, subgoals, means-end analysis and
working backward. Explain how "mental sets" can help or hinder problem solving (text pp.
227-230).
Implementing Strategies and Evaluating Progress

Following the representation of a problem in the selection of strategies to solve the problem and
means of evaluating progress toward one’s goals as the strategies are implemented.
• Trial and Error – this strategy works best when choices are limited; it is not an efficient strategy
when there are many options to test.
• Information Retrieval – if one has faced a similar problem in the past or has learned the solution
to the problem, a very efficient strategy is to simply retrieve this information from long-term
memory.
• Algorithms – these are step-by-step methods of problem solving that guarantee the correct
solutions if the steps are properly carried out.
• Heuristics – rules of thumb that help in simplifying and solving problems, although they do not
guarantee a correct solution.
o Hill climbing – a heuristic, problem-solving strategy in which each step moves a person
progressively toward the final goal.
o Subgoals – intermediate, more manageable goals used in problem-solving to make it
easier to reach the final goal.
o Means-end analysis – a heuristic strategy that aims to reduce the discrepancy between
the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points; this strategy
combines hill climbing and subgoals. Use of means-end analysis might result in what
appears to be a step backward in order to reach an end goal, therefore effective use of this
heuristic demands flexible thinking.
o Working backward – a heuristic strategy in which one works backward from the desired
goal to the given conditions.
Obstacles to Solving Problems

Level of motivation and level of emotional arousal can both serve to help or hinder problem
solving.
• Mental set – the tendency to perceive and to approach problems in certain ways. Mental sets
can be helpful if we have learned approaches and strategies that can be successfully applied
to a problem situation. However, a mental set can also be a hindrance to problem-solving if
the problem we are facing demands a novel approach to solve it.
o Functional fixedness – the tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an
object, thus interfering with the process of problem solving. (See Figure 7-5 on text
page 229.)
• Insight and Intuition – occasionally, the solution to a problem presents itself “out of the
blue.” These mental breakthroughs occur after we widen our scope of attention to consider a
more diverse set of possible solutions beyond a few obvious but incorrect solutions.
• Brainstorming – a problem-solving strategy in which an individual or a group produces
numerous ideas and evaluates them only after all ideas have been collected.
381
DECISION MAKING (TEXT PAGE 231)

➢ Intuition
➢ Don’t Believe Everything You Read…Except This
➢ Availability Heuristics
➢ Demonstrating Cognitive Biases
➢ Insight
APS Reader:
➢ The Role of Emotion in Decision Making
PowerPoint Slides:
Explain how decision making differs from problem solving. Describe the process of
compensatory decision making and the use of decision-making heuristics. Explain how
framing can affect decisions, and how hindsight bias and counterfactual thinking affect that
way we view our decisions after the fact (text pp. 231-233).
• Decision making is form of problem solving in which we already know all the possible solutions
or choices. In effect, the task involves making a choice from among a set of options that presents
the greatest benefits or the best possible outcomes.
Compensatory Decision Making

Compensatory model: a rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically
evaluated on various criteria. For each choice, the attractive features can compensate for the
unattractive features. The option that best meets the most important criteria should be the option
that is selected. This approach to decision-making works well when it is easy to identify and
evaluate various features of each of the available options from which one is choosing.
Decision-Making Heuristics
• Representativeness heuristic – judging a new situation on the basis of its resemblance to a
stereotypical model. We make a decision based upon how an option matches our model of
the typical member of a category. For example, when choosing a new cell phone, we
compare our options to a prototypical cell phone in an effort to determine if the potential cell
phone exceeds or falls short of our “model” phone.
• Availability heuristic – making a decision based on information that is most easily retrieved
from memory. Of course, just because information is readily available to us from our own
experiences does not mean that it is accurate information (see the subway effect described on
p. 232 of the text).

382
• Confirmation bias – the tendency to notice and remember evidence that supports our beliefs
and ignore or overlook evidence that contradicts them. This bias is related to the availability
heuristic in that it skews the information that is readily available to us in memory.
o Confirmation bias is reinforced by our tendency to see patterns of cause and effect
where none exist. In effect, we believe that two correlated events have a causal
relationship, even despite research to the contrary.
Framing
• The way information is presented can significantly influence a final decision.
• Framing – the perspective from which we interpret information before making a decision
(see the example of medical decision-making on pp. 232-233 of the text that utilized a
survival frame and a mortality frame when presenting treatment outcomes to research
participants and radiologists).
Explaining Our Decisions (to ourselves)

• Hindsight bias – the tendency to see outcomes as inevitable and predictable after we know
the outcome. This bias can be seen as a cognitive flaw – as a way to explain away our bad
decisions. Some researchers also see it as an efficient way to replace misinformation of
faulty assumptions so that we can make better decisions in the future.
• Counterfactual thinking – thinking about alternative realities and things that never
happened. This thinking often takes the form of “If only I had ________, (done something
different), then ________ would have (or not have) happened.” We may use this kind of
thinking to mentally revise the events or actions that led to the actual outcome we
experienced, or to improve future decision-making.
MULTITASKING (TEXT PAGE 233)
Web Resources:
➢ Multitasking
PowerPoint Slides:
Multitasking has, quite simply, become a way of life in the digital age. Perhaps because we multitask
so often, there are commonly-held assumptions about it:
• Multitasking makes us more efficient.

o Multitasking can result in limited, enhanced productivity when the multitasker is
engaged in tasks that are dissimilar, the multitasker is an experienced multitasker,
and the multitasker is intelligent.
o When the above conditions are not met, research on multitasking indicates that
multitasking slows down thinking, decreases accuracy, and can increase stress.

383
• Young people are better at multitasking than older adults.

o Research comparing 18- to 21-year-olds to 35- to 39-year-olds found that the
negative effects of multitasking were more pronounced in the younger group.
• Texting while driving is a bad idea, but just talking on a cell phone while driving is okay.
o Texting while driving is indeed a bad idea, with research indicating that breaking
response slowed by 35% and steering control was reduced by 91%, both results
revealing far greater impairments than would be caused by the use of marijuana or
alcohol.
o Just talking on the phone while driving results in impaired braking time and reduced
attention to events in the peripheral visual field. These results were observed even
with well-practiced multitaskers or with other drivers who were specifically
instructed to give more attention to driving than to talking on the phone.
Professor David Myer, an expert on multitasking, concluded that “If you’re driving while cell-
phoning, then your performance is going to be as poor as if you were legally drunk.”
INTELLIGENCE AND MENTAL ABILITIES (TEXT PAGE 234)

➢ Fallacies in Reasoning
➢ IQ and Juror Selection
➢ The Darwin Awards—What Intelligence Isn’t
➢ Does the SAT Have Predictive Value?
➢ Birth Order and Intelligence
➢ Information Processing Approach to Intelligence
➢ Arthur Jensen
➢ What Exactly is Intelligence?
➢ Cultural Bias in IQ Testing
➢ Creating a Culture-Fair Intelligence Test
➢ Intelligence
➢ Multiple Intelligences
➢ Emotional Intelligence (The EQ Test)
➢ Intelligence and Mental Capacity in Film
➢ Age and Intelligence
➢ Should Psychology Adopt a Theory of Multiple Intelligence?
Forty Studies
➢ What You Expect Is What You Get
➢ Just How Are You Intelligent?
Web Resources:
➢ Intelligence
PowerPoint Slides:
384
Intelligence – a general term referring to the ability or abilities involved in learning and adaptive
behavior.
Compare and contrast the theories of intelligence put forth by Spearman, Thurstone,
Sternberg, Gardner and Goleman (text pp. 236-237).
Theories of Intelligence
Early Theorists
• Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence is a singular, general quality about a person.
o Spearman described intelligence in terms of a “g” factor – the ability to reason and
solve problems.
o Spearman argued that people who are bright in one area tend to be bright in other
areas as well.
• L.L. Thurstone believed that intelligence was comprised of seven distinct, independent
mental abilities:
o Spatial ability, memory, perceptual speed, word fluency, numerical ability,
reasoning, and verbal meaning.
o Individuals could, according to Thurstone, excel in certain areas but not in others.
Contemporary Theorists
• Robert Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence in his triarchic theory of intelligence:
o Analytical intelligence – mental processes involved in learning, problem solving,
acquiring knowledge, and completing tasks.
o Creative intelligence – the ability to creatively adapt to new tasks and situations, to
gain insight
o Practical intelligence – the ability to find solutions to practical and personal
problems.
• Howard Gardner proposed eight different and independent types of intelligence in his theory
of multiple intelligences, ranging from verbal, linguistic, and mathematical to interpersonal
and intrapersonal intelligence (see the full list of Gardner’s intelligences and their
descriptions on page 237 of the text, and “Thinking critically about …” questions appear on
the previous page that lend themselves to an engaging class discussion).
• Emotional intelligence, a construct proposed by Daniel Goleman, refers to how effectively

people perceive and understand their own emotions and the emotions of others, and how they
regulate and manage their own emotional behavior.
Describe the similarities and differences between the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the
Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and explain how they differ from group tests, performance tests
and culture-fair tests of intelligence. Explain what is meant by test "reliability" and "validity"
and how psychologists determine whether an intelligence test is reliable or valid (text pp. 237-
240).
Intelligence Tests
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

385
• Originally developed by Alfred Binet Theodore Simon as a test of school placement,

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale measures four intellectual abilities: Verbal reasoning,
abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory.
• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an intelligence quotient (IQ) which is a
numerical value that is determined from performance on an intelligence test and is normed
around a score of 100 for a person of average intelligence. (See Figure 7-6 on text page
238.)
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales

• The Wechsler Intelligence Scales, including the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children –
Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition
(WAIS-IV), differ from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in that Wechsler believed that
intelligence consists more of the ability to handle life situations than to solve verbal and
abstract problems.
• The Wechsler Intelligence Scales yield a verbal and a performance score as well as an overall
score of intelligence.
Group Tests
• The Stanford-Binet and Wechsler Intelligence Scales are individually-administered tests of
intelligence scale. As such, they are time and labor-intensive tests.
• Group tests – written intelligence tests administered by one examiner to many people at one
time – are a more efficient means of testing the intelligence of many people, but in group
testing situations the examiner is less likely to notice if a person being tested is tired, ill, or
confused by the directions.
Performance and Culture-Fair Tests

• Performance tests – intelligence tests that minimize the use of language. As their name
implies, these tests require people to perform, often by assembling puzzles, completing
mazes, or in some way manipulating materials to achieve a specified goal.
• Culture-fair tests – intelligence tests designed to eliminate cultural bias by minimizing the
use of language as well as the use of skills and values (like the need to work quickly) that
vary from one culture to another.
Biological Measures of Intelligence

• For decades, researchers have attempted to assess intelligence using biological markers (e.g.,
brain size, size and metabolic functioning of specific brain structures, electrical response of
brain cells to stimulation), but the results reveal only weak or modest correlations with other
indicators of intelligence.
• To date, no biological measure of intelligence approaches the accuracy of psychological tests.
What Makes a Good Test?

Psychologists assess the quality of a test by referring to a test’s reliability and validity.
• Reliability – ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores.
o Test-retest reliability – the degree of similarity between test scores given twice to the
same group of people.
o Split-half reliability – a method of determining test reliability by dividing the test
into two parts and checking the agreement of scores on both parts.
o Reliability is often assessed statistically in terms of correlation coefficients –
statistical measures of the degree of association between two variables.
386
• Validity – ability of a test to measure what is has been designed to measure.

o Content validity – refers to a test’s having an adequate sample of questions
measuring the skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure.
o Criterion-related validity – validity of a test as measured by a comparison of the
test score and independent measures of what the test is designed to measure.
Summarize the criticisms of intelligence tests and the relationship between IQ test scores and
job success (test pp. 240-242).
Criticisms of IQ Tests
• Disagreements on the nature of intelligence lead to criticisms of particular tests of
intelligence.
• At a minimum, intelligence tests are an indicator of a person’s ability to takes tests.
• Questions remain about how useful intelligence tests are. What do they tell us about a
person?
• Emotional intelligence appears to be predictive of social success in school and in the
workplace, but some researchers argue that the “new” construct of emotional intelligence is
simply a combination of well-known factors that can be measured with traditional
intelligence and personality measures.
• The content and administration of intelligence tests do not take into account cultural
variations and, in fact, discriminate against minorities.
HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND INTELLIGENCE (TEXT PAGE 243)

➢ Mental Retardation
➢ Terman’s Termites
➢ Hormones and Thinking Skills
➢ Einstein’s Brain
➢ How to Improve Cognitive Processes
➢ Take a Stand
Summarize the evidence that both heredity and environment (including intervention
programs) affect intelligence (text pp. 242-245).
Heredity
• The IQ scores of identical twins raised together is remarkably high (see Figure 7-7 on page
243 of the text), but these twins share both a common genotype and common environment.

387
• The IQ scores of identical twins raised apart is also very high, indicating that there is a strong
genetic component to intelligence.
• Adopted children tend to have IQ scores that are more highly correlated with that of their
biological mothers than the IQ scores of their adoptive mothers.
Environment
• Genetic influence on IQ varies with economic status; in impoverished families, heredity has
little influence on IQ, whereas in affluent families its influence is stronger.
• Prenatal nutrition influences IQ scores, as does nutrition during infancy (malnutrition lowers
IQ scores by 20 points on average) and the use of vitamin supplements during childhood.
• Skeels’ research on orphanages in the 1930s revealed that children raised in stimulating
environments exhibited significant increases in their IQ scores compared to children who
were raised in environments that offered little stimulation or support.
Intervention Programs: How Much Can We Boost IQ?

➢ The Milwaukee Project (1961-1967) and, more recently, Head Start (1965 to present) provide
early enrichment and nutrition to children and their families. Research on both of these
intervention programs has revealed dramatic benefits to the participants: Increased IQ scores,
enhanced cognitive and language development, higher academic achievement and lower
delinquency rates.
➢ Overall, the effectiveness of early intervention appears to depend on the quality of the
particular program.
What is the "Flynn Effect"? What are some of the explanations that have been offered for it?
(text pp. 245-246)
The IQ Debate: A Useful Model

• See the helpful nature-nurture metaphor involving plants and enriched and poor soil
described on page 245 of the text.
• Between-group differences in IQ scores may be due to environmental factors, while
differences within a group of people could be due primarily to genetics.
• According to Robert Plomin (1997), “the world’s literature suggests that about half of the
total variance in IQ scores can be accounted for by genetic variance” (p. 89). Environment
accounts for the remaining half.
• The Flynn Effect – from the 1930s through the 1970s, a researcher from New Zealand –
James Flynn – noticed that IQ scores have increased in the population as a whole. The
increase amounted to 3-6 points per decade.
o Numerous explanations for the phenomenon have been offered (e.g., people are
getting better at taking tests, improvements in nutrition and health care, increasing
complexity of the world), but none account entirely for the magnitude of the change
over time in the mean IQ of the population.
Summarize the evidence regarding gender differences and cultural differences in mental
abilities (text pp. 246-248).
Mental Abilities and Human Diversity: Gender and Culture

Gender

388
• Despite the long-held belief that men have a higher math aptitude than women, a 2010
study that reviewed published research on more than one million people showed no
difference between men and women in mathematical ability.
• Recent research also suggests that when gender differences are observed, they are
relatively small and concentrated in very specific skills:
o The long-established advantage that girls have over boys in verbal abilities applies
only to written verbal skills.
o Boys tend to outperform girls on tests of visual-spatial skill, which accounts for most
of the gender-related differences on standardized math tests.
• Men are much more likely than women to fall at the extremes of the intelligence range:
o 7 out of 8 people with extremely high IQ scores were men, while approximately the
same ratio is observed among those with mental retardation.
o There are no gender differences on measures of general intelligence.
Culture
• For decades, American children have lagged behind children in China and Japan with
respect to reading and math abilities, and recent evidence suggests that the gap is
widening. When first- and fifth-grade children in America perform more poorly than
their counterparts in China and Japan, and their poorer standing continues through
eleventh grade.
o Cultural attitudes toward ability and effort account for much of the differences
between the cultures.
o A majority of American students think that studying hard as little to do with
academic performance. Rather, they believe that academic skills are primarily the
result of innate ability.
o Many American teachers also believed that innate ability was the most important
factor in mathematics performance.
o Asian students, their parents and teachers believe that effort and studying hard
determine success in school.
o These cultural differences have significant consequences for the way that children,
their parents, and their teachers approach the task of learning. Cultural differences in
math and reading abilities likely reflect differences in effort to learn rather than
differences in intelligence across cultures.
Explain what is required for a diagnosis of mental retardation and summarize what is known
about its causes. Describe what is meant by "inclusion" and whether it has been shown to be
beneficial (text pp. 247-249).
Extremes of Intelligence
Mental Retardation – condition of significantly sub-average intelligence combined with
deficiencies in adaptive behavior.
• A low IQ and the inability to function independently must both be present before someone is
considered to be mentally retarded.
• Mental retardation varies in its degree of impairment, including mild, moderate, severe and
profound types of retardation (see Table 7-3 on page 248 of the text).
• Some people with mental retardation exhibit remarkable ability in specific areas, such as
numerical computation, art or music, occasionally resulting in savant performances.

389
• The causes of retardation are, in most individual cases, unknown. However, there are a wide
variety of genetic (e.g., phenylketonuria, Down’s syndrome), environmental (e.g., lead
poisoning), social (e.g., neglect), nutritional (e.g., malnutrition) and other risk factors.
• There are a variety of intervention programs that can elevate the intellectual functioning and
adaptive behaviors of those with mental retardation, including inclusion (formerly called
“mainstreaming”) in K-12 educational settings, training in skills of daily living and
occupational skills, and the use of small, group-home residential settings for adults.
Explain what is meant by saying a person is "gifted." Explain the pros and cons of special
programs for gifted children (text pp. 249-250).
Giftedness – refers to superior IQ combined with demonstrated or potential ability in such areas
as academic aptitude, creativity, and leadership.
• Most gifted people exhibited special abilities in only a few areas; globally gifted people are
rare.
• School systems typically identify gifted children with the use of diagnostic testing,
interviews, and evaluation of academic and creative work. Students are often identified for
evaluation due to teacher recommendations or achievement test results.
• While a common stereotype holds that gifted children are social misfits, the research suggests
otherwise, actually revealing that moderate levels of giftedness bring social advantages to
those gifted children. However, there are some gifted children who have difficulty socially.
• Programs for gifted children that separate them from their peers tend to result in social
isolation for the gifted students. Being labeled a “brain” may result in fewer invitations to
social events. So, while enrichment programs may be intellectually fulfilling, there are social
concerns that accompany them.
CREATIVITY (TEXT PAGE 250)

➢ Creative Thinking
➢ Creativity Quiz
Forty Studies
➢ Maps in Your Mind
PowerPoint Slides:
Describe the relationship between creativity and intelligence, and the ways in which creativity
has been measured (text pp. 250-252).
Creativity – the ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects.
Intelligence and Creativity

390
• Early research found no correlation between creativity and intelligence, but these early
studies focused on bright individuals.
• Some evidence has been found for threshold theory – that creativity and intelligence are
linked, but only up to a certain level of IQ, then the relationship disappears. Support for the
threshold theory has been mixed.
• Creative people tend to be problem finders as well as problem solvers. They will work on
problems that they identify, and often exhibit extraordinary dedication, ambition, and
perseverance as they pursue solutions to the problems they are addressing.
Creativity Tests
• Assessing creativity is difficult because creativity involves original responses to situations.
Multiple-choice or True/False responses are too confining, so an open-ended question format
must be adopted.
• Examples of creativity tests include the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, the Christensen-
Guilford Test, Mednick’s Remote Associates Test, and the Wallach and Kogan Creative
Battery.
• Performance on the Wallach and Kogan Test is independent of one’s IQ, while the Torrance
Test results are correlated with IQ test scores.
• Most creativity tests lack high degrees of validity, so their results must be interpreted
cautiously.
• Neuroscience research to date has indicated that there is no particular area of the brain that is
clearly associated with creative thinking or behavior.
CHAPTER REVIEW (TEXT PAGE 255)

Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises
➢ Crossword Puzzle
➢ Fill in the Blank

391
▼CHAPTER 7
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to respond to each of the bulleted objectives below:
Building Blocks of Thought

• Describe the three basic building blocks of thought and give an example of each. Explain how
phonemes, morphemes, and grammar (syntax and semantics) work together to form a language.
Language, Thought, and Culture

• Summarize the evidence for the idea that people in different cultures perceive and think about the
world in different ways. Explain what is meant by "linguistic determinism" and summarize the
evidence for and against it.
Nonhuman Thought and Language

• Summarize research evidence that supports the statement that "nonhuman animals have some
humanlike cognitive capacities." Explain the following statement: "All animals communicate, but
only humans use language to communicate."
Problem Solving
• Explain why problem representation is an important first step in solving problems. In your
explanation include divergent and convergent thinking, verbal, mathematical and visual
representation, and problem categorization.
• Distinguish between trial and error, information retrieval, algorithms, and heuristics as ways of
solving problems. Give an example of hill-climbing, subgoals, means-end analysis and working
backward. Explain how "mental sets" can help or hinder problem solving.
Decision Making
• Explain how decision making differs from problem solving. Describe the process of
compensatory decision making and the use of decision-making heuristics. Explain how framing
can affect decisions, and how hindsight bias and counterfactual thinking affect that way we view
our decisions after the fact.
Intelligence and Mental Abilities

• Compare and contrast the theories of intelligence put forth by Spearman, Thurstone, Sternberg,
Gardner and Goleman.
• Describe the similarities and differences between the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the
Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and explain how they differ from group tests, performance tests and
culture-fair tests of intelligence. Explain what is meant by test "reliability" and "validity" and how
psychologists determine whether an intelligence test is reliable or valid.
• Summarize the criticisms of intelligence tests and the relationship between IQ test scores and job
success.
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

• Summarize the evidence that both heredity and environment (including intervention programs)
affect intelligence.
• What is the "Flynn Effect"? What are some of the explanations that have been offered for it?
• Summarize the evidence regarding gender differences and cultural differences in mental abilities.

392
• Explain what is required for a diagnosis of mental retardation and summarize what is known
about its causes. Describe what is meant by "inclusion" and whether it has been shown to be
beneficial.
• Explain what is meant by saying a person is "gifted." Explain the pros and cons of special
programs for gifted children.
Creativity
• Describe the relationship between creativity and intelligence, and the ways in which creativity has
been measured.

393
▼CHAPTER 7
Rapid Review
(From the Study Guide accompanying Morris/Maisto, Understanding Psychology, 10th edition)
The chapter opens with Oliver Sacks’ case description of Joseph, an 11-year-old deaf boy who longed to
communicate but could not. As illustrated by Sacks, language and thought are intertwined, and the
chapter focuses on three “characteristically human” cognitive processes: thinking, problem solving, and
decision making. The term cognition involves the processes whereby we acquire and use knowledge.
The three most important building blocks of thought are language, images, and concepts. As we think, we
use words, sensory “snapshots,” and categories that classify things.
Language is a flexible system of symbols that allows us to communicate ideas to others. When we
express thoughts as statements, we must conform to our language’s rules. Every language has rules
indicating which sounds (or phonemes) are part of that particular language, how those sounds can be
combined into meaningful units (or morphemes), and how those meaningful units can be ordered into
phrases and sentences (rules of grammar). To communicate an idea, we start with a thought and then
choose sounds, words, and phrases that will express the idea clearly. To understand the speech of
others, the task is reversed.
Images are mental representations of sensory experiences. Visual images in particular can be powerful
aids in thinking about the relationships between things. Picturing things in our mind’s eye can sometimes
help us solve problems.
Concepts are categories for classifying objects, people, and experiences based on their common
elements. Without the ability to form concepts, we would need a different name for every new thing we
encounter. We draw on concepts to anticipate what new experiences will be like. Many concepts are
“fuzzy,” lacking clear-cut boundaries. Therefore we often use prototypes, mental models of the most
typical examples of a concept, to classify new objects.
The chapter continues into a discussion of language, thought, and culture. According to Benjamin Whorf’s
linguistic relativity hypothesis, thought is greatly influenced by language. But critics contend that
thought and experience can shape and change a language as much as a language can shape and
change thought.
Some evidence indicates that the use of “man” and “he” to refer to all people affects the way that English
speakers think. Referring to doctors, college professors, bankers, and executives by the generic “he” may
contribute to the gender stereotyping of these respected occupations as appropriate for men but not for
women. In contrast, referring to secretaries and housekeepers as “she” may reinforce the stereotype that
those occupations are appropriate for women, not men.

394
The chapter next moves into the realm of nonhuman language and thought. Non-human animals
communicate primarily through signs: general or global statements about the animal’s current state.
Using the distinguishing features of language, which include semantics, displacement, and productivity as
criteria, no other species has its own language, although chimpanzees have been taught to use American
Sign Language. Research indicates that some animals have human-like cognitive capacities, such as the
ability to form concepts and to reason. Apes have demonstrated sophisticated problem-solving skills.
However, only chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans consistently show signs of self-awareness.
The chapter switches focus to the subject of problem-solving. Interpreting a problem, formulating a
strategy, and evaluating progress toward a solution are three general aspects of the problem-solving
process. Each in its own way is critical to success at the task.
Problem representation—defining or interpreting the problem—is the first step in problem-solving. We

must decide whether to view the problem verbally, mathematically, or visually; and to get clues about how
to solve it we must categorize it. Some problems require convergent thinking, or searching for a single
correct solution, while others call for divergent thinking, or generating many possible solutions.
Representing a problem in an unproductive way can block progress completely.
Selecting a solution strategy and evaluating progress toward the goal are also important steps in the
problem-solving process. A solution strategy can range from trial and error, to information retrieval based
on similar problems, to a set of step-by-step procedures guaranteed to work (an algorithm), to rule-of-
thumb approaches known as heuristics. An algorithm is often preferable over trial and error because it
guarantees a solution and does not waste time. But because we lack algorithms for so many things,
heuristics are vital to human problem-solving. Some useful heuristics are hill climbing, creating
subgoals, means-end analysis, and working backward.
A mental set is a tendency to perceive and approach a problem in a certain way. Although sets can
enable us to draw on past experience to help solve problems, a strong set can also prevent us from using
essential new approaches. One set that can seriously hamper problem-solving is functional fixedness—
the tendency to perceive only traditional uses for an object. One way to minimize mental sets is the
technique of brainstorming in which an individual or group collects numerous ideas and evaluates them
only after all possible ideas have been collected.
The chapter continues from problem-solving to the related topic of decision making. Decision making is a
special kind of problem-solving in which all possible solutions or choices are known. The task is not to
come up with new solutions, but rather to identify the best one available based on whatever criteria are
being used.
The logical way to make a decision is to rate each available choice in terms of weighted criteria and then
to total the ratings for each choice. This approach is called a compensatory model because heavily
weighted attractive features can compensate for lightly weighted unattractive ones.
Heuristics can save a great deal of time and effort, but they do not always result in the best choices.
Errors in judgment may occur based on the representativeness heuristic, which involves making
decisions based on information that matches our model of the “typical” member of a category. Other
examples are overreliance on the availability heuristic (making choices based on whatever information
we can most easily retrieve from memory, even though it may not be accurate) and the confirmation
bias (the tendency to seek evidence in support of our existing beliefs and to ignore evidence that
contradicts them).
Framing, or perspective in which a problem is presented, can also affect the outcome of a decision. And
regardless of whether a decision proves to be good or bad, we often use hindsight bias, which refers to
our tendency to view outcomes as inevitable or predictable after we know the outcome to “correct” our

395
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Fig. 343.-Morus alba ♀ inflorescence.
Fig. 344.—Morus nigra fruits.
A. Moreæ. The filaments are incurved in the bud. Leaves folded
in the bud—Morus (Mulberry) (Figs. 342–344). Monœcious. The
inflorescences are catkin-like in appearance, but in reality composed
of many small dichasia. The flowers are similar to those of the Nettle,
but with 2 carpels: in the ♂ with perianth 2 + 2, and stamens 2 + 2
(Fig. 342), in the ♀ , perianth 2 + 2, and 2 carpels in regular
alternation. The small drupes are enveloped by the perianth, which
eventually becomes fleshy, and as all the flowers on the axis very
accurately fit together, the collection of fruits is formed, which we call
a Mulberry (Fig. 344). The leaves are folded in the buds, and have
small stipules. The following are allied to Morus:—Maclura, Broussonetia (the
Paper-mulberry tree) which has spheroid ♀ inflorescences (made up of dichasia),
etc.
Dorstenia presents an interesting transitional form to the Fig in its flat, open,
and, in some instances, lobed inflorescence on which the ♂ and ♀ flowers are
sunk in grooves. Indications of a somewhat similar structure are found in certain
Nettles, the sympodial axes of the dichasia becoming flatly expanded. The fruits
are 1-seeded, but, nevertheless, spring open and eject their seeds.
B. Artocarpeæ. Filaments straight in the bud; foliage-leaves with
convolute vernation. An interpetiolar leaf-sheath (ocrea) formed in
the axil of each leaf by the connate stipules, covers the younger
leaves as a hood. It falls off as the leaf expands, and leaves a ring-
like scar on the stem.—Ficus (the Fig). The inflorescence (the so-
called syconus) has a pear-shaped, fleshy, but hollow axis, on the
interior surface of which the flowers are situated (Fig. 345). It is a
kind of capitulum, with a hollow receptacle, whose “involucral” leaves
close over the entrance to the interior; it is not, however, a simple
capitulum, but a coalescence of cymose inflorescences. The edible
parts are the fleshy stem-portion and perianth-leaves. The ♂-flower
has a 2–6 divided perianth, 1–2 (–6) stamens; the ♀-flower has an
oblique ovary. The fruits are drupes, with thin flesh.—Many species
have aerial roots, and some live as epiphytes on trees. Pollination, in the edible
Fig, is effected by a small Gall-wasp (Cynips psenes L.), which lays its eggs in the
Fig, and hence carries the pollen away. Even in very ancient times it was
customary to hang infected wild Figs on the branches of cultivated ones, so that
the young Gall-wasps, as they emerged, could immediately effect the pollination
(caprification). Ficus carica, and other species, have two kinds of ♀ -flowers,
besides the ♂-flowers. One kind has a short style and no stigmatic hairs, and it is
only in the ovaries of these that the wasps lay their eggs (gall-flowers); the other
kind has a long style and well-developed stigmatic-hairs, but the wasps cannot
reach their ovaries—these are “seed-flowers.” There are, moreover, two kinds of
plants of Ficus carica; ♀-plants, which have only seed-flowers, and bear the edible
Figs, and ♂ -plants (called “Caprificus”), which bear inedible fruits, and have ♂ -
flowers at the upper part of the Fig, but gall-flowers at the base. [The Caprificus, at
Naples, bears three crops of inedible Figs each year, viz. Mamme (April), Profichi
(June), Mamnoni (August). The ♂-flowers are produced especially in June, the first
Figs being almost entirely ♀ , and the last having but few ♂ -flowers. Each crop
produces a new generation of Fig-wasps. The female wasp enters the Figs on the
Caprificus, and lays one egg in each flower, with the result that the flower
developes into a kind of gall. The mother-wasp dies within the Fig. The male wasp
is wingless; it bites a small passage into the ovaries containing the female wasps,
and impregnates them; the female wasps then escape from the Fig, those in the
Profichi carrying pollen away with them as they pass out. They then enter another
Fig, lay their eggs, and die. The edible Fig-tree similarly has three crops in the
year, Fiori di fico, Pedagnuoli, Cimaruoli. The wasps, entering these Figs, are
unable to lay their eggs in the ovary, but, nevertheless, they effect cross-pollination
on entering the Pedagnuoli, which bear fertile seeds.]
Fig. 345.—A Fig in longitudinal

section.
The flowers of Brosimum are the most reduced. The perianth is wanting, and
the ♂ -flower has only 1 stamen. Cecropia (Trumpet-tree), in S. Am., has its pith
divided into chambers; these are inhabited by ants, which feed upon small food-
bodies formed on the swollen base of the petioles. The leaves are petiolated, often
shield-like, fringed or lobed, and sometimes with white felted hairs. They serve as
food for Bradypus (the Sloth). Sorocea; Castilloa.
About 300 species exclusively in the warmer climates. The white Mulberry (M.
alba, from China, India, Mongolia) is cultivated for the sake of its leaves, which are
the indispensable food for silkworms. The black Mulberry (M. nigra, W. Asia) is
cultivated for its fruits, which are used for the officinal Mulberry juice. The ordinary
Fig-tree (Ficus carica) is from the Mediterranean. The fruit of the well-known
Oriental Sycamore (F. sycomorus) is edible. The Bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus
incisa) and the Jack (A. integrifolia) have their home in the South Sea Islands, and
are cultivated in tropical countries. The Bread-fruit is morphologically the same as
the Mulberry. It has a very large, spheroid inflorescence, whose floral-leaves and
perianth become fleshy and united into one nutritious mass, together with the axis,
which is also fleshy. The milky juice of the India-rubber tree (Ficus elastica, East
Indies, a common house-plant), and of Castilloa elastica (Am.) is the raw material
of India-rubber. The milky juice of Galactodendron utile (Cow-tree, S. Am.) is
saccharine and nutritious, but in Antiaris toxicaria (the Upas-tree, of Java) it is a
strong poison. The bast of the Paper-Mulberry tree (Br. papyrifera, Eastern Asia);
is used in Japan for paper. Shellac is obtained from a small, hemipterous insect
(Coccus lacca), which lives upon Ficus laccifera and F. religiosa (the Bo-tree,
sacred to Buddha), E. India. The wood of Maclura aurantica (Am.) has a yellow
colour, and is known as yellow Brazilian wood.
Order 4. Cannabaceæ. The plants which belong to this order are
aromatic herbs, either annuals or perennials, without latex. Leaves
palminerved, and more or less divided, hispid, and with free,
persistent stipules. Flowers always diœcious; ♂-flowers in panicles,
formed of dichasia, passing over into uniparous scorpioid cymes.
They differ from the Nettles, particularly in the 5-leaved perianth of
the ♂ -flower, the 5 stamens (Fig. 346–351) with filaments erect in
the bud, and in the ♀ -flower by the small, entire, cup-like perianth,
which surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig. 346, p. 352). The ovary
has two styles, or one divided into two, with two stigmas and a
pendulous, curved ovule (Fig. 346 B, 352 B); the fruit is a nut; the
embryo is curved (Hemp, Fig. 353), or rolled (Hop, Fig. 349), without
endosperm.
Fig. 346.—Diagram of male and female flowers of the Hop and
Hemp: b the bract, p the perianth. The position of the embryo is
indicated.
Only 2 genera with 3 species (Asiatic), of which two are cultivated.
—Humulus lupulus (Hop, Figs. 347–349) is a twining, perennial
plant, twisting to the right, with opposite, palmilobed, rough leaves,
and large, interpetiolar stipules. The ♀ -flowers are situated in
closely-flowered, cone-like, compound inflorescences, with ultimately
large, thin, imbricate floral-leaves (Fig. 348) which bear the yellow,
glandular hairs, containing lupulin. This inflorescence is made up as
follows:—The most external floral-leaves are situated in pairs, and are the
persistent stipules of a leaf, the blade of which has become suppressed, or in any
case is rudimentary. Such a pair of stipules supports 4 (2–6) flowers in a double
uniparous cyme, whose central axis does not develope into a flower. The bracts of
these flowers (bracteoles of the partial inflorescence) become, at maturity, very
large, spathe-like, and, together with the stipules, produce a cone-like appearance.
Fig. 347–348.—Humulus lupulus: 347,
twining stem; 348, branch with strobiles.
Cannabis sativa (Hemp, Figs. 350–353) is an East Indian herb,
with palmilobed leaves, and differs from the Hop in being annual,
erect, and in having its leaves opposite at the base and scattered
above. The ♀ -inflorescence is not cone-like as in the Hop, but the
flowers are similar in construction. The main difference is to be found in the
axillary shoot, which was suppressed in the Hop, and is in the Hemp developed
into a leaf-bearing shoot which on each side bears only one ♀-flower, and in the
fact that the bracts are not so strongly developed.
The “Hops” (the female inflorescences) are used in brewing, and medicinally on
account of the yellow glands which contain lupulin. The Indian variety of Cannabis
sativa contains an abundance of glandular hairs and resin. The withered
inflorescences are used in medicine and are officinal. The bast of the stems of the
Hemp is also used and the fat oil of the seeds. In Oriental countries the entire plant
is used in the preparation of an intoxicating drink (haschisch), the narcotic material
being found in the glandular hairs.
Fig. 349.—Humulus lupulus: fruit in

longitudinal section.
Figs. 350–353.—Cannabis sativa: 350, ♂ -plant; 351, ♂ -flower; 352, ♀ -flower,
entire and in longitudinal section; 353, fruit in longitudinal section.
Family 6. Polygonifloræ.
This family is on one side closely allied to the Urticaceæ by its
solitary, basal, vertical, and straight ovule, and by the conical ocrea
which envelopes the younger leaves in the bud, similar characters
being present in the Urticaceæ. On the other side it is related to the
Curvembryæ. The flowers are small, often trimerous, regular and
slightly perigynous (in Chloranthaceæ, if they properly belong to this family,
and Houttuynia, more or less epigynous). Syncarps are present in some
Piperaceæ, but the fruit is generally a single fruit, one-seeded berry,
nut or drupe. The leaves are generally scattered.
Order 1. Polygonaceæ. The majority are herbaceous plants with
round, often jointed stems, scattered leaves and ocrea, that is a
membranous, tubular, ligular or stipular structure inside the base of
the leaf, which clasps the stem and axillary bud; the edges of the
lamina are rolled backwards in the bud. The flowers are regular,
small, generally ☿, slightly perigynous, with inconspicuous, simple,
green or white perianth of 5–6 free segments; stamens 5–9 (Fig.
354) sometimes arranged in two series; gynœceum 2–3 carpels,
ovary unilocular with one basal, straight (orthotropous) ovule, 2–3
free styles. The fruit is a 2–3-angular nut; the embryo, with mealy
endosperm, is straight or curved (Fig. 355 H), often unsymmetrical.
—The inflorescences are compound, and generally branch from the axils of the
bracteoles, so that the last partial-inflorescences become coiled, uniparous
scorpioid cymes; in Polygonum the two bracteoles unite into a membranous tube;
in Rheum and Rumex there is only one bracteole.
Fig. 354.—A Diagram of Rheum; B of Rumex; C of Polygonum fagopyrum; D of
P. lapathifolium. The ovules are indicated inside the ovaries; bracts and bracteoles
are not shown.
Rheum (Rhubarb, Fig. 354 A) has a 6-leaved, petaloid perianth
(Pn 3 + 3) and 9 stamens (A 32 + 3). The 3-winged nut is not
enclosed by the perianth.
Rumex (Dock, Fig. 354 B) has 6 stamens (A 32 + 0); the perianth
is 6-leaved (Pr 3 + 3), green or red, and the triangular nut is
enveloped by the 3 interior perianth-leaves, which point upwards and
continue to grow after flowering. These perianth-leaves often have
warts on their outer surface. The following are monœcious: R. acetosa and
R. acetosella.
Polygonum (Knot-grass, Figs. 354 C, D; 355). The petaloid
perianth is most frequently 5-merous (2/5 spiral); 5–8 stamens. The
nut is triangular (Fig. 354 C, 355), or lenticular (Fig. 354 D). There are
two whorls of stamens, the external with introrse, and the internal with extrorse
anthers. The gynœceum is often bicarpellate (Fig. 354 D).
The flowers may be considered as constructed upon the monocotyledonous
type. Pterostegia has a perfectly monocotyledonous flower with 5 trimerous
whorls. Rheum likewise, but here the external staminal whorl is doubled (Fig. 254
A). Oxyria has a dimerous Rheum-flower (4-leaved perianth, 6 stamens, 2
stigmas). Rumex has a Rheum-flower with the suppression of the internal whorl of
stamens (Fig. 354 B); Emex is a dimerous Rumex. Polygonum, to which
Coccoloba, Muehlenbeckia and others are related, differs from Rheum chiefly in
having one of the leaves, which in the latter takes part in the formation of the
perianth, developed in this case into a bracteole (so that the perianth is reduced to
five members), and several or all the stamens in the inner whorl become
suppressed.—The perianth in Coccoloba and Muehlenbeckia is more or less
perigynous and becomes fleshy, enclosing the fruit. Muehlenbeckia platyclada has
flat branches with rudimentary leaves; sometimes branches with normal, arrow-
shaped leaves are found. Atraphaxis.
Fig. 355.—Polygonum fagopyrum: A branch with flower and fruits (nat. size); B
flower; C the same in longitudinal section; D anterior and posterior view of stamen;
E gynœceum; F fruit (mag.); G fruit in longitudinal section; H transverse section,
showing the curved cotyledons embedded in the endosperm; I the embryo.
Pollination. Rumex is wind-pollinated, the stigmas are therefore large and
brush-like (indicated in Fig. 354 B). Rheum and Polygonum are insect-pollinated
and have therefore capitate stigmas, etc.; honey-glands are situated at the base of
the stamens (d, in Fig. 354 C, and n in Fig. 356); a few small-flowered Polygonum
species are self-pollinated; Buckwheat (P. fagopyrum) is dimorphic and has long-
styled and short-styled flowers (Fig. 356). Pol. bistorta is protandrous and
homostyled.
About 750 species, most of which are found in the temperate regions of the
Northern Hemisphere, some reaching as far as the snow line or into the Arctic
regions (Oxyria, Kœnigia). Trees and shrubs are found in the Tropics: Coccoloba,
Triplaris. Rheum is Central Asiatic.—The thick rhizomes of R. officinale (Rhubarb)
are officinal. The rhizomes of the ordinarily cultivated species, R. undulatum and
rhaponticum, are used in veterinary medicine. The following are cultivated as
culinary plants for the sake of their leaves:—Rumex acetosa (Sorrel), R. patientia,
R. scutatus, and Rheum undulatum (petioles). Several species of Polygonum (P.
hydropiper and others) have a sharp, pungent taste. “Buckwheat” is the mealy fruit
of Polygonum fagopyrum (Central Asia) and is of value as a farinaceous food. P.
cuspidatum (P. sieboldi, Japan) is an ornamental plant.—Calligonum in sandy and
stony deserts.
Fig. 356.—Flower of Polygonum fagopyrum in longitudinal section: 1, long-

styled; 2, short-styled; a the anthers; st the stigmas; n nectary.
Order 2. Piperaceæ (Peppers). Shrubs or herbs, often with

nodose, jointed stem; leaves simple, entire, often with curved veins;
stipules wanting (Peperomia) or intrapetiolar and cap-like, often
enclosing the terminal buds (Piper). The flowers in the group
Pipereæ (Piper, Fig. 357, and Peperomia) are borne in spikes with
fleshy axes (club-like), seldom in racemes, the outer ones are
crowded and are ☿ or unisexual, always small, naked and without
bracteoles; generally stamens 3 + 3, and gynœceum 3, but the number of the
stamens may be reduced by suppression to 2, and the carpels to 1. The flowers
are situated in the axils of the small, generally shield-like floral-
leaves. The ovary is always unilocular and has one upright,
orthotropous ovule. Fruit a berry or drupe. Both endosperm and
perisperm are present, the latter being especially well developed
(Fig. 359).
Piper; generally shrubs with scattered leaves, and terminal
inflorescences which are crowded to one side by the development of
the highest lateral bud, so that they are situated opposite the leaves
(Fig. 357). Many species have stems with an abnormal anatomical
structure.—Peperomia; chiefly succulent herbs, often epiphytes, with
opposite or verticillate leaves having aqueous tissue on the upper
side.
Fig. 357.—Piper nigrum: branch with fruit (½)
The group Saurureæ (considered by some as an order, and perhaps
representing a more original type) has 3–4 carpels with many ovules. Lactoris
stands the highest with regular 3-merous perianth, 3 + 3 stamens and 3 carpels,
which are united at the base. Fruit a capsule with several seeds. (It has one
species from the island of Juan Fernandez, and is also placed in an order of its
own, Lactoridaceæ, allied to the Magnoliaceæ, through Drimys).—Saururus has
naked flowers; most frequently 6 stamens, and 4 carpels, free or united at the
base, each with 2-4 orthotropous ovules. Fruit, small berries.—Houttuynia;
stamens situated a little upward on the ovaries; placentation parietal; capsule
many-seeded.
About 1,000 species; entirely tropical, especially from South America and East
India. They are found chiefly among the underwood in damp, shady places; some,
which are fleshy (Peperomia), live as epiphytes on trees; a few climb by roots.—
Uses. Several Piperaceæ are used medicinally and for spices on account of their
pungent properties and the essential oils found in nearly all parts of the plant. The
following are officinal: “Black-pepper” (the unripe, dried fruits) and “White-pepper”
(the seeds of the ripe fruits) of Piper nigrum (climbing shrub, East Indian); “Cubeb”
berries of P. cubeba (climbing shrub, Java). “Long-pepper” is the unripe
inflorescence of P. longum, East India. The leaves of P. angustifolia (Matico) are
officinal. The leaves of the Betelpepper (East India) are used together with the
nuts of the Areca-palm to form the well-known East Indian intoxicating compound
“Betel.” A good many others are also used.
Fig. 358.—Piper nigrum

(Diagram). In addition to the bract
there are two structures
resembling bracteoles.
Fig. 359.—Piper nigrum: Fruit in
longitudinal section, showing the
endosperm, perisperm, and pericarp.
Order 3. Chloranthaceæ. (Chloranthus, Hedyosmum) have opposite leaves,
with stipules more or less united at the base, and inferior “drupes.” Ovules
pendulous. Only endosperm. About 33 species, Tropical.
Family 7. Curvembryæ.
The plants in this family have a curved ovule, and most frequently
a kidney-shaped seed (generally provided with fine, cuticular,
projecting warts, Fig. 362 B), with a curved, peripheral embryo
enclosing the endosperm which is most frequently floury (Figs. 362
C, 365 H; for exceptions, see Fig. 366); the seeds in all cases are
borne on a centrally-placed, and in most cases free, placenta (they
are “basal” when there is only 1 ovule in the ovary, Fig. 364). The
flower is regular, hypogynous or perigynous (Fig. 364) (only rarely
epigynous) and usually 5-merous. The flower which is most
complete has 5 whorls (S5, P5, A5+5, G2-3–5), as in some genera
of the Caryophyllaceæ (Figs. 360, 361); but from this type it
becomes reduced, the petals and stamens being suppressed, so
that finally 5 perianth-leaves, 5 stamens (opposite the perianth-
leaves), and 2 carpels (Fig. 361 F) only are present; for example, in

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▼ FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

ClassPrep is available in MyPsychLab (visit www.mypsychlab.com). Finding, sorting, organizing, and

Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:

Cognition – the processes whereby we acquire and use knowledge.

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LANGUAGE, THOUGHT, AND CULTURE (TEXT PAGE 220)

Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:

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Is Language Male Dominated?

NONHUMAN LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT (TEXT PAGE 222)

Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises:

The Question of Language

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PROBLEM SOLVING (TEXT PAGE 225)

Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:

Implementing Strategies and Evaluating Progress

Obstacles to Solving Problems

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DECISION MAKING (TEXT PAGE 231)

Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:

Compensatory Decision Making

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Explaining Our Decisions (to ourselves)

MULTITASKING (TEXT PAGE 233)

• Multitasking makes us more efficient.

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• Young people are better at multitasking than older adults.

INTELLIGENCE AND MENTAL ABILITIES (TEXT PAGE 234)

Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:

• Emotional intelligence, a construct proposed by Daniel Goleman, refers to how effectively

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• Originally developed by Alfred Binet Theodore Simon as a test of school placement,

The Wechsler Intelligence Scales

Performance and Culture-Fair Tests

Biological Measures of Intelligence

What Makes a Good Test?

• Validity – ability of a test to measure what is has been designed to measure.

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HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND INTELLIGENCE (TEXT PAGE 243)

Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:

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Intervention Programs: How Much Can We Boost IQ?

The IQ Debate: A Useful Model

Mental Abilities and Human Diversity: Gender and Culture

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CREATIVITY (TEXT PAGE 250)